Angle trisection

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Angles may be trisected via a neusis construction using tools beyond an unmarked

straightedge and a compass. The example shows trisection of any angle θ>3π/4  by a
ruler with length equal to the radius of the circle, giving trisected angle φ=θ/3 .

Angle trisection is a classical problem of straightedge and compass construction of

ancient Greek mathematics. It concerns construction of an angle equal to one third of
a given arbitrary angle, using only two tools: an unmarked straightedge and
a compass.

Pierre Wantzel proved in 1837 that the problem, as stated, is impossible to solve for
arbitrary angles. However, although there is no way to trisect an angle in general with
just a compass and a straightedge, some special angles can be trisected. For example,
it is relatively straightforward to trisect a right angle (that is, to construct an angle of
measure 30 degrees).

It is possible to trisect an arbitrary angle by using tools other than straightedge and
compass. For example, neusis construction, also known to ancient Greeks, involves
simultaneous sliding and rotation of a marked straightedge, which cannot be achieved
with the original tools. Other techniques were developed by mathematicians over the
centuries.

Because it is defined in simple terms, but complex to prove unsolvable, the problem
of angle trisection is a frequent subject of pseudomathematical attempts at solution by
naive enthusiasts. These "solutions" often involve mistaken interpretations of the
rules, or are simply incorrect.[1]

Contents
  1 Background and problem statement
 2 Proof of impossibility
 3 Angles which can be trisected
o 3.1 Algebraic characterization
 4 Other methods
o 4.1 Approximation by successive bisections
o 4.2 Using origami
o 4.3 Using a linkage
o 4.4 With a right triangular ruler
o 4.5 With an auxiliary curve
o 4.6 With a marked ruler
o 4.7 With a string
o 4.8 With a "tomahawk"
o 4.9 With interconnected compasses
 5 Uses of angle trisection
 6 Generalization
 7 See also
 8 References
 9 Further reading
 10 External links
o 10.1 Other means of trisection

Background and problem statement[edit]

Bisection of arbitrary angles has long been solved.

Using only an unmarked straightedge and a compass, Greek mathematicians found

means to divide a line into an arbitrary set of equal segments, to draw parallel lines,
to bisect angles, to construct many polygons, and to construct squares of equal or
twice the area of a given polygon.
Three problems proved elusive, specifically, trisecting the angle, doubling the cube,
and squaring the circle. The problem of angle trisection reads:

Construct an angle equal to one-third of a given arbitrary angle (or divide it into three
equal angles), using only two tools:

1. an unmarked straightedge, and

2. a compass.

Proof of impossibility[edit]

Rulers. The displayed ones are marked — an ideal straightedge is un-marked

Compasses

Pierre Wantzel published a proof of the impossibility of classically trisecting an

arbitrary angle in 1837.[2] Wantzel's proof, restated in modern terminology, uses the
concept of field extensions, a topic now typically combined with Galois theory.
However, Wantzel published these results earlier than Évariste Galois (whose work,
written in 1830, was published only in 1846) and did not use the concepts introduced
by Galois.[3]

The problem of constructing an angle of a given measure θ is equivalent to

constructing two segments such that the ratio of their length is cos θ. From a solution
to one of these two problems, one may pass to a solution of the other by a compass
and straightedge construction. The triple-angle formula gives an expression relating
the cosines of the original angle and its trisection: cos θ = 4 cos3 θ/3  − 3 cos θ/3 .
It follows that, given a segment that is defined to have unit length, the problem of
angle trisection is equivalent to constructing a segment whose length is the root of
a cubic polynomial. This equivalence reduces the original geometric problem to a
purely algebraic problem.

Every rational number is constructible. Every irrational number that is constructible in

a single step from some given numbers is a root of a polynomial of degree 2 with
coefficients in the field generated by these numbers. Therefore, any number that is
constructible by a sequence of steps is a root of a minimal polynomial whose degree is
a power of two. The angle π/3  radians (60 degrees, written 60°) is constructible. The
argument below shows that it is impossible to construct a 20° angle. This implies that
a 60° angle cannot be trisected, and thus that an arbitrary angle cannot be trisected.

