Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy (2019) 21:1535–1548

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-019-01735-8

REVIEW

Environmental and economic prospects of biomaterials

in the automotive industry
Poritosh Roy1   · Debela Tadele1 · Fantahun Defersha1 · Manjusri Misra1,2 · Amar K. Mohanty1,2

Received: 28 March 2019 / Accepted: 19 July 2019 / Published online: 25 July 2019
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
This study provides an overview of the application of biomaterials in automotive industries and their economic and envi-
ronmental implications. It also discusses the recent developments, ongoing activities, and the major constraints that need to
be addressed for commercial application. Innovative material selection and processing methods improve the environmental
performance of biocomposite materials as well as their properties. Numerous efforts have been made in evaluating the envi-
ronmental impacts of biomaterials; however, impacts of land use change have been left out, and the economic analysis has
been conducted to a limited extent. A broader sustainability analysis is essential for its commercial applications and for any
investment in biocomposite industries to alleviate environmental, economic, and safety risks. The proliferation of life cycle
sustainability assessment and common material data system in the biocomposite industry may accelerate the acceptance of
biocomposite, thus improving the potential social and environmental benefits.
Graphic abstract

Resources & energy

Compounding & molding

Automotive industries

Biomass Treated/untreated
environment

Biocomposite
Economy &

Polypropyle

Composite
Conventional
fillers

Emissions

Keywords  Biomaterials · Auto industry · Vehicle weight · GHG emission · Operating cost

Introduction

Numerous efforts have been made to find alternative tech-

* Poritosh Roy nologies and resources to replace some of the materials in
[email protected]
automotive components to address the growing concern
* Fantahun Defersha about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transpor-
[email protected]
tation sector/automotive industries. The transportation sector
1
School of Engineering, University of Guelph, shared about 25% of global energy-related GHG emissions
Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada that is recognized as one of the major contributors (IPCC
2
Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, 2001). For example, the transportation sector in Canada con-
Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada tributes 28% to total GHG emissions (ECCC 2016). Because

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1536 P. Roy et al.

of the concern about the fuel economy and emission regula- life of composite materials (Beigbeder et al. 2019) have
tions, automotive industries are moving toward the use of been reported; however, the LCA studies of composites and
lightweight components (Kim and Wallington 2013; Penciuc their applications in the automotive industry are yet to be
et al. 2016; Civancik-Uslu et al. 2018). Consequently, the synthesized. Although several authors have summarized
desire for green products and to trim the weight of auto- the properties and the development of bio-composite, and
motive components, thus reducing the fuel consumption their implication in the automotive industry (Faruk et al.
and GHG emissions, is growing in recent decades. Several 2014), the recent technological progress or economic and
authors have argued that the lightweight design can reduce environmental performance is yet to be discussed. There-
environmental emissions. Natural fibers or even the hybrid fore, this paper provides an overview on the application of
composites are preferable compared to glass (Hesser 2015; biomaterials or bio-composite in the automotive industry,
Boland et al. 2016; Korol et al. 2016; Delogu et al. 2017) and recent development and opportunities in biomaterials or bio-
claimed that organic filler-reinforced composites are a better composites, technical challenges, and their potential to be a
option than inorganic fillers (La Mantia and Morreale 2011). viable environment and economic alternative to the automo-
The development of lightweight new materials from tive industry.
renewable resources has gained attention to comply with
the sustainability goals, which can replace inorganic and
conventional filler materials (such as glass and talc) that Methods
are being used in automotive and aviation industries (Miller
et al. 2014; Boland et al. 2016; Delogu et al. 2017; Fogorasi The potential literature on filler materials used in the auto-
and Barbu 2017; Reddy et al. 2017). The interest in the use motive industry, their development, functional properties,
of composite materials, especially, natural fiber-reinforced life cycle assessment (LCA), and life cycle costing (LCC)
plastic composites is growing because of lightweight and of biomaterials and bio-composites was searched on Scien-
environmental and cost advantages compared with conven- ceDirect, Google scholar, SpringerLink, Scopus, Worldwide
tional materials or even with filler-reinforced composites science, and Mendeley by using the following keywords:
(Corbière-Nicollier et al. 2001; Kim and Wallington 2013; biomaterials application in auto industries, functional prop-
Penciuc et al. 2016; Behazin et al. 2017c; Wang et al. 2018; erties, environmental impact, life cycle assessment, life
Ferreira et al. 2019). The annual growth rate of bio-compos- cycle costing, technological advances, etc. In addition, the
ite materials is reported to be 11% since 2010 (Faruk et al. emphasis was placed on the literature for last 10 years and
2014). The hydrophilic nature of the natural fiber is one of then synthesized to provide an overview on the applica-
the major constraints for using as a reinforcement material tion, functional properties, development, and the life cycle
in plastics (Fogorasi and Barbu 2017; Väisänen et al. 2017). environmental impacts and cost, as well as the prospects
Pyrolysis can produce a variety of products including of biomaterials. More than 100 peer-reviewed researches
biochar which is hydrophobic in nature (Kambo and Dutta were collected and synthesized in different sections (“Com-
2014) and can be used as a filler material to produce bio- monly used filler materials in the automotive industry”,
composite for automotive components (Behazin et al. 2017c; “Application of biomaterials in automotive industries”,
Wang et al. 2018). Several authors have argued that the bio- “Environmental and economic prospects of biomaterials”
composite, i.e., replacing the glass fibers with biochar can and “Ongoing efforts for the improvement of biomaterials”
be environmentally and economically beneficial (Corbière- sections), emphasizing the studies on the environmental and
Nicollier et al. 2001); thus several automakers have been economic aspects of biomaterials and their application in
involved in the development of bio-composite/biomaterials automotive industries; however, only a few articles on the
(Akampumuza et al. 2017). The potential developments economic aspect are found and synthesized in this study.
of biomaterials are driven by technological constraints,
resource availability, as well as environmental and economic
benefits. At the end of life, the bio-composite materials can Commonly used filler materials
be composted or disposed off easily without harming the in the automotive industry
environment when the composites are made with degradable
polymer, which is not possible in the case of synthetic-based Filler materials (usually, corresponds to cheap diluents/
polymer composites (Gurunathan et al. 2015; Teuber et al. particulates) were introduced into plastics to diminish their
2016). cost (Civancik-Uslu et al. 2018) because synthetic poly-
The functional properties of bio-composites (Weiss mers are costly and create downstream management prob-
et al. 2012; Thakur et al. 2014), the environmental impacts lems (Paul 2015). Various filler materials have been used to
of inorganic filler (Delogu et al. 2016), organic filler-rein- produce composite materials for automotive industries (see
forced plastics (Civancik-Uslu et al. 2018), and the end of Tables 1, 2). Although both inorganic and organic fillers

