1.

The Geographical Setting:

Geographical Features:

The Peloponnesian Peninsula was the region where Sparta was located
It was connected to Central Greece by the Isthmus of Corinth
The Peloponnese was surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea
Three important Peloponnesian sections were Arcadia, Messenia and Laconia
Sparta was located on the Eurotas River
The plain of Sparta was considered a Polis (city-state)
Sparta was made up of five villages; four were situated near the Eurotas River, and one was 5km south (Amyclae)
Sparta had the defense of many different mountains around it
It was surrounded by three lots of mountains – Parnon Ranges (East Messenia), Arcadian Mountains (North) and
Mount Taygetus (Laconia)
Their diet consisted of a classic Mediterranean diet of seafood.
They got most of their seafood from the Port of Gythium, 42km South of Sparta
Context
- Sparta was founded around 900 BC by the Doric tribes
- They had iron weapons which were far superior to their opponents’ bronze.
- By 750 BC five tribes of Doric people joined together to form Sparta. They were
pastoralists.
- Sparta was located in an area in the Peloponnese known as Laconia.
- Sparta is situated at the end of a very small, but fertile river plain about 14 km long.
- Bringing waters from the high Arkadian mountains, the river Eurotas was swelled by
melting snows and would have run heavily in spring/summer. The Eurotas river is the
main river that runs through the valley.
- Laconia had impressive mountains that hemmed in the river valley
- These mountains called the Taygetos mountains provided Sparta with a natural
defensive barrier against invaders.

Natural Resources:

Sparta’s resources are split into three categories:

Stones:

Stones in Sparta include something called Porphyry and Marble

Marble stones were found on Mount Taygetus

Minerals and Ores:

Iron, lead and clay were all found in Sparta

They also imported copper and tin for bronze making

Food and Animals:

Most of Sparta’s natural resources were in the form of food and animals
Because of Mount Taygetus, their crops were mainly grapevines and fruit trees such as figs, due to the rocky soil
They also grew barley and wheat
They had bees for honey and chickens for eggs
They also hunted wild boars and hares for meat
Goats and sheep were used for wool, meat and dairy products
Pigs were also kept for meat and used to make black broth, which was a soup made from pig’s blood

Significant Site:

Sparta as a significant site refers to the specific position of the city and its main features
Because of the richness of the Eurotas River, Sparta was a rich, flat, alluvial plane
This means it was on a flat land mass made of built-up rock sediment.
Because of this flatness, it represented something of an agricultural treasure in the region, as the Peloponnese was
full of mountains, making it difficult to grow food
The most important part of Sparta was the Acropolis (town centre).
Archaeological remains of the site show that it was really just a Hummock
Hummock – a small mound of land poking out of the ground
This is where public announcements and council meetings would’ve occurred
The barracks of Spartan soldiers, as well as public buildings such as temples and shrines would have been the most
important meeting places across Sparta
Fitzhardinge (Modern Historian) – “To the ordinary Greek, the town look more like a cluster of villages in a city”

Social Structure And Political Organization

The Issue of Lycurgus (The Great Rhetra)

Between 900 – 750BC, Sparta gained control of Laconia slowly

Greek world at the time was a period of expansion and colonisation  Sparta was not a coloniser
Instead they attacked Messenia reducing the population to serfdom
whole state became geared to a militaristic way of life to establish Eumonia “an excellent order of things”
 new state emerged due to lawgiver Lyrcurgus who sought help from Delphic Oracle (Xenophon)
was instructed to establish a sanctuary to Zeus& Athena; divide the people into tribes; appoint the two
kings and a Gerousia which “allays and qualifies the fiery genius of the royal office” (Plutarch)
all reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military fitness, and
austerity and written in the form of the Great Rhetra (oral traditions and laws of Sparta)
was the foundation document to the Spartan constitution
Lycurgus “changed all the laws and made sure these changes should not be transgressed”  when he
died they dedicated a temple to him and “revere him greatly” (Herodotus)
Lycurgus was “a man of distinction among the Spartans” (Herodotus)
Plutarch, writing in 2nd Century AD, bemoans the lack of precisive evidence of Lycurgus.
Conflicting accounts had been given of most aspects of the life of Lycurgus, particularly those relating to his
initiatives as lawmaker. The controversy still rages today.
Ancient authors, such as Herodotus and Aristotle, wrote of Lycurgus as a historical figure who handed down the
laws of Sparta after consulting the will of Gods.
“if there was a real Lycurgus, we know nothing of him” and “the perpetuation of his name was one of the
most successful frauds in history” (A.Andrewes)

Roles of the two kings

First two kings were Eurysthenes and Prokles  Sons of Aristodemus a descendent of Herakles
A duel kingship – two hereditary and co-equal kings
Kings cannot retire  held office for life
Belonged to the two leading families (Eurypontids and Agiads) among original Dorian tribesmen
Succeeded by his eldest son, but a son born to prior to father’s accession had to give way to first born

