SETS - Odd - denoted by 2n+1 or 2n-1.

(1,-1,3,-3,...)
● Set Builder Notation - Rational - denoted by p/q. (½….)
- Rule Method - Set build by
characteristics. ● Set Operations
Ex. A= {x|x is even no.} - Union - Union of 2 sets. (AUB)
- Roster Method- Set build - Intersection- Intersection of 2
by listing. sets. (A∩B)
Ex. A={2,4,6,8,...} - Complementation - wherein x is
● Types of sets an element of Universal set but
- Subset - wherein every not set A. (A’)
element of A is an element of - Relative Complement - wherein x
B .(Ex. A⊆B) is an element of A but not B. (A-
- Proper Subset - wherein A is a B)
subset of B but B isn’t a - Symmetric Difference - using “Δ”
subset of A. (Ex. A⊂B) AΔB = (AUB)-(A∩B)
- Null Set - Has no element. (Ex. - Disjoint set - sets that are not
Ø) connected. (A∩B=Ø)
- Unit Set - Has only one element.
- Universal Set- Container of all ● Distributive Property
elements that can be considered Ex. AU(BUC) = (AUB)U(AUC)
in a set. (Ex. U)
- Superset - wherein B has ● Power Set
every element of A. (Ex. Ex. P(A)=2n (n=elements in a set)
B⊇A) Ex. 24 = 16 elements
- Cardinality of Sets - No. of
elements in a set (Ex. n(A)=4) ● Union: Set Theory
1.AUA=Ø
● Types of Numbers 2.AUØ =A
- Positive, Counting, Natural 3.AuU=U
Numbers - denoted by N. ( 1,2, 4.A⊆AUB & B⊆AUB
…) 5.AUB=BUA
- Whole Number - denoted by N. 6.(AUB)UC = AU(BUC)
(0,1,2,3 ....)
- Non-Negative Integer - denoted ● Intersection: Properties
by J. (0,1,2,…) 1.A∩A=A
- Integer - denoted by Z. (0,1,-1,2,- 2.A∩Ø = Ø
2…) 3.A∩U=A
- Even - denoted by 2n. (0,2,-2,4,- 4.A∩B⊆A & A∩B⊆B
4…) 5.A∩B=B∩A
 6.(A∩B)∩C = A∩(B∩C)

● Complement: Properties
1.U’ = Ø
2.Ø’=U
3.AUA’=U
4.A∩A’=
5.(A’)’=A
6.A⊆B => B’⊆A’
7.(A∩B)’ =A’UB’
8.(AUB)’=A’∩B’

● Relative Complement:
Properties
1. A’ = U-A
2. A-B=AB’
3. A-A=4.
4. A- =A
5. A-B=B-A if only if A=B
6. A-B=A if only if A∩B=Ø
7. A-B=Ø if only if A⊆B
 Discrete Mathematics, Chapter 1.1.-1.3:
Propositional Logic

Richard Mayr

University of Edinburgh, UK

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 1 / 21

 Outline

1 Propositions

2 Logical Equivalences

3 Normal Forms

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 2 / 21

 Propositions

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false.

Examples of propositions:
The Moon is made of green cheese.
Trenton is the capital of New Jersey.
Toronto is the capital of Canada.
1+0=1
0+0=2
Examples that are not propositions.
Sit down!
What time is it?
x+1=2
x+y=z

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 3 / 21

 Propositional Logic

Constructing Propositions
Propositional Variables: p, q, r , s, . . .
The proposition that is always true is denoted by T and the
proposition that is always false is denoted by F.
Compound Propositions; constructed from logical connectives and
other propositions
Negation ¬
Conjunction ∧
Disjunction ∨
Implication →
Biconditional ↔

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 4 / 21

 Disjunction

The disjunction of propositions p and q is denoted by p ∨ q and has

this truth table:

p q p ∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 5 / 21

 Conjunction

The disjunction of propositions p and q is denoted by p ∧ q and has

this truth table:

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 6 / 21

 Implication

If p and q are propositions, then p → q is a conditional statement

or implication which is read as “if p, then q” and has this truth
table:
p q p →q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

In p → q, p is the hypothesis (antecedent or premise) and q is the

conclusion (or consequence).
Implication can be expressed by disjunction and negation:
p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 7 / 21

 Understanding Implication

In p → q there does not need to be any connection between the

antecedent or the consequent. The meaning depends only on the
truth values of p and q.
This implication is perfectly fine, but would not be used in ordinary
English. “If the moon is made of green cheese, then I have more
money than Bill Gates.”
One way to view the logical conditional is to think of an obligation
or contract. “If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.”

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 8 / 21

 Different Ways of Expressing p → q

if p, then q p implies q
if p, q p only if q
q unless ¬p q when p
q if p q whenever p
p is sufficient for q q follows from p
q is necessary for p a necessary condition for p is q
a sufficient condition for q is p

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 9 / 21

 Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse
q → p is the converse of p → q
¬q → ¬p is the contrapositive of p → q
¬p → ¬q is the inverse of p → q
Example: Find the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of
“It is raining is a sufficient condition for my not going to town.”
Solution:
converse: If I do not go to town, then it is raining.
inverse: If it is not raining, then I will go to town.
contrapositive: If I go to town, then it is not raining.