Denote the set of rational numbers by Q. If 60° could be trisected, the degree of a
minimal polynomial of cos 20° over Q would be a power of two. Now let x = cos
20°. Note that cos 60° = cos π/3  = 1/2 . Then by the triple-angle formula, cos π/3  =
4x3 − 3x and so 4x3 − 3x = 1/2 . Thus 8x3 − 6x − 1 = 0. Define p(t) to be the
polynomial p(t) = 8t3 − 6t − 1.

Since x = cos 20° is a root of p(t), the minimal polynomial for cos 20° is a factor
of p(t). Because p(t) has degree 3, if it is reducible over by Q then it has a rational
root. By the rational root theorem, this root must be ±1, ±1/2 , ±1/4  or ±1/8 , but none
of these is a root. Therefore, p(t) is irreducible over by Q, and the minimal
polynomial for cos 20° is of degree 3.

So an angle of measure 60° cannot be trisected.

Angles which can be trisected[edit]

However, some angles can be trisected. For example, for any constructible angle θ, an
angle of measure 3θ can be trivially trisected by ignoring the given angle and directly
constructing an angle of measure θ. There are angles that are not constructible but are
trisectible (despite the one-third angle itself being non-constructible). For
example, 3π/7  is such an angle: five angles of measure 3π/7  combine to make an angle
of measure 15π/7 , which is a full circle plus the desired π/7 .

For a positive integer N, an angle of measure 2π/N  is trisectible if and only if 3 does

not divide N.[4][5] In contrast, 2π/N  is constructible if and only if N is a power of 2 or the
product of a power of 2 with the product of one or more distinct Fermat primes.

Algebraic characterization[edit]
Again, denote the set of rational numbers by Q.

Theorem: An angle of measure θ may be trisected if and only if q(t) = 4t3 − 3t −

cos(θ) is reducible over the field extension Q(cos(θ)).

The proof is a relatively straightforward generalization of the proof given above that

a 60° angle is not trisectible.[6]

Other methods[edit]
The general problem of angle trisection is solvable by using additional tools, and thus
going outside of the original Greek framework of compass and straightedge.

Many incorrect methods of trisecting the general angle have been proposed. Some of
these methods provide reasonable approximations; others (some of which are
mentioned below) involve tools not permitted in the classical problem. The
mathematician Underwood Dudley has detailed some of these failed attempts in his
book The Trisectors.[1]

Approximation by successive bisections[edit]

Trisection can be approximated by repetition of the compass and straightedge method

for bisecting an angle. The geometric series 1/3  = 1/ 4  + 1/ 16  + 1/ 64  + 1/ 256  +
⋯ or 1/3  = 1/2  − 1/4  + 1/8  − 1/16  + ⋯ can be used as a basis for the bisections. An
approximation to any degree of accuracy can be obtained in a finite number of steps. [7]

Using origami[edit]

Main article: Mathematics of origami §  Trisecting an angle

Trisection, like many constructions impossible by ruler and compass, can easily be
accomplished by the operations of paper folding, or origami. Huzita's axioms (types
of folding operations) can construct cubic extensions (cube roots) of given lengths,
whereas ruler-and-compass can construct only quadratic extensions (square roots).