Military
“they commanded the army on foreign expedition” (Aristotle)
after Kleomenes and Demaratos (C.510 BC) only one king led the army in battle while other remained (Herodotus)
the king on campaign had absolute right of deciding life or death in battle
the kingship constituted “an independent and permanent generalship” (Aristotle)
in war the king had a body guard of 300 hoplites
2 ephors accompanied the king on campaign (Xenophon)
“the power of declaring war on who they please” (Herodotus)
“the kings go first and return last” (Herodotus)
“should lead the army wherever the city despatches it” (Xenophon)

Political
prior to 6th century BC, the kings could declare war. This was then changed to the Ekklesia
when the kings entered the Ekklesia, all stood, except the Ephors
both kings were members of the Gerousia – one vote each (no more power than the other members)
“definite legal matters are left to their sole decision” (Herodotus)

Religious
The kings had two priesthoods – Zeus Lacaedaemonios, Zeus Eranous
made sacrifices to them prior to leaving for war (Plutarch)
Good fortune of bad was seen as attributable to them
Made sacrifices to Apollo and Athena of the Bronze House on behalf of citizens on the 1st and 7th days
they made the first offerings of sacrificthe e and all hives of animal sacrificed were their property (Herodotus)
at the dawn of battle, sacrificed a she goat to seek the omens
they were responsible for the safe keeping of oracles
nominated 4 Pithoi or sacred envoys to the Delphi oracle and were safe keepers of all prophecies
they were given seats of honour at religious festivals
Social Duties
The kings presided over the adoption of children: decided who would marry an heiress whose father had died
without petroving her; or matters affecting public groves (Aristotle)
they effectively controlled foreign affairs by selecting and appointing officials who sought to entertaining foreign
visitors (Herodotus)

privileges and restrictions

supported at the expense of the state  received income from lands of perioikoi
presented with skins and carcasses of animals sacrificed to the gods
served first at public meals and given double portions of food
given seats of honour at all festivals  all stood apart from ephors at entry
mourned publicly for 10 days after their death
took an oath every 2 months before the ephors to rule in accordance with the laws
every 9 years ephors took omen to see if the gods still favoured the kings
kept a check on eachother and were accompanied by 2 ephors on campaign
“nothing much above the level of private citizens” (Xenophon)
Government:
ephorate

5 magistrates elected by citizens by lot each year- won gave his name to that year
Any Spartiate over 30 years of age was eligible for election (Aristotle)
An ephor could only hold office once (Aristotle)
Two (out of 5) ephors went with the king on campaign
The ephorites had power to fine other magistrates and power over all Spartiates including the Kings (Xenophon)
They could investigate, fine, sentence to death or exile a king (Thucydides)
They exchanged oaths with the kings each month on behalf of the state (Xenophon)
The ephors shared meetings of the Gerousia
Had wide ranging police powers over the citizens and helot population
The issued orders for mobilising the Spartan army and introduced levies or taxes for its supply (Xenphon)
Even poor men could be elected, this made some open to bribery but this was mitigated by limitation of
membership to a year (Aristotle)
Gerousia

A council of elder noblemen (28 citizens of noble birth plus 2 kings) – the exact role of the gerosia in the political
system is hard to assess
Given its membership, this council can be seen as an oligarchical (Aristocratic elite) -Element in the Lacedaemonian
constitution
Members had to be over 60 years of age but had to be the “best and most deserving” (Plutarch quoting Lykurgus)
Elected by eklamation in the Ekklesia (Plutarch)
Elected for life (Aristotle)
It serves as the court for capital offences (Xenophon)
The Gerousia could prosecute cases against the kings or others involving lost citizenship/ exile
they decided the agenda (probouletic function) for the Ekklesia
had the power to annul or “setting aside” decisions of the Ekklesia (Plutarch)
originally shared by the kings but later by the ephors
members were possibly open to corruption because they weren’t answerable to anyone and
were appointed for life (Aristotle)
ekklesia

also known as the Apella (Xenophon)

membership consisted of all male citizens (Spartites over age 30)
two conditions to be a citizens were that he had completed the agoge and was a member of the Syssition
the Ekklesia elected members of the Gerosia (Plutarch) and the Ephors (Aristotle)
This should have given it considerable power, but that was limited by the rider to the rhetra, which allowed the
Ephors to annul or cast aside decisions of the Ekklesia (Plutarch)
the Ekklesia decided which king led the campaign in war (Xenophon)
voted for or against protocol proposals put by kings, Ephors or members of Gerousia – Ekklesia could not put
forward own proposals  voted by acclamation (shouting) but could also
physically divide into ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ groups (Thucydides)
the Ekklesia had power to ratify foreign treaties
by the 5th century BC meetings of the Ekklesia presided over the Ephors (Thucydides)