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Environmental and economic prospects of biomaterials in the automotive industry 1537

Table 1  Typical composition of Material Composition (%) References

various fiber materials
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Ash

Flax 72 18 3 – Barth and Carus (2015)

Hemp 65 15 10 – Barth and Carus (2015)
Kenaf 55 14 12 – Barth and Carus (2015)
Jute 57 13 14 – Barth and Carus (2015)
Miscanthus 38.8 36.3 11.5 0.8 Kambo and Dutta 2014)
Corn stalk 50.57 27.03 16.0 3.2 Theng et al. (2017)
Corn stalk 55.17 25.75 17.24 0.8 Theng et al. (2017)

Table 2  Mechanical properties of some natural fibers

Fiber Diameter (µm) Density (g/cm3) Tensile strength (MPa) Young’s Elongation References
modulus at break (%)
(GPa)
1
Flax 5–600 1.38–1.52 343–1830 27–100 1.2–3.2 Faruk et al. (2012), Rahman and Khan (2007),
Wambua et al. (2003)
1
Hemp 10–500 1.35–1.51 550–1110 30–70 1.6–4.5 Everitt et al. (2013), Faruk et al. (2012), Rah-
man and Khan (2007), Wambua et al. (2003)
1
Kenaf 12–36 1.2 295–930 22–60 1.6–6.9 Malkapuram et al. (2009)
1
Jute 5–200 1.23–1.5 187–800 10–55 1.16–3.1 Faruk et al. (2012), John and Anandjiwala
(2008), Rahman and Khan (2007)
1
Coir 7–460 1.1–1.46 130–580 4–62 15–40 Faruk et al. (2012), Rahman and Khan (2007),
Wambua et al. (2003)
2
Bagasse – 0.89 350 22 – John and Anandjiwala (2008)
1
Sisal 7–200 1.2–1.5 468–855 9–28 1.9–7
PP – – 36.1 1.07 23.5 Hietala and Oksman (2018)
E-glass – 2.5 2000–3000 70 2.5 Pickering et al. (2016)
E-glass 15–25 2.5–2.55 2000–3500 68.9–73 2.5–3 Fogorasi and Barbu (2017)
1
 Adopted from Wambua et al. (2003)
2
 Adopted from Arpitha and Yogesha (2017)

have been used, the use of organic fillers (i.e., natural) in than conventional materials (Ashby 2008), suggesting that
bio-composite is gaining importance because of its envi- material selection would be crucial for producing sustain-
ronmental benefits compared with glass or minerals, which able biomaterials.
can be used in the automotive industry (Barth and Carus
2015); however, inorganic fillers contributed 78.9% to the Talc/synthetic filler/inorganic fillers
filler market in 2015 (Grand View Research 2016). Calcium
carbonate is the most commonly used inorganic fillers in Usually, talc, nano-clay, glass, calcium carbonate, etc., are
plastics, contributing 34% of the market (Ceresana 2016). used to improve the strength of polypropylene (PP) while
European automotive industry has used 30,000 tonnes of reducing the stiffness (Thenepalli et al. 2015). Talc is one
natural fibers in 2012, where flax has the highest market of the most commonly used inorganic filler materials in the
(Carus et al. 2015). Natural fillers (functional fillers/natural automotive industries. However, both organic and inorganic
fibers) may not only reduce the cost of bio-composite but fillers are gaining attention because of their environmental
also abate the environmental impacts of composite materials superiority to talc (Luz et al. 2010; Delogu et al. 2016).
and reduce the mass of the components that produced with Replacement of talc with inorganic fillers has been reported
bio-composite (Faruk et al. 2012; Civancik-Uslu et al. 2018). in several studies because of their environmental and eco-
The properties of bio-composite noted to be dependent on nomic benefits. For example, talc was replaced with hol-
the types of components in fibrous material (Table 1) and low fiberglass for a lightweight automotive part (Delogu
their processing conditions. It has also been reported that the et al. 2016). However, in PP-talc copolymer, the replace-
strength and stiffness of some of the natural fibers are better ment of talc with nano-clay not only reduces the weight of

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1538 P. Roy et al.