Using a linkage[edit]
Sylvester's Link Fan

There are a number of simple linkages which can be used to make an instrument to

trisect angles including Kempe's Trisector and Sylvester's Link Fan or Isoklinostat. [8]

With a right triangular ruler[edit]

Bieberbach's trisection of an angle (in blue) by means of a right triangular ruler (in
red)

In 1932, Ludwig Bieberbach published in Journal für die reine und angewandte
Mathematik his work Zur Lehre von den kubischen Konstruktionen.[9] He states therein
(free translation):

"As is known ... every cubic construction can be traced back to the trisection of
the angle and to the multiplication of the cube, that is, the extraction of the
third root. I need only to show how these two classical tasks can be solved by
means of the right angle hook."
The construction begins with drawing a circle passing through the vertex P of the
angle to be trisected, centered at A on an edge of this angle, and having B as its second
intersection with the edge. A circle centered at P and of the same radius intersects the
line supporting the edge in A and O.

Now the right triangular ruler is placed on the drawing in the following manner:
one leg of its right angle passes through O; the vertex of its right angle is placed at a
point S on the line PC in such a way that the second leg of the ruler is tangent at E to
the circle centered at A. It follows that the original angle is trisected by the line PE,
and the line PD perpendicular to SE and passing through P. This line can be drawn
either by using again the right triangular ruler, or by using a traditional straightedge
and compass construction. With a similar construction, one can improve the location
of E, by using that it is the intersection of the line SE and its perpendicular passing
through A.

Proof: One has the prove the angle equalities   and   The three lines OS, PD,
and AE are parallel. As the line segments OP and PA are equal, these three parallel
lines delimit two equal segments on every other secant line, and in particular on their
common perpendicular SE. Thus SD' = D'E, where D' is the intersection of the
lines PD and SE. It follows that the right triangles PD'S and PD'E are congruent, and

thus that   the first desired equality. On the other hand, the

triangle PAE is isosceles, since all radiuses of a circle are equal; this implies that   

One has also   since these two angles are alternate angles of a transversal to two
parallel lines. This proves the second desired equality, and thus the correctness of the
construction.

With an auxiliary curve[edit]

 

Trisection using the Archimedean spiral

Trisection using the Maclaurin trisectrix

There are certain curves called trisectrices which, if drawn on the plane using other
methods, can be used to trisect arbitrary angles. [10] Examples include the trisectrix of
Colin Maclaurin, given in Cartesian coordinates by the implicit equation
and the Archimedean spiral. The spiral can, in fact, be used to divide an angle
into any number of equal parts.

With a marked ruler[edit]

Trisection of the angle using marked ruler

Another means to trisect an arbitrary angle by a "small" step outside the Greek
framework is via a ruler with two marks a set distance apart. The next construction is
originally due to Archimedes, called a Neusis construction, i.e., that uses tools other
than an un-marked straightedge. The diagrams we use show this construction for an
acute angle, but it indeed works for any angle up to 180 degrees.

This requires three facts from geometry (at right):

1. Any full set of angles on a straight line add to 180°,

2. The sum of angles of any triangle is 180°, and,
3. Any two equal sides of an isosceles triangle will meet the third in the same
angle.

Let l be the horizontal line in the adjacent diagram. Angle a (left of point B) is the
subject of trisection. First, a point A is drawn at an angle's ray, one unit apart from B.
A circle of radius AB is drawn. Then, the markedness of the ruler comes into play: one
mark of the ruler is placed at A and the other at B. While keeping the ruler (but not the
mark) touching A, the ruler is slid and rotated until one mark is on the circle and the
other is on the line l. The mark on the circle is labeled C and the mark on the line is
labeled D. This ensures that CD = AB. A radius BC is drawn to make it obvious that
line segments AB, BC, and CD all have equal length. Now,
triangles ABC and BCD are isosceles, thus (by Fact 3 above) each has two equal
angles.

Hypothesis: Given AD is a straight line, and AB, BC, and CD all have equal length,

Conclusion: angle b = a/3 .

Proof:

1. From Fact 1) above,  °.

2. Looking at triangle BCD, from Fact 2)  °.

3. From the last two equations,  .

4. From Fact 2),  °, thus  ° , so from last,  ° .

5. From Fact 1) above,  °, thus  ° °.

Clearing, a − 3b = 0, or a = 3b, and the theorem is proved.