How do the converse, contrapositive, and inverse relate to p → q ?

Clicker
1 converse ≡ contrapositive ?
2 converse ≡ inverse ?
3 contrapositive ≡ inverse ?
Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 10 / 21
 Biconditional
If p and q are propositions, then the biconditional proposition p ↔ q
has this truth table

p q p ↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

p ↔ q also reads as
p if and only if q
p iff q.
p is necessary and sufficient for q
if p then q, and conversely
p implies q, and vice-versa
Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 11 / 21
 Precedence of Logical Operators

1 ¬
2 ∧
3 ∨
4 →
5 ↔
Thus p ∨ q → ¬r is equivalent to (p ∨ q) → ¬r .
If the intended meaning is p ∨ (q → ¬r ) then parentheses must be
used.

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 12 / 21

 Satisfiability, Tautology, Contradiction

A proposition is
satisfiable, if its truth table contains true at least once. Example:
p ∧ q.
a tautology, if it is always true. Example: p ∨ ¬p.
a contradiction, if it always false. Example: p ∧ ¬p.
a contingency, if it is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
Example: p.

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 13 / 21

 Logical Equivalence

Definition
Two compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if the
columns in a truth table giving their truth values agree.
This is written as p ≡ q.

It is easy to show:
Fact
p ≡ q if and only if p ↔ q is a tautology.

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 14 / 21

 De Morgan’s Laws

¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q
¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q

Truth table proving De Morgan’s second law.

p q ¬p ¬q (p∨q) ¬(p∨q) ¬p∧¬q

T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 15 / 21

 Important Logical Equivalences

Domination laws: p ∨ T ≡ T, p ∧ F ≡ F
Identity laws: p ∧ T ≡ p, p ∨ F ≡ p
Idempotent laws: p ∧ p ≡ p, p ∨ p ≡ p
Double negation law: ¬(¬p) ≡ p
Negation laws: p ∨ ¬p ≡ T, p ∧ ¬p ≡ F
The first of the Negation laws is also called “law of excluded middle”.
Latin: “tertium non datur”.
Commutative laws: p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p, p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p
Associative laws: (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r )
(p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r )
Distributive laws: p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r )
p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r )
Absorption laws: p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p, p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 16 / 21

 More Logical Equivalences

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 17 / 21

 A Proof in Propositional Logic

To prove: ¬(p ∨ (¬p ∧ q)) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q

¬(p ∨ (¬p ∧ q)) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬(¬p ∧ q) by De Morgan’s 2nd law

≡ ¬p ∧ (¬(¬p) ∨ ¬q) by De Morgan’s first law
≡ ¬p ∧ (p ∨ ¬q) by the double negation law
≡ (¬p ∧ p) ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q) by the 2nd distributive law
≡ F ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q) because ¬p ∧ p ≡ F
≡ (¬p ∧ ¬q) ∨ F by commutativity of disj.
≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q by the identity law for F

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 18 / 21

 Conjunctive and Disjunctive Normal Form

A literal is either a propositional variable, or the negation of one.

Examples: p, ¬p.
A clause is a disjunction of literals.
Example: p ∨ ¬q ∨ r .
A formula in conjunctive normal form (CNF) is a conjunction of
clauses.
Example: (p ∨ ¬q ∨ r ) ∧ (¬p ∨ ¬r )
Similarly, one defines formulae in disjunctive normal form (DNF) by
swapping the words ‘conjunction’ and ‘disjunction’ in the definitions
above.
Example: (¬p ∧ q ∧ r ) ∨ (¬q ∧ ¬r ) ∨ (p ∧ r ).

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 19 / 21

 Transformation into Conjunctive Normal Form

Fact
For every propositional formula one can construct an equivalent one in
conjunctive normal form.

1 Express all other operators by conjunction, disjunction and

negation.
2 Push negations inward by De Morgan’s laws and the double
negation law until negations appear only in literals.
3 Use the commutative, associative and distributive laws to obtain
the correct form.
4 Simplify with domination, identity, idempotent, and negation laws.
(A similar construction can be done to transform formulae into
disjunctive normal form.)

Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 20 / 21

 Example: Transformation into CNF
Transform the following formula into CNF.
¬(p → q) ∨ (r → p)

1 Express implication by disjunction and negation.

¬(¬p ∨ q) ∨ (¬r ∨ p)
2 Push negation inwards by De Morgan’s laws and double negation.
(p ∧ ¬q) ∨ (¬r ∨ p)
3 Convert to CNF by associative and distributive laws.
(p ∨ ¬r ∨ p) ∧ (¬q ∨ ¬r ∨ p)
4 Optionally simplify by commutative and idempotent laws.
(p ∨ ¬r ) ∧ (¬q ∨ ¬r ∨ p)
and by commutative and absorbtion laws
(p ∨ ¬r )
Richard Mayr (University of Edinburgh, UK) Discrete Mathematics. Chapter 1.1-1.3 21 / 21