vehicle components and improves process efficiency but (Ferreira et al. 2019) leading to the development of a sus-
also reduces the impact resistance (Nofar et al. 2019). In tainable functional biomaterials (Battegazzore et al. 2019;
the case of plastics, ground calcium carbonate is the most Ferreira et al. 2019).
commonly used filler materials because of cost-effectiveness
and functionalities (Civancik-Uslu et al. 2018). Calcium Bio‑composite
carbonate-reinforced PP or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) also
provided better electric and impact resistance, surface finish- The high performance and the cost-effectiveness of ther-
ing and control of manufacturing (Thenepalli et al. 2015). moplastics have attracted the producers or manufacturers
In an attempt of weight reduction, strategies are in place to to replace conventional materials (glass, metal, wood, etc.)
substitute the traditional materials, in particular with lighter resulting in higher demand and market price of thermoplas-
metals or a composite such as hollow fiberglass. For exam- tics (Civancik-Uslu et al. 2018). Consequently, both inor-
ple, hollow fiberglass has been used in a dashboard manu- ganic and organic filler materials are being used in ther-
facturing process results in weight reduction thus the fuel moplastics to reduce their cost without compromising their
consumption and provided significant environmental benefit properties. Although inorganic fillers are leading the market,
compared to talc-filled dashboard (Delogu et al. 2016). organic filler materials have gained attention, especially fill-
ers from lignocellulosic biomass because of the environmen-
Organic fillers tal concern and replacing the conventional inorganic filler
materials in thermoplastics (Boland et al. 2016; Beigbeder
Although natural fibers have been used to produce bio- et al. 2019). Generally, two or more distinct materials (filler
composites to replace inorganic or synthetic fiber-reinforced and matrix) were reinforced to create a composite material
composites, the hydrophilic nature of natural fibers is a (the composites produced by combining the biomass with
major constraint in its application. Specially treated natu- polymers are known as bio-composites). The matrix materi-
ral fibers (biochar) which are hydrophobic in nature may als can be either metallic or ceramic or polymeric, and filler
enhance their applications in automotive industries and help materials can either be organic or inorganic fibers. In this
achieve the environmental goals of the automotive industry. process, various surface modification has been incorporated
The application of biochar or treated biomass in composite to enhance the mechanical properties of bio-composites
materials has gained momentum because of its renewabil- (Gurunathan et al. 2015). For example, the incorporation of
ity and ease of downstream waste management problems. organoclay in oil-based polyurethane prepolymers improves
For example, magnesium hydroxide impregnated natural mechanical properties and the biodegradability of polylac-
fiber-reinforced composite reduced 83.9% of water absorp- tide nano-composites (Gurunathan and Nayak 2016). The
tion compared with regular natural fibers (Wu et al. 2018). corona discharge treatment to miscanthus fibers and PP or
The properties of brake pad manufactured with modified polylactic acid (PLA) composites improves their mechanical
micro-cellulose (modified with 3-aminopropyltriethoxy- and thermal properties. For example, Young’s modulus of
silane) composite depend on the composition of composite composites was improved by 10–20% (Ragoubi et al. 2012).
and remain comparable with the commercial sample when The tensile properties of composites from pelletized cel-
10% modified micro-cellulose is used in the composite mate- lulosic fibers (PCF) improve with the addition of lubricant
rial (Marewad et al. 2018). Biochar has also been used with (~ 5% of pellet) during the pelletization process and reduce
wood and plastic to replace conventional wood plastic (Das the breakage of fiber; however, the presence of moisture in
et al. 2015). PCF has a negative impact on the tensile properties of com-
Lignin-based carbon fibers have been used to replace the posites (Hietala and Oksman 2018).
hollow fiberglass and talc for producing composite materials In addition, lightweight bio-composite can be produced
that can reduce the weight of the panels (Das 2011; Scelsi with a combination of plastics and biochar replacing the
et al. 2011; Hesser 2015). Kraft pulp fiber-reinforced PP polymer-based composite material filled with non-renewable
composite panel reduced 14–35% of global warming poten- filler materials (i.e., filled with talc or glass fiber) (Behazin
tial (GWP) from its life cycle (LC) compared to a PP panel et al. 2017c). The reinforcement of biochar with plastic
(Hesser 2015). Carbon nanomaterials and bio-composite instead of glass fibers can reduce the environmental impacts
have also been produced from linen, which enhanced the of transport-pallet (Corbière-Nicollier et  al. 2001). The
properties of biomaterials providing the environmental and strength and stiffness of bio-composite depend on the treat-
economic benefits (Ten and Vermerris 2015). Agricultural ment conditions of fibers/biochar/bio-carbon (Shah 2013;
by-products such as alfalfa particles and hemp hurd rein- Behazin et al. 2017a; Kumar et al. 2017; Dias et al. 2018).
forced with poly-copolymer improve the stiffness and reduce For example, the flexural and tensile strength and tensile
the flame-retardant properties of the composite (Battegaz- modulus of jute, pineapple, and glass fiber-reinforced hybrid
zore et al. 2019) as well as the acoustic and thermal aspects composites varied from about 125–240 MPa, 40–72 MPa,

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Environmental and economic prospects of biomaterials in the automotive industry 1539