Social structure:
Spartiates

Male citizens over age 30

Had to be born of 2 Spartan parents and survived infantile fitness tests on Mt Taygetus as well as passed through
the AGOGE
Held all political power
Was a member of a Syssitia  not just a dining group but the Spartan Soldier’s fighting unit
Sacrificed their individuality to the state
Spartiates saw themselves as homioi – “equals” who shared in a communal society. Even so
there were inequalities based on wealth (Herodotus)
Never numbered more than 10 000 (Plutarch)
Forbidden by laws from engaging in any profession except that of arms (Plutarch)
Were forbidden to have trade or a business
Kleros (property ownership)
Owned most of the land in the Eurotas valley and Messenia
All land was divided into allotments
Gained estates through being awarded by state or by receiving an inheritance
Lycurgus implemented this system (laws saying citizen estates were not to be divided) (Plutarch)
“persuaded the citizens to pool all the land and then redistribute it afresh”
“they would all live on equal terms with one another”
“the same amount of property to support each”

Periokoi

Lived on the outskirts and handled all the trade

Literally “surrounding” (peri-) “householders” (oiki)  name means ‘dwellers around’
They were not citizens  freed men
Spartan officials could be placed in Perioikoi towns
Were members of different communities spread around Laconia and Messene and were allied to Sparta
Spartan officials, such as judges and governors, were placed in perioikoi towns
They provided half the Spartan army
Did not undergo same training yet were expect to be hoplites
Had a monopoly on trade and manufacturing
They were apparently able to rule their own communities, but could not form independent alliances
Representative of the communities expected to pay respects and services for death of the kings
Archaeological Evidence:
A bronze figurine of Hermes and an engraved gem found at Gytheum.
A Krater found in the tomb of a Celtic woman at Vix, in France, is believed to have been made in Laconia and was the
greatest of its sort and contained 1100 L of wine

‘inferiors’

Hypomeiones – were those who failed the Agoge (educational system from 7years to 30 years) or could not maintain
their contributions to the Syssitia (mass halls)
Tresantes – those who had lost their citizenships through cowardice in war
Partheniai – were illegitimate children of Helot mothers and Spartiate fathers
Neodamodeis – Helots who had become freed men through services in war
Mothocles – sons of Helots who had been taken into Spartiate households as play companions for Spartiate children
and had subsequently shared in the training of the Agoge

Helots

Lowest strata of Spartan society and comprised up to 70% of the population, but had no political rights
They were not chattel slaves (as in Athens), but state owned Serfs (rural workers) bound to the land (each Kleros)
and could not be bought and sold (Theopompus)
There were occasions where they could be given freedom – near neodamodeis
Most Messenians were made Helots when their land was conquered by the Spartans
Helots worked alone and did most labour – thus freeing Spartiates from such work to concentrate on military
training and Spartan women from many household chores
They were entitled to a portion of what they produced
They were obliged to pay a fixed amount (possibly half) to the (Spartiates) owner of the Kleros they worked
(Tyrtateus)
Spartiate who took more than his entitlement of Helot produce was liable to be cursed in public
Helots lived in family units, some in separate communities
They were seen as having been part of the “Messenian Revolt” (7 th century BC) and were viewed with suspicion by
subsequent leaders (Pausanias)
Messianian helots were ‘traditionally’ seen as more troublesome than their Lykanian
counterpart vacancies
According to the ancient writer Critias, the Spartans took extra precautions due to vast numbers/extensive
population:
Removable arm bands on shields
Special locks
Always carried spar in fear of helot attack
According to Xenophon, Helots were;
Often publicly humiliated by their Spartan masters
Sometimes required to fight in foreign wars
Subject to random killing by the Kryptaeia, if found roaming at night
Could be selected for public beatings as an inducement to other Helots to behave
Have war declared on them each year by newly elected magistrates
Educational system: the agoge
“... their whole education was aimed at developing smart obedience, perseverance under stress
and victory in battle.” - Plutarch
- The aim of spartan education was to inculcate obedience to the values and ethos of the
Spartan state, acceptance of the status quo and to produce soldiers.
Birth - Examined by city elders at special spot called lesche.
- If healthy, it lived. If weak, thrown off a cliff.

Up to 7 - Young children were brought up by nurses who were

very harsh.

- If crying or sulking, the baby was left in a dark room

etc.
Age 7 - Boys were removed from their families.
- City appointed a paidonomos who had complete
authority over the boys and punished them if he felt
necessary.
- Paidonomos accompanied by men over 18 called
eirenes who carried whips

7-12 - Emphasis on athletic training and physical fitness.

- Only light tunics were worn and head was shaved.
- Boys were to walk in silence with head down.

13-18 - Discipline and training became more severe.

- Boys passed into ‘herds’ based on year groups.
- Looked after by eirenes.
- Taught traditional songs and they read Homer and
Spartan poets.
- Ate basic rations.
- Encouraged to steal food, but punished if caught.
- Baths were forbidden but permitted to bathe in cold
river Eurotas.

19-24 - A boy name became an eirene.

- Could be called upon to fight.
- Physical training and fitness remained paramount.
- State-promoted, controlled violence was not
uncommon.
- Magistrates selected 100 best young men. Such
selections led to violence and resentment.

24-30 - Young men were now eligible to be front line troops.

- The king’s select 300 knights would come from this
group.

30-60 - Each man was now a full citizen.

