..... A Total Solution For Educational Lab Trainers: Operational Amplifier Trainer Kit KMS-620N

.....
a total solution for

Educational Lab Trainers
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
TRAINER KIT
KMS-620N
B-4,Lotus C.H.S., Near P&MC. Bank, Plot No. 8,

Sector-7, Airoli, Navi Mumbai - 400 708.
Tel.: 022-65116548 / Telefax : 27694323
Email: [email protected]
W e b s i t e : w w w. k i t e k t e c h n o l o g i e s . c o m
KMS-620N OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER TRAINER KIT
SPECIFICATION
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER TRAINER KIT
 Sine wave Generator
- Output Waveform - SINE

- Frequency and Amplitude Adjustment is provided using Potentiometers
- Selection of Frequency range (20Hz to 200 KHz) is possible through switch.
 Display
- One LED indicator to indicate Power Input.
 On-board Circuits
- Offset null
- 741 op-amp
- Resistor Bank
- Capacitor Bank
- Zener Diode
- Diode
- 20 pin Socket.
 Power Supply
- Supply connections to OP Amp (± 12 V) Internally Provided to the circuit

- Fixed ± 12V DC Supply
- Variable Power Supply : 0-30V/500mA
 Interconnections
- All interconnections are made using 2mm banana Patch cords.
 Bare board Tested Glass Epoxy PCB is used.

 Supply Input Voltage: 230V AC.
 Attractive ABS Plastic Enclosure.
 Set of 2mm Patch cords for interconnections
 User’s Manual
-1-
BLOCK DESCRIPTION
-2-
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER TRAINER-KMS – 620N is divided into different BLOCKS for the
benefit of user. The different blocks are as explained below.
SINE WAVE GENERATOR SECTION:

This Trainer has onboard SINE WAVE Generator. Two Potentiometers are provided to support
adjustments in the frequency and amplitude of sine wave. The Frequency of Sine can be varied
from the Frequency adjust pot. The Amplitude of sine can be varied by Amplitude adjust pot.
POWER SUPPLY SECTION:

In this section, the trainer is provided with on-board Various Power Supplies as described below
1. Fixed DC power supply : + 12 V/ 1A

2. Fixed DC power supply : - 12 V/ 1A
3. Variable Power Supply : 0-30V/500mA
4. Supply connections to OP Amp (± 12 V) is Internally Provided to the circuit
OFFSET NUL SECTION:

This Trainer has onboard circuit for Off-set Null. Offset null is done by Internal offset Null
adjustment (using offset pins) method. Internal connections of various Pins of Op-Amp are
below.
Pin No. 1 of Op-Amp is internally connected to T16, Pin 5 to T17, Pin 2 to T10, Pin 3 to T13 and
Pin 6 to T30. A variable Pot of 10 KΩ is provided which is to be connected to T16 and T17 in
External Offset Nulling Method.
OP-AMP 741 SECTION:

This Trainer has onboard circuit for op-amp 741. Internal connections of various Pins of Op-Amp
are as below.
Pin No. 2 of Op-Amp is connected to T35 & T36 through 1KΩ Resistor; Pin no. 3 is connected to
T37 & T38 through 1KΩ Resistor and Pin 6 is connected to T39 & T40 via 1KΩ Resistor.
RESISTOR BANK SECTION:

This Trainer has onboard Resistor Bank for various experiments, by using OP-AMP. This resistor
bank consists of various values of resistors such as (5K6, 4K7, 10K, 1K, 100K, 220K, 2K2).
CAPACITOR BANK SECTION:

This Trainer has onboard Capacitor Bank for various experiments, by using OP-AMP. This
capacitor bank consists of various values of capacitors such as (0.01µf, 0.1 µf, 0.02 µf).
ZENER DIODE SECTION:

This Trainer has onboard zener diode. Zener diode Z5V1 is provided on board.
DIODE SECTION:
This Trainer has onboard Diode. Diodes IN4007 & IN4148 are provided on board.
BREAD BOARD AREA:

This Trainer provides a bread board area of 830 TIE points in combination of 2 terminal strips of
200 TIE points and 630 TIE points in distribution points
20 PIN IC SOCKET:
This Trainer provides on-board 20 Pin Socket to study function of any 8 pin to 20 pin Linear IC’s.
The Pin terminations of this socket are provided in 2mm Banana Socket for user application.
-3-
INTRODUCTION
OP AMP (IC-741):
An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with

a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. An op-amp produces an output voltage
that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage difference between its input
terminals.
The operational amplifier (op-amp) was designed to perform mathematical operations. Although
now superseded by the digital computer, op-amps are a common feature of modern analog
electronics.
The op-amp is constructed from several transistor stages, which commonly include a differential
input stage, an intermediate-gain stage and a push-pull output stage. The differential amplifier
consists of a matched pair of bipolar transistors or FETs. The push-pull amplifier transmits a large
current to the load and hence has small output impedance.
The op-amp is a linear amplifier with Vout α Vinp. The DC open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-
amp is 103 to 106. The gain is so large that most often feedback is used to obtain a specific
transfer function and control the stability.
Cheap IC versions of operational amplifiers are readily available, making their use popular in any
analog circuit. The cheap models operate from DC to about 20 kHz, while the high-performance
models operate up to 50 MHz. A popular device is the 741 op-amp. It is usually available as an IC
in an 8-pin dual in-line package (DIP).
OFFSET NULL:
Input offset voltage is the amount of voltage that should be applied between two input terminals of
Op Amp to bring or to force OUTPUT voltage to zero. This is due to mismatch of two input stage
transistors of an Op-amp. Practically it is not possible to produce two transistors of exact
characteristics.
PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 741:
CIRCUIT NOTATION:
The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown as above, where:

 V+: non-inverting input
-4-
 V−: inverting input

 Vout : output
 VS+: positive power supply
 VS−: negative power supply
OPERATION:
Fig. An op-amp without negative feedback (a comparator)

The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a non-inverting input (+) with voltage V+ and an
inverting input (–) with voltage V−; ideally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage
between the two, which is called the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-
amp Vout is given by the equation:
Where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier (the term "open-loop" refers to the absence
of a feedback loop from the output to the input).
OPEN LOOP:
The magnitude of AOL is typically very large—100,000 or more for integrated circuit op-
amps—and therefore even a quite small difference between V+ and V− drives the amplifier
output nearly to the supply voltage. Situations in which the output voltage is equal to or
greater than the supply voltage are referred to as saturation of the amplifier. The magnitude
of AOL is not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an
operational amplifier as a stand-alone differential amplifier.
Without negative feedback, and perhaps with positive feedback for regeneration, an op-amp
acts as a comparator. If the inverting input is held at ground (0 V) directly or by a resistor Rg,
and the input voltage Vin applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be
maximum positive; if Vin is negative, the output will be maximum negative. Since there is no
feedback from the output to either input, this is an open loop circuit acting as a comparator.
The circuit's gain is just the AOL of the op-amp.
CLOSED LOOP:
Fig. An op-amp with negative feedback (a non-inverting amplifier)
-5-
If predictable operation is desired, negative feedback is used, by applying a portion of the

output voltage to the inverting input. The closed loop feedback greatly reduces the gain of
the circuit. When negative feedback is used, the circuit's overall gain and response becomes
determined mostly by the feedback network, rather than by the op-amp characteristics. If the
feedback network is made of components with values small relative to the op amp's input
impedance, the value of the op-amp's open loop response AOL does not seriously affect the
circuit's performance. The response of the op-amp circuit with its input, output, and feedback
circuits to an input is characterized mathematically by a transfer function; designing an op-
amp circuit to have a desired transfer function is in the realm of electrical engineering. The
transfer functions are important in most applications of op-amps, such as in analog
computers. High input impedance at the input terminals and low output impedance at the
output terminal(s) are particularly useful features of an op-amp.
In the non-inverting amplifier on the right, the presence of negative feedback via the voltage
divider Rf, Rg determines the closed-loop gain ACL = Vout / Vin. Equilibrium will be established
when Vout is just sufficient to "reach around and pull" the inverting input to the same voltage
as Vin. The voltage gain of the entire circuit is thus 1 + Rf/Rg. As a simple example, if Vin =
1 V and Rf = Rg, Vout will be 2 V, exactly the amount required to keep V− at 1 V. Because of
the feedback provided by the Rf, Rg network, this is a closed loop circuit.
Another way to analyze this circuit proceeds by making the following (usually valid)
assumptions
 When an op-amp operates in linear (i.e., not saturated) mode, the difference in
voltage between the non-inverting (+) pin and the inverting (−) pin is negligibly small.
 The input impedance between (+) and (−) pins is much larger than other resistances
in the circuit.
The input signal Vin appears at both (+) and (−) pins, resulting in a current i through Rg equal
to Vin/Rg.
Since Kirchhoff's current law states that the same current must leave a node as enter it, and
since the impedance into the (−) pin is near infinity, we can assume practically all of the
same current i flows through Rf, creating an output voltage
By combining terms, we determine the closed-loop gain ACL:
OP-AMP CHARACTERISTICS:
IDEAL OP-AMPS:
Fig. An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier

-6-
An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties:

 Infinite open-loop gain G = vout / 'v in
 Infinite input impedance Rin, and so zero input current
 Zero input offset voltage
 Infinite voltage range available at the output
 Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite slew rate
 Zero output impedance Rout
 Zero noise
 Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
 Infinite Power supply rejection ratio.
These ideals can be summarized by the two "golden rules":
I. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage difference
between the inputs zero.
II. The inputs draw no current.
The first rule only applies in the usual case where the op-amp is used in a closed-loop
design (negative feedback, where there is a signal path of some sort feeding back from the
output to the inverting input). These rules are commonly used as a good first approximation
for analyzing or designing op-amp circuits.
None of these ideals can be perfectly realized. A real op-amp may be modeled with non-
infinite or non-zero parameters using equivalent resistors and capacitors in the op-amp
model. The designer can then include these effects into the overall performance of the final
circuit. Some parameters may turn out to have negligible effect on the final design while
others represent actual limitations of the final performance that must be evaluated.
-7-
EXPERIMENT- 1
AIM OF EXPERIMENT:
TO STUDY METHOD OF ELIMINATING OFFSET VOLTAGE OF AN OP AMP
CONCEPT:
Input offset voltage is the amount of voltage that should be applied between two input terminals of
Op Amp to bring or to force OUTPUT voltage to zero. This is due to mismatch of two input stage
transistors of an Op-amp. Practically it is not possible to produce two transistors of exact
characteristics.
Output voltage without any Input (zero Input) may vary from piece to piece and polarity may be
+ve or –ve. Input offset voltage Vio may vary from piece to piece of same type but it will always be
less than maximum value specified by manufacturer.
Output offset Voltage Voo can be reduced to zero with the help of a circuit / network at the input
terminals of an op Amp. This circuit at input must be flexible of obtaining Vio of suitable polarity &
amplitude. Such circuit is termed as offset voltage compensating network. Without any input it
is possible to bring the OP Amp Output to zero by compensating network, when Op-Amp is said
to be nulled or balanced.
Some of the Op-Amps are provided with null pins & thus requires no other compensating network.
For IC 741 Op-Amp pin 1 & 5 are brought out as Null pins to which a 10 K potentiometer is to be
connected (recommended by manufacturer) & wiper (variable point) of potentiometer is to be
connected to the –ve supply of an Op-Amp.
By varying wiper of potentiometer, zero voltage at the Output of an Op-Amp is obtained. This
method may be called as internal offset adjustment. For most practical applications the offset
voltage is too small to bother and in that case just keep these input pins open.
Use of compensating network at Input terminal is external to the device & may be called as
external offset adjustment. Compensating network consists of a potentiometer P & resistance Ra
& Rb. Compensating network should be connected to non inverting Input when Op Amp is used as
inverting amplifier. Potentiometer P is adjusted to bring the Output voltage zero to obtain op amp
null. Component values of compensating network are required to be calculated to obtain desired
range of input offset voltage specified by amp manufacture. Any Op amp can be used efficiently
only after nulling.
PROCEDURE:
Note: Supply (+/-12V) for Op-Amp is internally provided.
Internal offset Null adjustment (using offset pins)
1. Connect the AC Supply to the Kit.

2. Connect T17 to T18 of Variable Pot P1.
3. Connect T16 to T20 of Variable Pot P1.
4. Connect T19 of Variable Pot P1 to Post -12 V of Fixed DC Supply.
5. Connect T23 of Resistor Bank to inverting Terminal of Op-amp T10.
6. Connect T1 & T6 of Resistor Bank to GND.
7. Select a multimeter in voltmeter mode and connect +ve to T30 and –ve to GND.
8. Switch ON the power.
9. Adjust potentiometer P1 to obtain zero voltage on voltmeter. Output zero condition is the
actual balanced or null condition of an op-Amp.
10. Now the Op-Amp is ready to work as an amplifier. This internal offset nulling can be
applicable to voltage follower.
-8-
CONCLUSION:
 Offset Null can be achieved by using offset pins (Internal from Op-Amp) or by external
compensating network.
 Offset nulling is possible for both inverting & non inverting amplifiers.
 Either external network or internal offset nulling can be applied for both inverting & non
inverting Op-amps as shown above.
-9-
EXPERIMENT- 2
AIM OF EXPERIMENT
TO STUDY AND TEST INVERTING DC AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
THEORY:
The input signal is applied at the inverting input of the op-amp and output signal is in reversal
phase. In this mode the op-amp works as an inverting amplifier.
PROCEDURE:
Note: 1. Supply (+/-12V) for Op-Amp is internally provided.

