Discrete Math Reviewer
Discrete Math Reviewer
Discrete Math Reviewer
(1,-1,3,-3,...)
● Set Builder Notation - Rational - denoted by p/q. (½….)
- Rule Method - Set build by
characteristics. ● Set Operations
Ex. A= {x|x is even no.} - Union - Union of 2 sets. (AUB)
- Roster Method- Set build - Intersection- Intersection of 2
by listing. sets. (A∩B)
Ex. A={2,4,6,8,...} - Complementation - wherein x is
● Types of sets an element of Universal set but
- Subset - wherein every not set A. (A’)
element of A is an element of - Relative Complement - wherein x
B .(Ex. A⊆B) is an element of A but not B. (A-
- Proper Subset - wherein A is a B)
subset of B but B isn’t a - Symmetric Difference - using “Δ”
subset of A. (Ex. A⊂B) AΔB = (AUB)-(A∩B)
- Null Set - Has no element. (Ex. - Disjoint set - sets that are not
Ø) connected. (A∩B=Ø)
- Unit Set - Has only one element.
- Universal Set- Container of all ● Distributive Property
elements that can be considered Ex. AU(BUC) = (AUB)U(AUC)
in a set. (Ex. U)
- Superset - wherein B has ● Power Set
every element of A. (Ex. Ex. P(A)=2n (n=elements in a set)
B⊇A) Ex. 24 = 16 elements
- Cardinality of Sets - No. of
elements in a set (Ex. n(A)=4) ● Union: Set Theory
1.AUA=Ø
● Types of Numbers 2.AUØ =A
- Positive, Counting, Natural 3.AuU=U
Numbers - denoted by N. ( 1,2, 4.A⊆AUB & B⊆AUB
…) 5.AUB=BUA
- Whole Number - denoted by N. 6.(AUB)UC = AU(BUC)
(0,1,2,3 ....)
- Non-Negative Integer - denoted ● Intersection: Properties
by J. (0,1,2,…) 1.A∩A=A
- Integer - denoted by Z. (0,1,-1,2,- 2.A∩Ø = Ø
2…) 3.A∩U=A
- Even - denoted by 2n. (0,2,-2,4,- 4.A∩B⊆A & A∩B⊆B
4…) 5.A∩B=B∩A
6.(A∩B)∩C = A∩(B∩C)
● Complement: Properties
1.U’ = Ø
2.Ø’=U
3.AUA’=U
4.A∩A’=
5.(A’)’=A
6.A⊆B => B’⊆A’
7.(A∩B)’ =A’UB’
8.(AUB)’=A’∩B’
● Relative Complement:
Properties
1. A’ = U-A
2. A-B=AB’
3. A-A=4.
4. A- =A
5. A-B=B-A if only if A=B
6. A-B=A if only if A∩B=Ø
7. A-B=Ø if only if A⊆B
Discrete Mathematics, Chapter 1.1.-1.3:
Propositional Logic
Richard Mayr
University of Edinburgh, UK
1 Propositions
2 Logical Equivalences
3 Normal Forms
Constructing Propositions
Propositional Variables: p, q, r , s, . . .
The proposition that is always true is denoted by T and the
proposition that is always false is denoted by F.
Compound Propositions; constructed from logical connectives and
other propositions
Negation ¬
Conjunction ∧
Disjunction ∨
Implication →
Biconditional ↔
p q p ∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
if p, then q p implies q
if p, q p only if q
q unless ¬p q when p
q if p q whenever p
p is sufficient for q q follows from p
q is necessary for p a necessary condition for p is q
a sufficient condition for q is p
p q p ↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
p ↔ q also reads as
p if and only if q
p iff q.
p is necessary and sufficient for q
if p then q, and conversely
p implies q, and vice-versa
Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 11 / 21
Precedence of Logical Operators
1 ¬
2 ∧
3 ∨
4 →
5 ↔
Thus p ∨ q → ¬r is equivalent to (p ∨ q) → ¬r .
If the intended meaning is p ∨ (q → ¬r ) then parentheses must be
used.
A proposition is
satisfiable, if its truth table contains true at least once. Example:
p ∧ q.
a tautology, if it is always true. Example: p ∨ ¬p.
a contradiction, if it always false. Example: p ∧ ¬p.
a contingency, if it is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
Example: p.
Definition
Two compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if the
columns in a truth table giving their truth values agree.
This is written as p ≡ q.
It is easy to show:
Fact
p ≡ q if and only if p ↔ q is a tautology.
¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q
¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q
Domination laws: p ∨ T ≡ T, p ∧ F ≡ F
Identity laws: p ∧ T ≡ p, p ∨ F ≡ p
Idempotent laws: p ∧ p ≡ p, p ∨ p ≡ p
Double negation law: ¬(¬p) ≡ p
Negation laws: p ∨ ¬p ≡ T, p ∧ ¬p ≡ F
The first of the Negation laws is also called “law of excluded middle”.
Latin: “tertium non datur”.
Commutative laws: p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p, p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p
Associative laws: (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r )
(p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r )
Distributive laws: p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r )
p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r )
Absorption laws: p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p, p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p
Fact
For every propositional formula one can construct an equivalent one in
conjunctive normal form.