- Liable for military service if called upon by the state.
- Allowed to grow hair long.
- Man lived at home with wife and family.
- Expected to dine in Syssition

The agoge was the rigorous education and training program mandated for all male Spartan citizens.
○ Said to have been created by Lykurgus.
○ “Obedience was one of the chief characteristics of the classical Spartan.” – WELCH
○ The purpose of the agoge was the socialisation and development of values that served Sparta’s needs.
○ It also aimed to prepare the best possible warriors – with physical and mental preparation.
○ They were deliberately underfed to encourage self-sufficiency.
○ Physical preparation – phalanx tactics, endurance.
○ Mental preparation – courage, obedience, discipline.
○ “He emerged into manhood mentally and physically tough and hardened…” – MICHELL
○ “It was the intense discipline and training that allowed them to fight effectively…” – OBER
○ The system of education, training, and socialisation turned boys into fighting men whose reputation for discipline,
courage, and skill was unsurpassed.
○ Boys sung Tyrtaeus’ poetry to inspire aggression and patriotism.
○ The whole purpose of the education system was to develop “…smart obedience, perseverance under stress, and
victory in battle” – PLUTARCH

COMPOSITION
○ Structure:
- Thucydides says the organisation of the Spartan army was based on a row of 8 men deep.
- Xenophon says “the average row was 12 men deep.”
○ Hoplite: the most common type of heavily armed foot-soldiers in ancient Greece.
○ Spartan culture was a warrior community – reputation amongst other Greek polises based on pre-eminence at war
(Xenophon).
○ Education and training of Spartiates focused on their roles as hoplites in the phalanx.
○ “An honourable death is preferable to a dishonourable life.” – XENOPHON.
○ Fleeing the battlefield – loss of honour, become Tresante.
○ “Come back with your shield or on it.” – PLUTARCH
○ Cloth tunic covered by bronze breastplate.
○ Helmet made of thin bronze, often decorated with crest of horse hair. Had no earholes, would have been virtually
death on battlefield.
○ Bronze greaves for lower leg protection.
○ 3m long spear – thrusting not throwing.
○ Spartan army did not have cavalry or bows & arrows. “… arrows were regarded by the Spartans as the weapons of
the womanly and weak.” – CARTLEDGE
○ In war, the army was supplemented by perioikoi and lightly armoured helots.
○ “The commander should outclass his troops … in stamina and courage.” – AGESILAUS
○ Phalanx: Could be as many as 8 rows deep, and moving in formation, they were nearly unstoppable so long as their
rear and flanks were protected. The phalanx was perfect for combat on open ground or level terrain.

Retreat tactic: The retreat tactic can be seen in the Battle of Thermopylae, where a faked retreat was used to lure
the Persian immortals in the narrow parts of Thermopylae. The retreat was followed by a fast U-turn and
reformation of the wall of shields and a fast march against the opponent which had already lost its cohesion trying to
chase the retreating phalanx. That is the reason of the great number of Persian causalities. This tactic is sometimes
also referred to as the ‘anastrofi’ or ‘U-turn’.
“SPARTAN SANDWHICH”
Told to us by Herodotus.
○ Weaknesses of the Phalanx:
○ If the opponent concentrated their forces in one central point, they could break the shield wall.
○ The largest weakness inherent in the phalanx formation was in the weak flanks. Basically left unprotected, the
phalanx flanks were open to cavalry charges, artillery barrages and rushing hordes of enemy infantrymen.
○ The role of the Spartan Army:
○ Military – operating through the Peloponnesian League the Spartan army was responsible for the defence of
Sparta and her allies from any external threat whether it be Greek or Persian.
○ Civic – all warriors were citizens who made decisions about war and peace as members of the assembly.
○ Domestic – suppression of helots.
○ Economic – consumers of goods produced by produced by periokoi and helots.
○ Ideological – transmitters of military values, such as heroism, unity, loyalty, obedience, sacrifice.

 Control of the Helots:

o Military:

- Helots outnumbered the Spartiates greatly, which was not a sustainable ratio
- Herodotus estimated that the Helots outnumbered the Spartiates 7 to 1
- Through this, we can see why the Spartan military treated this as a massive threat
throughout the history of Sparta
 - The Spartiates kept control over the Helots by assigning them to a plot of land called a
Kleros
- This system kept them busy, and worked as a distraction from their poor conditions
- Even those who fought well for the Spartans could only ever ascend to the status of an
Inferior
- This often occurred during times of great military need when the Helots were conscripted
- The social structure kept them out of any real positions of power

o Krypteia:

- The Krypteia were the secret police, responsible for ensuring things didn’t escalate
- They did this by targeting the stronger, more intelligent and dangerous Helots who were
capable of leading a rebellion
- This practice developed later in the time period, after a few revolts had already happened
- Plutarch – “…by day they (members of the Krypteia) scattered into obscure places, where
they hid themselves and rested, but by night they went down the roads and killed any
Helots they caught…”
- “Often they made their way through the fields and killed the sturdiest and best of the
Helots…” – Plutarch
- This was intended to intimidate the weaker Helots into passive servitude, and eliminate the
threat of leaders rising to the fore
- Our evidence on the Krypteia is quite limited, however

o Syssitia:

- The Syssitia was a food hall mandated by Lycurgus to build comradeship

- The Helots were responsible for providing the food for the Spartan masters to contribute for
the Syssition
- Aristotle – “…at Sparta, every individual has to contribute, and as some of them are quite
poor and unable to meet the heavy expenditure, the result is the opposite of what the
legislator (Lycurgus) intended”
- Helots were given strict quotas they had to make to be able to produce enough food for the
Syssitia
- They would also have to have enough left over to feed themselves

 The Role & Status of Women:

o Education:

- Unlike the rest of the Greek world, Spartan girls were publicly educated
- Young girls were all expected to be educated by the state
- Their mothers taught them the basics of reading and writing
- The educational system also involved team games and choral singing
- They would have primarily sung the songs of Alcman, a Spartan Poet most famous for his
Maiden Songs
- This prepared girls for their religious roles, which involved special performances at festivals
and temples
- Many of these performances would have taken place in Artemis Orthia
- The education of girls was heavy on building physical strength
- Xenophon – “…he (Lycurgus) prescribed physical training for the female sex no less than
the male… thinking that if both parents were strong their children would be more robust”
- The most famous female exercise in Sparta was the Bibasis, which was like a jumping
squat
 - Spartan women’s equivalent of active wear was a dress called a Peplos, which was easy to
jump in

• Women were owned by their father and later on husband – kyrios (Lord)
• Had no public roles (administration/politics) – women’s place was in the home (oikos)
o But may have played a role behind the scenes – Gorgo (wise daughter) advised King Kleomenes
against a bribe (Herodotus)

Land ownership/inheritance

• The Kleros could be passed down within families and in cases where there was no son to inherit,
daughters would be heiresses
• Spartan women were able to acquire wealth – inheriting from fathers and husbands
• Upon marriage women would be able to tend both their husbands and their own land
• Women had responsibility for overseeing the running of the Klero in the absence of men at war
• They did not lose control of their inherited property after marriage
• Spartan emphasis on fitness meant even when Dowries were given, these became the property of the
bride
• In 4th century, 2/5 of land were in the hands of women (Aristotle)
• These were viewed by other Polis as too liberal and with men away and women controlling Kleroi,
some feared this would lead to Gynaikokratia (“government by women”) (Aristotle)
education
• Spartan girls were generally educated separately – presumably around the home (oikos)
• Girls lived at home with their mothers until marriage (around 18)
• They were forbidden to weave or spin – these were done by Helots
• Physical training included running and athletics – sometimes with boys in the Agoge (Plutarch)
• Whilst training, they were allowed to compete in the Gymnopaedia with Spartan youths
• Performed the Bibos – strenuous dance involving jumping and touching the buttocks with the heel
• Physical fitness was seen as essential to produce sons who would be warriors (Plutarch)
• Most specifically female festivals or ceremonies
• Spartan girls were renowned for their beauty, athleticism and independence – ridiculed Spartan boys
who were skinny and underdeveloped (Partheniai)
• Horse ownership and equestrian sports were among wealthy/high-class women
• Women could have horse-related names (eg. Eupolia = well horsed) 􀃆 was often flattering to be
compared to a horse (poet Alkan)
Motherhood
• Most valued as mothers of warriors
• Cult of Artemis Orthia – protectors of women in childbirth
• Maintained fitness to ensure healthy pregnancy and childbirth
• Women were encouraged to “exercise themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoit, and
casting the dart, to the end that the fruit they conceived might, in strong and healthy bodies, take
firmer root and find better growth… they, with this greater vigour, might be the more able to undergo
the pains of child-bearing” (Plutarch)
• Spartan babies weren’t restricted by swaddling clothes or irritable, whinny or afraid of the dark – also
weren’t fed “fussy” foods (Plutarch)
• Mothers promoted courage and obedience rather than soothe children’s fears
• Women were responsible for rearing children in early years until boys live in barracks from 7 years
• Mothers can shame and sometimes kill sons who had shown cowardice/disgrace in battle (Pausanias)
• “Spartans value motherhood so highly that there were only two ways a Spartan would receive their
name on a gravestone: death in battle or death in childbirth” (Xenophon)
• despite high status given to motherhood and policies encourage larger families, women had a low
birth rate 􀃆 perhaps with the freedom they enjoyed they did not want to sacrifice for child rearing
• “wife lending” – women could have intercourse with males in order to produce healthy children
(Xenophon) 􀃆 demonstrates how the state is more important than individual
o these children belonged to the state rather than biological parents
• Upon birth, the Ephors would examine the child and determine whether they were allowed to live or
would be left at Mt Taygetos to die
o Infanticide was done privately by other Greek states however Spartan women had no say