and 500–850 MPa, respectively, when the volume fraction of the panels prepared with double-layered recycled cotton
of fibers varied from 0.18 to 0.42 (Indra Reddy et al. 2018). fibers is significantly lower (5.7 kg) compared with double-
The composite materials were produced from a combi- layered polyurethane (9.9 kg) or recycled absorption-barrier-
nation of cellulosic (i.e., perennial grasses/food industrial absorption (ABA) cotton panel (10.1 kg) (Pegoretti et al.
residues such as hulls of soy/oat, and lignin-based mate- 2014).
rials) carbon reinforced in ethylene–propylene–dieneter-
polymer (EPDM) integrated with carbon black, and talc Hybrid composites
provides impressive mechanical properties, which can be
used in automotive parts (Petrović et al. 2004; Pandey et al. Hybrid composites are produced from the mixture of natu-
2015). The toughness and stiffness of bio-composite are also ral fibers and conventional fibers (such as glass, synthetic
affected by the particle size, properties of fibers and the type fiber, talc.) or even the combination of multiple natural fib-
of functional polymers; however, the functional polymer was ers reinforced with polymers/plastics (Mansor 2014; Sanjay
found to be the most influential one (Behazin et al. 2017b; and Yogesha 2017). For example, kenaf and glass fiber were
Fowler et al. 2006; Jiménez et al. 2016). The mechanical reinforced with PP to produce hybrid composite materials
properties of composite materials are dependent on the types for parking brake lever (Mansor 2014). The application of
of filler materials as well as the amount of filler materials glass fiber/Al laminate composite in the aircraft panel has
reinforced with polymers (Table 2). The mechanical prop- also been reported (Scelsi et al. 2011). Carbon nano-fiber
erties of composite materials improve with an increasing and glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites used in body
amount of filler materials. For example, the tensile strength panels replacing 40–80% conventional materials (aluminum)
and Young’s modulus of composites that are produced with providing equivalent stiffness (Khanna and Bakshi 2009).
20–40% eucalyptus reinforced with polyoxymethylene were Bamboo and hollow fiber microspheres also used to produce
63.8–72.02 MPa and 4.5–6.2 GPa, respectively (Espinach hybrid composite material for automotive and aerospace
et  al. 2017). Although a partial substitution of PP with industry (Kumar et al. 2017).
biopolymer [PLA and hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate Natural fibers have gained attention because of its renew-
(PHBV)] in talc-filled PP composite reduces the tensile ability and biodegradability, and cost-effectiveness and
strength, the flexural and impact strength increased when the possible contribution to the circular economy may play an
ratio of the PLA and PHBV was greater than 30%. Thermo- important role in producing composite materials for the
chemical properties were also improved when biochar was automotive industry to mitigate the growing environmental
introduced in the composite material (Snowdon et al. 2017). problems (Wu et al. 2018). The natural composites excel in
Engineered plastic has also been produced by incorpo- most parameters except strength (strength of glass or carbon
rating biochar which enhanced the properties (mechanical, is higher compared to natural fibers) (Faruk et al. 2014).
thermal) of composite materials (Mohanty et al. 2015). A For example, the strength of the composite material reduced
similar thermal and mechanical property of nanotubes or to 50% when the biodegradable polymer is reinforced with
graphene exhibits when 2–10% biochar was used in the com- bagasse (30%) (Jiménez et al. 2016). In contrast, the carbon
posite (Nan et al. 2016) and thus can replace conventional reinforcement not only kept the stiffness and strength of the
nanotubes and graphene. Bio-composite was also produced bio-composite material that is similar to steel but also met
by applying biochar (20 wt%) into bio-based polyamide the weight reduction requirement in the automotive industry
which raised flexural strength (61%) compared to neat (Das 2011) and increases the strength compared with pure
nylon and noted to be suitable for the automotive applica- PP (Güttler 2009).
tion (Ogunsona et al. 2017, 2018). In addition, the biochar Although the natural fiber-reinforced composites have
blended with carbon black for rubber composite is reported gained substantial attention by diverse industries, their
to be superior to carbon black composite when fillers con- suitability may differ because of the geometrical, thermal,
tribute up to 30% (Peterson 2013; Peterson et al. 2015). mechanical, and structural properties of natural fibers com-
Natural fibers/fillers exhibit a promising potential in pared with synthetic and petroleum-based plastics (Ho et al.
reducing the weight of composite materials as well as reduce 2012). Generally, natural fiber composites are produced with
the cost and downstream waste management of automotive conventional manufacturing processes that are designed
(Güttler 2009; Ramli et al. 2018; Zaaba and Ismail 2019). for thermoplastics or conventional fibers (such as glass,
For example, a component weighing 3.0 kg when the com- carbon.)-reinforced composites. However, the properties of
posite contains 30% fiberglass; however, the component composites are dependent on the treatment process of fibers
weight reduced to 2.65 kg if the glass in the composite and composites (Table 3) which need to be dealt carefully
is replaced with cellulosic fiber (Boland et al. 2016). The to avoid undesirable consequences. Although substantial
authors also noted that the weight reduction is dependent on research has been conducted for finding new biomateri-
the source of cellulosic fiber. On the other hand, the mass als, additional research is needed to overcome remaining

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1540 P. Roy et al.

Table 3  Mechanical properties of some bio-composites

Materials Density (g/cm3) Tensile strength Young’s modu- Elongation at References
(MPa) lus (GPa) break (%)

PP and biochar (20%) – 20.2 1.395 3.5 Behazin et al. (2017a, b, c)

PP and cow dung (50%) 1.2 20.1 – – Civancik-Uslu et al. (2018)
PP and cow dung (30%) 1.0 25.0 – – Civancik-Uslu et al. (2018)
PP and cow dung (10%) 0.92 32.5 – – Civancik-Uslu et al. (2018)
PTA and WF – 12.06 0.963 – Jiménez et al. (2016)
PTA and MP – 16.98 1.323 – Jiménez et al. (2016)
PTA and TMP – 15.92 1.165 – Jiménez et al. (2016)
PTA and CTMP – 16.91 1.332 – Jiménez et al. (2016)
PTA – 12.44 0.172 – Jiménez et al. (2016)
HDPE – 17.12 1.008 – Jiménez et al. (2016)
HDPE and MP – 21.66 2.536 – Jiménez et al. (2016)
HDPE and TMP – 23.08 2.501 – Jiménez et al. (2016)
POM and EBF (20%) – 63.8 4.5 – Espinach et al. (2017)
POM and EBF (40%) – 72.02 6.2 – Espinach et al. (2017)
PCF (5% moisture) and PP (50%) – 37.1 2.09 3.2 Hietala and Oksman (2018)
PCF (10% moisture) and PP (50%) – 35.9 1.98 3.5 Hietala and Oksman (2018)
PCF (27% moisture) and PP (50%) – 36.4 1.97 3.6 Hietala and Oksman (2018)
PCF and PP (50%) – 39.8 2.08 3.7 Hietala and Oksman (2018)
PCF (4% lubricant) and PP (50%) – 45.5 2.13 4.4 Hietala and Oksman (2018)
PCF (6% lubricant) and PP (50%) – 43.3 1.82 5.4 Hietala and Oksman (2018)
PCF (12% lubricant) and PP (50%) – 38.5 2.07 3.9 Hietala and Oksman (2018)