Again, this construction stepped outside the framework of allowed constructions by

using a marked straightedge.

With a string[edit]

Thomas Hutcheson published an article in the Mathematics Teacher[11] that used a

string instead of a compass and straight edge. A string can be used as either a straight
edge (by stretching it) or a compass (by fixing one point and identifying another), but
can also wrap around a cylinder, the key to Hutcheson's solution.

Hutcheson constructed a cylinder from the angle to be trisected by drawing an arc

across the angle, completing it as a circle, and constructing from that circle a cylinder
on which a, say, equilateral triangle was inscribed (a 360-degree angle divided in
three). This was then "mapped" onto the angle to be trisected, with a simple proof of
similar triangles.

With a "tomahawk"[edit]

Main article: Tomahawk (geometry)

A tomahawk trisecting an angle. The tomahawk is formed by the thick lines and the
shaded semicircle.

A "tomahawk" is a geometric shape consisting of a semicircle and two orthogonal line

segments, such that the length of the shorter segment is equal to the circle radius.
Trisection is executed by leaning the end of the tomahawk's shorter segment on one
ray, the circle's edge on the other, so that the "handle" (longer segment) crosses the
angle's vertex; the trisection line runs between the vertex and the center of the
semicircle.

While a tomahawk is constructible with compass and straightedge, it is not generally

possible to construct a tomahawk in any desired position. Thus, the above
construction does not contradict the nontrisectibility of angles with ruler and compass
alone.

As a tomahawk can be used as a set square, it can be also used for trisection angles by
the method described in § With a right triangular ruler.

The tomahawk produces the same geometric effect as the paper-folding method: the
distance between circle center and the tip of the shorter segment is twice the distance
of the radius, which is guaranteed to contact the angle. It is also equivalent to the use
of an architects L-Ruler (Carpenter's Square).

With interconnected compasses[edit]

An angle can be trisected with a device that is essentially a four-pronged version of a

compass, with linkages between the prongs designed to keep the three angles between
adjacent prongs equal.[12]

Uses of angle trisection[edit]

An animation of a neusis construction of a heptagon with radius of circumcircle  ,
based on Andrew M. Gleason, using angle trisection by means of the tomahawk [13]: p. 186 

A cubic equation with real coefficients can be solved geometrically with compass,

straightedge, and an angle trisector if and only if it has three real roots.[13]: Thm. 1 

A regular polygon with n sides can be constructed with ruler, compass, and angle

trisector if and only if   where r, s, k ≥ 0 and where the pi are distinct primes
greater than 3 of the form   (i.e. Pierpont primes greater than 3).[13]: Thm. 2 

Generalization[edit]
For any nonzero integer N, an angle of measure 2π⁄N radians can be divided into n equal
parts with straightedge and compass if and only if n is either a power of 2 or is a
power of 2 multiplied by the product of one or more distinct Fermat primes, none of
which divides N. In the case of trisection (n = 3, which is a Fermat prime), this
condition becomes the above-mentioned requirement that N not be divisible by 3.[5]

See also[edit]
 Bisection
 Constructible number
  Constructible polygon
 Euclidean geometry
 History of geometry
 Morley's trisector theorem
 Quadratrix
 Trisectrix
 Geometric cryptography

References[edit]
1. ^ a b Dudley, Underwood (1994), The trisectors, Mathematical Association of
America, ISBN 978-0-88385-514-0
2. ^ Wantzel, P M L (1837). "Recherches sur les moyens de reconnaître si un problème de
Géométrie peut se résoudre avec la règle et le compas"  (PDF). Journal de Mathématiques Pures
et Appliquées. 1. 2: 366–372. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
3. ^ For the historical basis of Wantzel's proof in the earlier work of Ruffini and Abel, and
its timing vis-a-vis Galois, see Smorynski, Craig (2007), History of Mathematics: A Supplement

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