Spartan weddings

• Marriage was a crucial rite of passage for Greek women

o Was every woman’s social and anatomical destiny
• Only between 2 Spartans was it deemed legal
• Was considered the perquisite to having children
• Courting 􀃆 husband would approach nubile women’s fathers
o Women without fathers were looked after by the kings
• Women were ready for marriage once they had reached puberty (13/14) 􀃆 normal Greek age
o However Plutarch argues that it happened later at about 18-20 (men were about 25)
• After 500BC it was the law that all men should marry
• Dowries existed at the latest by end of 5th century (Pomeroy) 􀃆 helped to increase the wealth of
families and impoverish others
o A wife with no dowry may have ended up as a spinster
o Fiancés of Lysander’s daughters attempted to renege on the wedding when they discovered
the daughters were poor
• Marriage was often a bleak ritual; “symbolic and ritualised rape”
• Was abducted in the night by her suitor and conveyed to the home of her husband
• Preparation began with cutting the woman’s hair and was to maintain the length closed to cropped
o Women could be forced to where a veil in public (contrast to males who had long hair)
o Plutarch said that the head was shaved
• She was clothed simply; men’s clothing and a simple belt to aid the man’s swift unveiling
• Marriages were kept secret until the wife fell pregnant (Pomeroy)
• Would from then on, meet her husband mostly for procreative reasons
• Men who married under 30 years (generally common) were still part of the agoge and 􀀿 lived in
barracks 􀃆 would need to sneak during the night to see their wives
• Children who came from parents who lusted each other were perceived as stronger to those coming
from parents who frequently saw each other (Xenophon)
• The first years of marriage at Sparta may have been meant to teach the wives and husbands to see
each other mainly as sexual partners and to produce a merely a canine affection (George
Orwell)

3. The Economy:

 Land Ownership:

o Agriculture:

- Spartans who weren’t in the barracks were on the Kleros

- This was the source of their worth, as the land was used agriculturally
- This meant that Spartiate men didn’t need to earn income
- It also meant that Sparta didn’t need to import necessities i.e. food, clothing material etc.
 - The food from a Spartan man’s Kleros was to gain access to the Syssitia
- Contribution of food was essential to being part of the Homoioi

o Helots:

- The food that Spartan men contributed was grown by the Helots
- They were the primary agricultural workers
- They were assigned by the state to a particular Kleros
- They survived on the surplus of the crops they grew
- All trade was in agricultural produce, because Helots could not be bought or sold

o System of Kleroi:

- The system of Kleroi was organised so the state granted the Kleroi to Spartans upon birth
- “Lycurgus persuaded the citizens to pool all the land and then redistribute it afresh” –
Plutarch
- “Then they would live on equal terms with one another, with the same amount of property to
support each…” – Plutarch
- The ideal of equality as we can see through this was important to Sparta
- As society progressed, this system appears to unravel
- “The land has come into possession of a small number… for their lawgiver (Lycurgus)… left
it open for anyone to transfer land by gift or behest” – legal loop hole
- In a world with no internal economy, land became a very valuable form of currency
- “Moreover, something like two-fifths of all the land is possessed by women” – Aristotle
(sexist)
- Toward the end of society, the population of Spartan men is in decline
- This often meant that there were no men to tend the land, so it was managed by women
- In Sparta, women could inherit land, but couldn’t own it
- The historian Pomeray stated that women also gained control over land through their
dowries, that they maintained possession of through their marriage
- Dowry – land possessed through marriage
- Reliability of Aristotle is little, due to his Athenian bias

 Technology:

 Technology was primarily in the form of pottery and metal goods, notably bronze produced by
Perioikoi
 This was the backbone of the Spartan Economy
 These manufactured goods both supplied the Spartans and traded abroad
 Trade in the Mediterranean Sea boosted wealth and cultural exchange
 Perioikoi played a very important economic role here

o Bronze:

- Bronze was used to make both weapons and armor

- Bronze-making was one of the most important industries in the economy
- In Laconia (where the Perioikoi lived), plenty of Iron ore was supplied
- They also imported Copper and Tin to make Bronze
- Laconian bronze-makers beat the sheet of Bronze to form larger vessels e.g. Kraters
(cauldrons)
- The Vix Krater – c. 500BCE
- They would also pour molten Bronze into casts or molds to make smaller objects
- This technique was used to make many Lead objects as well
- Votive Offerings to Artemis Orthia (Lead) c. 600BCE (evidence)
 - The Spartan Hoplites’ armor was made by Perioikoi
- The armor included a bronze Corinthian helmet, topped with horse hair to make them
appear taller
- A bronze breastplate was sculpted to resemble chest muscles, which were later rejected in
the late 5th Century
- They were replaced with thick, linen breastplates, which were cheaper and easier to make
- The Hoplon shield was usually made of wood with a bronze sheet on the outside face
- They were around 1 metre in diameter, and were used to protect the Phalanx Formation in
the army
- Their legs were covered with greaves, acting as shin-guards
- They were armed with a wooden spear, around 3-metres long, with a bronze spear point
- They were also often equipped with a short sword, made of either iron or bronze, and was
used as a backup weapon

o Pottery:

- Pottery was also made by the Perioikoi

- Laconian pottery was rather famous, being exported all across Greece, the Mediterranean
and Italy
- There was plenty of clay in the Peloponnese to supply this industry
- Smaller vessels like Kylix cups were probably made on a pottery wheel
- Larger vessels like Kraters and Amphorae were probably hand-made
- The decoration of the pots reflect Spartiate interests like military life, hunting, horse riding,
religious festivals, banqueting and natural images i.e. birds, plants etc.
- This enriches the vision of Spartan society
- The tradition of decorated pots seems to finish at the end of 6 th Century BCE
- Arkesilas Cup – Laconian Pottery c. 580BCE
- Kylix – a Spartan drinking cup
- This Kylix features King Arkesilas II of Cyrene, in Africa
- He is seen watching, weighing and packing Silphion, a medicinal plant product
- This piece of pottery tells us the Perioikoi may have traded as far as Africa

 Economic Exchange:

o Iron Bars:

- According to both Plutarch and Xenophon, Lycurgus banned gold and silver coins
- This was done to implement Eunomia (good order)
- All necessities were provided by the Perioikoi, everything else being considered excessive
- Lycurgus replaced coins with Iron Bars, which were designed to be inconvenient
- “…For who would rob another of such a coin?” – Plutarch
- He says they were of “great weight and quantity of which was very little worth”
- Xenophon says that iron was used as a barrier against greed and the pursue of money over
the nation
- Iron couldn’t be used to purchase foreign or luxury goods, only necessities from the
Perioikoi
- Figueira (modern historian) says there were actually two Spartan economies: the Ideal of
Iron Bars and the Reality of Coinage (black market)
o Trade:

- There is plenty of evidence of commercial relations with the Mediterranean, even extending
as far as France
- The Port of Gytheum was the main trading port for the Perioikoi
- It was located on a coast of the Peloponnese, 46km from Sparta
 - The waters near Gytheum also had shellfish and murex (used to make yellow dye)
- Perioikoi traded their main goods from here: pottery, bronze work, wool, wine and oil
- The Vix Krater got its name from the French town where it was found, Vix
- The Krater could hold up to 1,100L of wine
- The pottery art depicts Hoplites and chariots, showing fusion between military and art
- Off the coast of Italy, there is a tiny island called Giglio
- This is where the Giglio shipwrecks was found, from around the Archaic period (c. 600BCE)
- Archaeologists believe the ship is Etruscan, probably from around Tuscany at the time
- The ship contained Laconian pottery and bronze work, including perfume, mugs and bowls
- This shows how the Perioikoi underpinned the entire economy

Religion, Death & Burial:

 Gods & Goddesses:

 Like most of the Greek world, Sparta had the pantheon of 12 Olympian Gods
 These gods had to adapt to the military ethos of the Spartans
 Some gods changed, while others simply weren’t worshipped
 Zeus was the divine founder while Athena was the military significance
 The main focus was on Artemis Orthia, Poseidon and Apollo

o Artemis Orthia:

- The Spartans combined the Athenian god Artemis with older god Orthia to get this hybrid
- She was the goddess of childbirth, fertility and hunting
- By combining Artemis with the older goddess Orthia, the Spartans could better reflect their
unique society in their religion
- She was represented as important in producing strong children
- Major cult centre: the Temple of Artemis Orthia
- Thousands of votive offerings to this goddess have been found here

o Poseidon:

- He was the God of the Sea and Earthquakes

- The Peloponnese was surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, and the Spartans were
weak seafarers
- Earthquakes were common in the region, with 464BCE and 387BCE quakes perceived as
punishments
- He had several sanctuaries, including the Temple at Cape Taenaron

o Apollo:

- He was the God of Light, Music and Order

- He was especially revered in Sparta, with 3 major festivals dedicated to him
- Pausanias tells us that a bronze statue of Apollo stood at the temple of Apollo at
Amyclae

o Miscellaneous Gods:
 - Zeus:

 He was worshipped in two farms in Sparta – Zeus Uranius, King of the Skies, and Zeus
Lakedaimonius, Patron of Lakedaimon
 The Two Kings of Sparta were the chief priests of Zeus

- Athena:

 In Sparta, she was in the form of Athena Chalkioikos of the Bronze House
 Athena – Athens, so she wasn’t a major cult in Sparta
 She’s an inherently militant god, so she was embraced for her militancy
 She is linked to the Temple of Athena of the Bronze House, named after its bronze doors

 Myths & Legends:

o Lycurgus:

- Lycurgus is more important as an idea than a man

- It’s unlikely that he did all the things attributed to him if he was a real man
- He was the basis of legitimacy due to him allegedly being given the Great Rhetra by the
Oracle at Delphi
- He is an example of an Etiological Myth (a myth that explains an origin)

o Dioscuri:

- They were mythical town princes named Castor and Polydevces

- The stories around these two vary, but they all function as founding myths for Sparta
- White Marble Relief – late 16th Century BCE, shows twins standing next to each other,
highlighting athletic physique
- They stayed relevant because of the focus on young men, athletics, horsemanship and
warfare

 Religious Festivals:

 Religion is where we see the Spartans assign importance to something other than the military
 The Battle of Marathon on 490BCE – Spartans refused to help Athens fight against the Persians
because they were preoccupied by their own religious festival (Karneia)
 Religions still fit within the military paradigm, however
 The festivals were a way of reconfirming their military values, giving legitimacy to the military order
 Festivals also had practical purposes, such as ensuring good fortune and appeasing the gods etc.

o Hyakinthia:

- The Hyakinthia was dedicated to the god Apollo

- The story goes that Apollo accidently killed his gay lover Hyakinthos with a magic discus
- Hyakinthos’ body was buried under the Amyklaeon (Temple of Apollo), where the festival
was held after that
- Hyakinthos was brought back to life by Apollo in the form of the Hyacinth flower
- The Hyakinthia was held over three days in the early summer
- It was held at the Amyklaeon, which was in Amyclae, 5km south of Sparta
- The Hyakinthia can be broken down into three stages:

1. There was a special funeral meal, meant to commemorate Hyakinthos

 2. There was of ritual mourning, involving mournful religious dances and rites of sorrow
3. The Spartans emerged back into the start of a new cycle of the summer, seen as a
celebration of life
4. A rejoicing in honour of Apollo, included the wearing of wreaths and a communal
feast

- Herodotus – “their chief concern was to give the god his due”
- According to Hooker (modern historian), the Hyakinthia was a festival for the dead
combined with a thanksgiving for life

o Gymnopaedia:

- The Gymnopaedia focused on exerting athletic ability through naked war-dancing

- According to Pausanias, this was “the most solemn of all Laconian festivals”
- It served to reinforce the importance and seriousness of the Spartan army (specifically for
young boys)
- Oswyn Murray (modern historian) says that the Gymnopaedia commemorated a military
loss at the Battle of Hysiae in 669BC
- In later years, the festival became associated with averting evil and appeasing the gods
- The Gymnopaedia was held during the summer, and involved athletic competitions and
displays, as well as musical performances for all age groups
- These activities reinforced the social structure and military ethos of Sparta
- There were strict seating arrangements for the different classes of Sparta and different ages
of Spartiates
- Inferiors were neglected from the Gymnopaedia or were the focus of humiliation

o Karneia:

- The Karneia was a harvest festival with prophetic overtones

- Karnos was a ram-god from very early in Sparta, who was combined with Apollo to form
Apollo Karneios
- Apollo Karneios was a god seen as responsible for giving good omens in Sparta
- The origins of the festival are unknown, but they are tied to the early history of Sparta
- The festival was held over nine days, with the most famous activity held being the footrace,
where one young Spartiate ran ahead and was chased by other unmarried Spartiates
- If the men caught the front-runner, it was considered a good omen
- If he escaped, however, it was seen as a bad omen
- These 9 days were also a time for pacifism for the Spartans – they weren’t allowed to fight
during this time (the Battle of Marathon)

o The Cult of Artemis Orthia:

- Festival involved various rites of passage, including a cheese-stealing festival

- Xenophon said that boys in the Agoge were forced to steal cheese from the altar while
being whipped naked
- The idea behind this was to build military endurance and please Artemis Orthia

 Funerary Customs & Rituals:

o Death in Sparta:

- Traditionally, the ancient Greeks were not big fans of death

- For them, death brought evil spirits and bad omens
- Part of Lycurgus’ reforms included getting rid of “superstition” – Plutarch
 - Instead, he embedded death as a natural, even beautiful, aspirational part of Spartan life
- This is something that separates Sparta from other Greek cities at the time
- It was also another way of strengthening the military ethos, so if you don’t fear death, you’ll
fight harder
- Tyrtaeus – “it is a beautiful thing when a good man dies fighting for his fatherland”
- This shows that death was actually celebrated in Sparta

o Burial Practices:

- Burial was always done within the city walls of Sparta

- This was rare for Greek cities, as placed like Athens would bury them outside the city to
keep the spirits away
- Plutarch tells us that the bodies if warriors who died in battle or women who died in
childbirth were the only ones who were given marked graves
- These graves were marked by Amphorae
- Laconian Amphora, Grave Marker, 7th Century BCE, depicts hunting and military scenes
- Everyone else had nameless, unmarked graves

o Funerary Customs:

- The only public funerals we know about were for the Two Kings: Agiad and Eurypontid
- Herodotus – “when one of their kings dies, not only the Spartans, but a certain number of
country people (Perioikoi and Helots) from every part of Laconia are forced to attend the
funeral”
- “If a King dies in battle, then they make a statue of him, and placing it upon a couch… carry
it to the grave”
- “After the burial, by the space of ten days there is no assembly, nor do they elect
magistrates, but continue mourning the whole time”
- Throughout the mourning process, women walked through the street beating cauldrons
- It was also mandatory for one man and one woman from each household to dress for
mourning
- Crowds of Spartiates, Helots and Perioikoi would gather to strike their heads and wail
(public displays of mourning)
- This tells us that the death and ritual customs in Sparta were an extremely ritualized and
organised process
- It brought the people closer to their gods, while also serving a practical purpose
- The strict structure of the customs meant death reinstated and strengthened the system,
rather than weaken it