PTA starch-based polymer, WF sawdust, SB bagasse, MP mechanical pulp, TMP thermomechanical pulp, CTMP chemi-thermomechanical pulp,
PCF pelletized carbon fiber

constraints in using these products in automotive compo- where organic fillers have been used in various automotive
nents. However, the economic and environmental benefits of components (Marsh 2003; La Mantia and Morreale 2011).
biomaterials depend on addressing these challenges. Bio-composites are also being used in other industries such
as elbow fittings (hybrid fiberglass-hemp composite) for
seawater cooling pipe which reduces 23% weight when
Application of biomaterials in automotive conventional glass fiber composite is replaced with hybrid
industries composite and provides environmental benefits (La Rosa
et al. 2013).
Biomaterials are featured in various interior and exterior
parts replacing talc or glass or even carbon (Faruk et al.
2014; Mansor 2014; Dulebová and Moravskyi 2015; Delogu Environmental and economic prospects
et al. 2016), often known as a composite (usually combined of biomaterials
with other materials to form a composite, especially, with
a plastic resin to form carbon-reinforced polymer). The Environmental benefits
application of bio-composite in automotive industries was
first initiated in the early 1930s by Ford Motor Company The utilization of biomaterials in the automotive industry
(Petrović et al. 2004) and gained attention in the late 1920s has significant potential to abate environmental impacts
(Carrillo et al. 2009). Nowadays, most of the major auto- compared to conventional materials that are usually used
motive industries have moved toward the bio-composite in the industry. LCA is the most commonly used approach
materials for their interior parts such as Toyota, Mercedes- for quantifying the environmental benefits to occur from the
Benz, Volkswagen, General Motors, BMW (Bavarian Motor LC of a product, process or activity, which consider various
Works). (Reddy et al. 2017). Mercedes-Benz was the first impact categories; however, most studies focus only on the
to use jute fibers-filled composite with door panels in the GWP of biomaterials except for a few examples (Corbière-
1990s and followed by other main automotive industries Nicollier et al. 2001; Tseng 2013). Environmental impacts

13
Environmental and economic prospects of biomaterials in the automotive industry 1541

of natural fiber (organic fiber) are dependent on the type such as bagasse. Although the substitution of materials and
of fiber. For example, emission from flax, hemp, kenaf, powertrain resizing helps in reducing fuel consumption dur-
and jute fiber is 798, 682–835, 767, and 766 kg C ­ O2 eq/ ing the use phase of lightweight vehicle components, it may
tonnes, respectively (Barth and Carus 2015). On the other increase the GHG emission during the manufacturing stage.
hand, the GHG emissions from glass fiber, kenaf, and cel- For example, the substitution of steel with wrought iron or
lulose components used for the automotive component were carbon fiber-reinforced plastics with magnesium increases
20.2, 14.8, and 10.4 kg ­CO2-eq, respectively (Boland et al. vehicle cycle GHGs emission (Kelly et al. 2015). Boland
2016). PP reinforced with cellulose has the lowest environ- et al. (2016) also noted that the production phase of cellulose
mental impact compared with jute, cotton, and kenaf fiber- fibers needs more energy than glass fiber.
reinforced PP composites (Czaplicka-Kolarz et al. 2013). Natural fiber-reinforced composite not only reduces the
Chicken feather-reinforced PLA biocomposite reduces the weight but also reduces the energy required for production.
environmental impacts compared with neat PLA because The LC energy demand of conventional components (glass
of the replacement of PLA which contributes 99% to the fiber composite) was noted to be 1530 MJ, whereas this
life cycle of bio-composite (Molins et al. 2018). In addi- demand was only 1420 MJ and 1445 MJ in the case of cellu-
tion, the environmental impacts of banana fiber-reinforced lose fiber and the kenaf-reinforced components, respectively
composites are reported to be lower compared with neat (Boland et al. 2016). However, the cradle to gate energy
polyester resin; however, it is important to note that the use demand of glass fibers, cellulose fiber, and kenaf fiber com-
and disposal, as well as fertilizers and land used during cul- posite components is reported to be only 272 MJ, 278 MJ,
tivation phases of banana fiber were not taken into account and 267 MJ, respectively. The energy demand can further
(Rodríguez et al. 2018). be reduced by resizing the powertrains.
The GWP of flax-reinforced PP composite was less than The environmental impacts of double-layered recy-
that of sawdust-reinforced PP composite mainly because cled cotton fibers are significantly lower (about 30% less)
of carbon sequestration during corn cultivation; however, compared with double-layered polyurethane or recycled
the latter has lower acidification and photochemical ozone absorption-barrier-absorption (ABA) cotton panel mainly
creation potential because of less agricultural processes because of the reduction in fuel consumption in the use
(Tseng 2013). The ecological benefit of composite materi- phase resulted from the weight reduction (Pegoretti et al.
als depends on the lifespan of the material. For example, 2014). On the other hand, kenaf fiber-reinforced compos-
natural fiber (China Reed)-reinforced plastics are ecologi- ite reduced 20% of environmental impacts compared to the
cally advantageous when the minimum lifespan of natural fiberglass-reinforced composite (Wu et al. 2018). Most of
fiber pallets is 3 years (Corbière-Nicollier et al. 2001). The the studies noted that the filler material-reinforced composite
environmental sustainability of composite materials also reduces the environmental impacts from the LC of compos-
depends on the amount of biomaterials used in the bio- ites except for a few examples (Al-Ma’adeed et al. 2011).
composite. The environmental performance improved fur- For example, the LC impact of LDPE was 2.18 kg C ­ O2 eq/
ther when material service density was considered to get the kg; however, impact reached to 3.55 and 2.15 kg when talc
similar tensile strength of composite materials with the only and GF reinforced with LDPE, respectively (Al-Ma’adeed
PP (Xu et al. 2008). et al. 2011). The application of nano-composites is also ben-
The replacement of glass fiber with a natural fiber reduces eficial in terms of environmental impacts and economics of
fuel consumption during the use phase of vehicles due to a composites (Roes et al. 2007; Delgado-Aguilar et al. 2015).
weight reduction in the vehicle components. For example, These benefits were observed because of the reduction in
glass fiber replaced with cellulosic composite or kenaf com- materials used in the LC of automotive panels manufactured
posite reduces 16.3% and 9.2% LC GHG emission of the with PP-layered silicate nano-composite replacing PP or
vehicle components, respectively, without powertrain resiz- glass fiber-reinforced PP composites (Roes et al. 2007). The
ing (Boland et al. 2016). On the other hand, the bagasse- reviewed literature reveals that the GWP varies depending
PP composite is better compared to talc-PP composite on the materials, processing conditions and system bounda-
because bagasse-PP composites are lighter for a certain feat ries as well as the functional units (Table 4).
and reduce the use of PP and thus mitigates environmental Although various recycling methods have been used at
impacts. For example, GWP from production, use, and recy- the end of the LC stage of bio-composites, the mechani-
cling of bagasse-PP and talc-PP composites was 1.30 × 10−7, cal recycling is recommended to be the best preferable and
6.99 × 10 −6, 1.05 × 10 −7, and 1.65 × 10 −7, 7.04 × 10 −5, viable option in the environmental viewpoint (Soroudi and
1.32 × 10−7 kg ­CO2 eq/m2 (interior esthetic coverings of the Jakubowicz 2013); however, further research is needed to
car), respectively (Luz et al. 2010). These values confirmed find a suitable end of LC management system as the inno-
that the significant environmental benefit comes from the use vative biomaterials are being developed and used in the
phase while talc is replaced with lightweight filler materials automotive industry. A recent LCA of the end of life stage

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1542 P. Roy et al.

Table 4  Environmental impacts of composite materials

Composite System bound- End of life Impact LCA software Functional unit GWP, kg Authors
ary assessment ­CO2 eq
method

Cellulose and PP Cradle to grave Dismantling and IPCC 2012 GaBi 6 Automotive 89.2–86.7 Boland et al.
shredding component (2016)
with fixed
volume
Kenaf and PP Cradle to grave Dismantling and IPCC 2012 GaBi 6 Automotive 95.2–96.8 Boland et al.
shredding component (2016)
with fixed
volume
GF and PP Cradle to grave Dismantling and IPCC 2012 GaBi 6 Automotive 107.0 Boland et al.
shredding component (2016)
with fixed
volume
Cottona and PP Cradle to gate – ReCiPe SimaPro 8 Plastic pallet 69.5 Korol et al. (2016)
(15 kg)
Jutea and PP Cradle to gate – ReCiPe SimaPro 8 Plastic pallet 58.4 Korol et al. (2016)
(15 kg)
Kenafa and PP Cradle to gate – ReCiPe SimaPro 8 Plastic pallet 58.2 Korol et al. (2016)
(15 kg)
GF and PP Cradle to gate – ReCiPe SimaPro 8 Plastic pallet 69.8 Korol et al. (2016)
(15 kg)
PP Cradle to gate – ReCiPe SimaPro 8 Plastic pallet 70.9 Korol et al. (2016)
(15 kg)
Talc and recy- Cradle to grave Landfilling CML 2001 GaBi 1 kg composite 0.75 Al-Ma’adeed et al.
cled PP (2011)
GF and recycled Cradle to grave Landfilling CML 2001 GaBi 1 kg composite 0.09 Al-Ma’adeed et al.
PP (2011)
PP Cradle to grave Landfilling CML 2001 GaBi 1 kg material 2.1 Al-Ma’adeed et al.
(2011)
Recycled PP Cradle to grave Landfilling CML 2001 GaBi 1 kg composite 0.12 Al-Ma’adeed et al.
(2011)
LDPE Cradle to grave Landfilling CML 2001 GaBi 1 kg material 2.18 Al-Ma’adeed et al.
(2011)
Recycle LDPE Cradle to grave Landfilling CML 2001 GaBi 1 kg material 0.60 Al-Ma’adeed et al.
(2011)

PP polypropylene, PE polyethylene, LDPE low-density polyethylene, GF glass fiber, NR not reported

a
 Fiber

of bio-composites (PP-wood flour; PLA-flax fiber) revealed on the types of carbon. For example, lignin-based carbon
that recycling has the lowest environmental impacts com- fiber abated 22% of GHG emission to the conventional PAN-
pared with landfill, incineration, and composting except the based acrylics (Das 2011). On the other hand, in the case
freshwater eutrophication (Beigbeder et al. 2019). In addi- of CFRP and a hybrid composite (glass fiber/Al laminate:
tion, Spierling et al. also observed that the environmental GLARE), weight reduction was reported to be 20% and
impacts of bio-composite depend on the disposal option and 10%, respectively, compared to Al-2024 for an aircraft panel
bio-based plastics can be a building block for the circular (Campbell Jr 2003). Despite the energy-intensive manufac-
economy (Spierling et al. 2019). turing process of CFRP and GLARE, significant environ-
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite mental benefits were observed from the LC of aircraft panels
reduces 50–70% weight of the component compared with compared to Al-2024 (Scelsi et al. 2011).
conventional steel, resulted in the reduction in fuel consump- The reduction in net environmental impact started at an
tion during the use phase of automotive parts and thus abates LC distance of about 70,000 and 240,000 km for CFRP and
GHG emission (Suzuki et al. 2000; Das 2011). The weight GLARE, respectively. For example, the manufacturing stage
reduction and GHG emission also noted to be dependent of carbon nano-fiber-reinforced polymer composite was

13
Environmental and economic prospects of biomaterials in the automotive industry 1543

1.6–12 times energy-intensive compared to steel depend- material for the automotive industry; however, it encounters
ing on the ratio of replacement; however, significant envi- with the high manufacturing cost, feasible fabrication tech-
ronmental benefits were observed because of improved fuel niques, and safety (Izzaty and Sastra 2019). The principal
efficiency in the use phase (Khanna and Bakshi 2009). In component analysis (PCA) and preference selection index
addition, a transition from aircraft to composite architecture (PSI) have been used to avoid biases in selecting the weight
instead of conventional aluminum architecture (i.e., current of materials for different design attributes which can bal-
design) can contribute to 20–25% of the reduction target of ance the constraints (technological, ecological, economic,
the aviation industry (Timmis et al. 2015). Therefore, the and societal) for sustainable automotive bodies (Mayyas
transition to composite materials for the automotive and et al. 2013).
aeronautical industry has the potential to mitigate GHG An integrated approach [analytic hierarchy process
emissions from the transportation sector and improve the (AHP) for material selection and Technique for Order
sustainability of this industry. Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution for selection of
matrix] has also been introduced for design and develop-
Economic benefits ment of a hybrid composite material which can mitigate
environmental impacts (Mansor 2014). For example, a 20%
Although the environmental benefits of biomaterials are reduction in environmental impacts was achieved with the
positive, the commercial application highly depends on the hybridization of kenaf/glass fiber-reinforced thermoplastic
cost and competitiveness with conventional materials. The compared to glass fiber and PP composite (Mansor 2014).
reduction in production cost has been reported in different In addition to these methods, various other techniques have
studies. For example, the replacement of fiberglass with also been used for selecting the most optimum materials for
natural fibers results in reducing 5% production cost of the composites that can be used for automotive components and
composite compared with fiberglass-reinforced composite panels such as AHP and multiple criteria decision-making
(Venkateshwaran et al. 2011). In addition, the production (MCDM) approaches to cost and properties (Sapuan and
cost of banana fiber composite was found to be 17% less Mansor 2014). Product LC management, a simulation plat-
than the neat polyester resin (Rodríguez et al. 2018). There form, and a method for sustainability assessment have also
is a variation in cost-saving that has been reported in the been integrated to optimize the manufacturing process of
reviewed literature and might be depending on the types of lightweight automotive and aeronautical parts to reduce cost
materials, materials selection processes, lifespan, and the and environmental burdens, which can be a potential plat-
cost of materials. Replacing conventional composite mate- form for early product design and evaluate environmental
rial with hybrid fiber glass-hemp composite reduces 20% impact (Penciuc et al. 2016). In addition to various technolo-
cost of the elbow fittings in seawater cooling pipe; however, gies, modified particles have also been used to improve the
the materials were the significant contributor in elbow for- properties of biomaterials. For example, organically modi-
mulation (La Rosa et al. 2013). The application of integrated fied nanoparticles are being used to improve the properties
approaches to select the most optimum materials for com- of nano-composites (Paul et al. 2003, 2005; Gurunathan
posites led to 70% cost savings in a conceptual design stage and Nayak 2016) which may lead to biomedical and other
(Sapuan and Mansor 2014). The economic benefit observed industrial applications (Gurunathan and Nayak 2016; Aziz
from the application of nano-composites up to a certain level et al. 2017).
(€5000 per tonne) of the cost of nano-clay (Roes et al. 2007).

Discussion
Ongoing efforts for the improvement
of biomaterials A careful attention needs to be placed in selecting the com-
ponents of composite materials because the miscibility of
Efforts are underway to improve the properties of biomateri- any blend is dependent on the composition and molecular
als which may broaden its application in various industries weight of the components (Gurunathan and Nayak 2016)
along with automotive industries. In an attempt to improve that are blended to create composite materials exhibiting
the properties of nano-composites materials, various pro- superior mechanical properties. The environmental benefits
cessing methods have been introduced, such as solid-state of natural fiber in bio-composite also depend on its adequate
shear pulverization which have a significant impact on applications, and there are technological challenges in the
improving the properties of composite materials compared recyclability of bio-composite (Hesser 2015). The applica-
with neat PP (Wakabayashi et al. 2008). A recent study tion of biochar as a filler material in automotive parts or
revealed that graphene-reinforced composite is not only in bio-composites could limit the recyclability of the mate-
lighter but also stronger than steel, which can be a promising rials which need to be addressed before its commercial

13

1544 P. Roy et al.

applications including the automotive industries. The poten- Although the application of natural fiber-filled compos-
tial/best recycling method for bio-composites is yet to be ites has gained attention from both academia and industries,
developed and regulated; however, until now the mechani- bio-composites that are produced with natural fibers and
cal recycling is one of the most commonly used methods biodegradable polymers (such as polysaccharides, proteins,
(Soroudi and Jakubowicz 2013). lipids, lignin, natural rubber, polyamides, polyvinyl acetates,
In spite of economic and environmental benefits, the polyvinyl alcohols, and polycaprolactone.) (La Mantia and
properties of bio-composites depend on the variety of natu- Morreale 2011) may enhance their environmental sustain-
ral fibers and their processing technology, which have incon- ability. The application of agro-polymers may also contrib-
sistency in their properties and thus may influence the prop- ute to rural development and circular economy initiatives.
erties of bio-composite and need to be careful while those An integrated approach in selecting renewable filler materi-
composites are used in an automotive to avoid any safety als as well as the biodegradable matrix may improve the
risk. The composite materials were produced from renew- properties of composites and enhance the environmental
able resources to reduce the weight of vehicle components benefits of the use of composites in automotive industries.
and thus reduce the fuel consumption during the use phase The production and application of bio-composites are gain-
of the components and reduce LC GHG emissions (Das ing increasing attention from the manufacturers, users, and
2011; Kelly et al. 2015); however, it emits a greater amount policy makers to restrict the emission, especially, from the
of GHGs during vehicle production (Timmis et al. 2015). In automotive industries.
contrast, lightweight vehicle components may not emerge A completely biodegradable bio-composite can be pro-
as an environmentally better option because of the emission duced if the degradable matrix can be used for producing
from their production stage (Witik et al. 2011). For example, the bio-composite (Teuber et al. 2016). In addition, hybrid
organic filler-reinforced composites may not be favorable bio-composite materials might be a promising option to
for ecotoxicity, eutrophication, and land use (Weiss et al. improve their properties and economic and environmental
2012). It is also noted that natural fiber composites may not sustainability. This study reveals that adoption of renew-
always environmentally friendly option compared with glass able materials/bio-composites in transportation sector
fiber composite because the environmental impacts depend provides significant environmental as well as economic
on their applications. For example, glass fiber composites benefits. Väisänen et al. (Väisänen et al. 2017) outlined
reduce the timber requirement in beams and thus reduce the commercial success of natural fiber polymer com-
overall LC impacts despite the negative impacts of glass posite (Fig. 1) which is dependent on the performance,
fiber (Taranu et al. 2011). The reuse of existing timber struc- competitiveness, applications, and sustainability. This
tures with various fiber-reinforced polymer composites also study reveals that adoption of renewable materials/bio-
mitigates environmental impacts by reducing the timber composites in transportation sector provides significant
requirement (Taranu et al. 2011).
The development of biomaterials and its application in
the automotive and aeronautical industry may reduce envi-
ronmental impacts and provides cost benefits to transpor-
Marine
tation sector; however, increasing use of biomaterials may
Furniture
present some of the challenges such as land use change
Packaging
and their rebound effects, which have to be addressed for a
Automotive
sustainable society. Evaluating the LC environmental and
Construction
economic impacts of a newly developed material poses a
great challenge because the materials are still in the develop- Applications
ment stage and lack of complete LC data. In the near future,
emphasis may need to be placed to produce nano-compos-
ite materials by incorporating more and more renewable Price
resources, especially from the waste resources, employing Recyclable Performance Legislation

the industrial symbiosis approach which not only minimizes Renewable Processability

the waste management problems of the existing industries Compostable C sequestration

(such as agri-food industries: fishery/poultry industry) and Automotive Raw material supply
Environmentally friendly Raw material diversity
enhances their economic benefits but also develops new
industry. Despite the better environmental performance of Sustainability Competitive edge
natural fiber, attention needs to be placed on the transporta-
tion and cultivation of natural fibers because of lower den- Fig. 1  Triangle of commercial successes for natural fiber polymer
sity and land use change that may take place. composite (Väisänen et al. 2017)

13
Environmental and economic prospects of biomaterials in the automotive industry 1545

environmental as well as economic benefits. However, also on the social sustainability of bio-composite materials
long-term national and international support toward the in automotive industries.
development of CFRP composite, finding more sustain-
able alternatives (polymer, additives, etc.) to elevate its
performance, economic and environmental sustainability Conclusions
are required/prerequisite for the commercial success of
CFRP and bio-industry. In addition, the impacts of direct Replacing conventional materials (steel, wood, iron, etc.)
and indirect land use change and their rebound effects have with filler-reinforced polymers or even replacing con-
to be carefully considered for large-scale production of ventional filler materials in the reinforced polymers with
biomaterials and their commercial applications. renewable natural fibers (biochar) results in the reduction
In Canada, vehicle sales and use are growing and a record in vehicle weight and thus reduces fuel consumption during
sale (2.04 million new vehicles) was reported in 2017 (Sieki- usages and abates GHG emissions. A shift from the con-
erska 2018); however, vehicle registration was 33.8 million ventional fillers to renewable organic fillers for automotive
in 2016 (STATCAN 2017). Delogu et al. (Delogu et al. components has the potential to alleviate the environmental
2016) reported that fuel consumption from the use phase of impacts of the transportation sector achieving the targeted
the LC of the dashboard can be reduced if conventional filler fuel economy and emission regulations in the future. How-
material (Talc) is replaced with hollow glass fiber (HGF) ever, a sustainability check is a prerequisite for the com-
because of the weight reduction. The weight of a dashboard mercial success of biomaterials or bio-composite without
was 4.72 kg and 3.96 kg when talc-PP and HGF-PP com- compromising their performance. The proliferation of LCSA
posite materials were used in the dashboard, respectively, and common material data system in bio-composite, as well
(Delogu et al. 2016) because of the difference in the density as equipment industries, may accelerate the acceptance of
of filler materials. The density of talc-PP, HGF-PP, and the bio-composite and thus improve the potential social and
biochar-PP composite is 1.15 g/cm3, 0.80 g/cm3, and 1.01 g/ environmental benefits.
cm3, respectively (Delogu et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2018).
The weight of the dashboard is estimated to be 4.68 kg when Acknowledgements  This research is supported by the Ontario
the biochar is used as a filler material, and thus the fuel Research Fund–Research Excellence (ORF-RE) round-7 award and
the growth fund from the School of Engineering, University of Guelph.
consumption would be 7.64 L in the LC (150,000 km) of
the dashboard. In Canada, yearly fuel saving would be about
0.94 million L (assuming gasoline and diesel contributing
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