2. T6 &T7 are Ground (GND) when connected to GND of Sine Generator

2. Connect 0-30V of the Variable DC Power supply section (0-30V) to Inverting Terminal of
the Op-amp T2.
3. Connect non inverting Terminal of OP-AMP T6 to GND of Variable DC supply.
4. Connect Feedback resistor T23 to T10 from resistor bank.
5. Select a multimeter in voltmeter mode and connect +ve to T30 and –ve to GND
7. Adjust the Input Voltage as per the Table 2.1 and observe the O/P at T30 on multimeter
8. Repeat the above procedure with feedback resistance of 4.7K in place of 1K i.e. T22 to T10
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Input Volts Output Volts Output Volts when

when Rf=1K Rf= 4..7K
0
+0.5
+1.0
+1.5
+2.0
+2.5
Table 2.1
Vout
Calculate Gain = ---------- and
Vin
Rf
Verify, Gain = - ------
Ri
CONCLUSION:
 Input voltage is inverted at the Output.

 Gain of the amplifier depends on feedback resistance divided by Input resistance.
 Inverting Amplifier changes sign of Input and its amplitude can be controlled by feedback
resistance.
 Circuit can be used as Multiplier or Divisor by manipulating the Ratio Rf/Ri, feedback
resistance by Input resistance
- 10 -
TO STUDY AND TEST INVERTING AC AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
PROCEDURE:

2. Connect Sine Generator output Sine Output to Inverting Terminal of the Op-amp T2
3. Connect non inverting Terminal of OP-AMP T6 to GND of Variable DC supply.
4. Connect Channel 1 of CRO to T2 and Channel 2 of CRO to T30 and GND of CRO to GND.
5. Connect Feedback resistor T23 to T10 from resistor bank..
7. Apply a signal of 1 KHz, 5Vpp sine to input of circuit.
8. Observe Input & Output Waveforms.
9. Verify that the output signal is inverted.
CONCLUSION:
 Output signal is inverted as compared to the input signal.
- 11 -
EXPERIMENT- 3
AIM OF EXPERIMENT:
TO STUDY AND TEST DC NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
THEORY:
The input signal is applied at the non-inverting input of the op-amp and output signal is in phase
with the input signal. In this mode no current flows into either input of amplifier and both are at
equal potential.
PROCEDURE:

2. Connect 0-30V of the Variable DC Power supply section (0-30V) to non Inverting
Terminal of the Op-amp T6.
3. Connect inverting Terminal of OP-AMP T2 to GND of Variable DC supply.
4. Connect Feedback resistor T23 to T10 from resistor bank.
7. Adjust the Input Voltage as per the Table 3.1 and observe the O/P at T30 on multimeter
8. Repeat the above procedure with feedback resistance of 4.7K in place of 1K i.e. T22 to T10
OBSERVATION TABLE:
InputVolts Output Volts Output Volts

when Rf = 1K when Rf = 4.7K
0
+0.5
+1.0
+1.5
+2.0
+2.5
Table 2.1
Vout
Calculate Gain = ---------- and
Vin
Rf
Verify, Gain = 1+ ------
Ri
CONCLUSION:
 Gain of the amplifier depends on feedback resistance divided by Input resistance.

 Circuit can be used as Multiplier or Divisor by manipulating the Ratio Rf/Ri, feedback
resistance by Input resistance
- 12 -
TO STUDY AND TEST NON- INVERTING AC AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
PROCEDURE:

2. Connect Sine Generator output Sine Output to non Inverting Terminal of the Op-amp T6
3. Connect inverting Terminal of OP-AMP T2 to GND of Variable DC supply.
4. Connect Channel 1 of CRO to T6 and Channel 2 of CRO to T30 and GND of CRO to GND.
5. Connect Feedback resistor T23 to T10 from resistor bank..
9. Verify that the output signal is inverted.
CONCLUSION:
 Output signal is inverted as compared to the input signal.
- 13 -
EXPERIMENT- 4
AIM OF EXPERIMENT:
TO STUDY AND TEST OP-AMP AS VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
THEORY:
When the output voltage of op-amp is equal and in phase with the input voltage, it is known as
voltage follower.
This is a voltage follower or buffer amplifier circuit, where the output is simply equal to the input.
The advantage of this circuit is that the op-amp can provide current and power gain; the op-amp
draws almost no current from the input. It provides low output impedance to any circuit using the
output of the follower, meaning that the output will not drop under load. The load is a 1k resistor in
this case; the op-amp provides all the current needed to drive the load, without requiring any
current from the input
PROCEDURE:

2. Connect Sine Generator output Sine Output to non inverting terminal of op-amp T38.
3. Connect inverting terminal of op-amp T35 to GND.
4. Connect feedback resistor T40 to T36.
5. Connect Channel 1 of CRO to T38, Channel 2 to T39 and GND to GND.
8. Observe the output and input waveform on the both the channels of CRO and it can show a
voltage follower circuit.
CONCLUSION:
 Output signal is simply equal to the input signal.

 Output voltage follows Input Voltage.
- 14 -
EXPERIMENT- 5
AIM OF EXPERIMENT:
TO STUDY AND TEST INVERTING ADDER / SUMMER CIRCUIT
THEORY:
The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit based upon the standard Inverting Operational
Amplifier configuration that can be used for combining multiple inputs. If we add more input
resistors to the input, each equal in value to the original input resistor, we end up with another
operational amplifier circuit called a Summing Amplifier, "summing inverter" or even a "voltage
adder" circuit as shown below.
A summing amplifier sums several (weighted) voltages:
 When , and independent
 When
PROCEDURE:

2. Connect +Ve of External Variable Supply to T1 of Resistor Bank, -Ve to GND & Set it to 5V.
This voltage is V1.
3. Simlarly Connect +Ve of another External Variable Supply to T2 of Resistor Bank, -Ve to
GND. This voltage is V2.
4. Connect non inverting Terminal of op-amp T6 to GND.
5. Connect feedback resistor of 1K i.e T21 to T10.
8. Adjust the input voltage at T2 as per the Table Below and observe the Output at T30 on a
Voltmeter.
9. Measure and record the OUTPUT on voltmeter. Observe the polarities of input and OUTPUT
voltages carefully.
- 15 -
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Input1 Input2 OUTPUT Volts

Volts (V1) Volts (V2) (V1+V2)
5V 0V
5V 1V
5V 2V
5V 3V
5V 4V
5V 5V
Table-5.1
Note: Maximum output range is 10 V.
CONCLUSION:
 Above observation table shows that OUTPUT is the sum of input voltages at Input1 &
Input2 with Inverting Polarity.
- 16 -
EXPERIMENT- 6
AIM OF EXPERIMENT:
TO STUDY AND TEST NON-INVERTING ADDER / SUMMER CIRCUIT
THEORY:
The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit based upon the standard Inverting Operational
Amplifier configuration that can be used for combining multiple inputs. If we add more input
resistors to the input, each equal in value to the original input resistor, we end up with another
operational amplifier circuit called a Summing Amplifier, "summing inverter" or even a "voltage
adder" circuit as shown below.
A summing amplifier sums several (weighted) voltages:
 When , and independent
 When
PROCEDURE:

2. Connect +Ve of External Variable Supply to T6 of Resistor Bank, -Ve to GND & Set it to 5V.
This voltage is V1.
3. Similarly Connect +Ve of another External Variable Supply to T7 of Resistor Bank, -Ve to
4. Connect inverting Terminal of op-amp T1 to GND.
8. Adjust the input voltage at T2 as per the Table Below and observe the Output at T30 on a
Voltmeter.
9. Measure and record the OUTPUT on voltmeter. Observe the polarities of input and OUTPUT
voltages carefully.
- 17 -
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Volts (V1) Volts (V2) (V1+V2)
5V 0V
5V 1V
5V 2V
5V 3V
5V 4V
5V 5V
Table-6.1
Note: Maximum output range is 10 V.
CONCLUSION:
 Above observation table shows that OUTPUT is the sum of input voltages at Input1 &
Input2 with same polarity..
- 18 -
EXPERIMENT- 7
AIM OF EXPERIMENT:
TO STUDY AND TEST DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER / SUB TRACTOR CIRCUIT
THEORY:
The differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two voltages making this type of circuit
a Subtractor unlike a summing amplifier which adds or sums together the input voltages. This type
of operational amplifier circuit is commonly known as a Differential Amplifier configuration and is
shown below.
The circuit shown computes the difference of two voltages multiplied by some constant. In
particular, the output voltage is
Under the condition that the Rf/R1 = Rg/R2, the output expression becomes
Where is the differential gain of the circuit
In the special case when Rf/R1 = Rg/R2, as before, and Rf = R1, the differential gain A = 1, and the
circuit is a differential follower with:
PROCEDURE:

2. Connect +Ve of External Variable Supply to T1 of inverting terminal of op-amp & -Ve to GND
& Set it to 5V. This voltage is V1.
3. Similarly Connect +Ve of another External Variable Supply to non-inverting terminal of op-amp
T6 & -Ve to GND. This voltage is V2.
7. Adjust the Input2 Voltage as per the table below and observe the Output at T30 on a voltmeter.
.
- 19 -
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Volts (V1) Volts (V2) (V1-V2)
5V 0V
5V 1V
5V 2V
5V 3V
5V 4V
5V 5V
Table 7.1
CONCLUSION:
 From the reading it is clear that the Output voltage is a difference figure of Input 1 and
Input 2 & hence can be used as subtractor.
- 20 -
EXPERIMENT- 8
AIM OF EXPERIMENT
TO STUDY AND TEST PROPERTIES OF SCHMITT TRIGGER CIRCUITS
THEORY:
One way of generating a square wave from sine wave is to use Schmitt trigger circuit. Square
wave generation is possible only if trip points (L.T.P & U.T.P) are within the span of input sine
wave signal.
Output of the above circuit is saturated either in +ve or –ve direction due to positive feedback to
non-inverting input of an Op-Amp. Assuming Output is positively saturated, the voltage on non-
inverting input (+ve feedback) can be called as Upper Trip point (U.T.P.). When voltage on
inverting input if exceeds the U.T.P level, Output of Op-Amp goes into –ve saturation. Otherwise
remains in +ve saturation.
When input voltage crosses U.T.P. level Output goes into –ve saturation & thus drives non-
inverting input to –ve voltage. This –ve voltage on non-inverting input is called as Lower Trip Point
(L.T.P). Output remains in –ve saturation until the voltage on inverting input is more +ve than
L.T.P. When input voltage goes more, –ve than L.T.P Output goes into +ve saturation.
L.T.P. & U.T.P. voltage levels can be calculated as
L.T.P. = -R2/ (R1+R2)  Vsat (-ve)

U.T.P. = -R2/ (R1+R2)  Vsat (+ve)
Dead Band = U.T.P. (vol.) - L.T.P. (vol.)
Dead Band depends on the values of R1 & R2
- 21 -
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the AC Supply to the Kit

2. Connect Sine Generator output Sine Output to Inverting Terminal of the Op-amp T1
3. Connect non- inverting terminal of op-amp T6 to GND.
4. Connect feedback resistor of 4.7K i.e T22 to T13.
5. Connect Channel 1 of CRO to T1, Channel 2 of CRO to T30 and GND of CRO to GND.
6. Switch ON the power
8. Observe & draw input & Output waveforms on CRO simultaneously.
9. Observe U.T.P & L.T.P. on CRO by comparing Output waveform with input waveform
10. Also observe Output by reducing gradually the input voltage.
11. Draw the waveform. Calculate U.T.P. & L.T.P. assuming +V sat & = V sat = 12V. Compare
calculated values with observed values.
CONCLUSION:
 Schmitt Trigger gives square wave Output when input is sine.

 A calculated value of U.T.P. & L.T.P. nearly equals observed values of U.T.P. & L.T.P.
 Thus Schmitt trigger circuit can be used as comparator with hysteresis. The set point of
comparator can be adjusted by choosing value of R1 & R2.
- 22 -
EXPERIMENT- 9
AIM OF EXPERIMENT
TO STUDY AND TEST INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER USING IC LM324.
THEORY:
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER:
An Instrumentation Amplifier is a type of differential amplifier that has been outfitted with input
buffers, which eliminate the need for input impedance matching and thus make the amplifier
particularly suitable for use in measurement and test equipment. Additional characteristics include
very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain, very high common-mode
rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used where great
accuracy and stability of the circuit both short- and long-term are required.
Although the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown schematically identical to a standard op-
amp, the electronic instrumentation amp is almost always internally composed of 3 op-amps.
These are arranged so that there is one op-amp to buffer each input (+, −), and one to produce
the desired output with adequate impedance matching for the function.
The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in the figure. The gain of the
circuit is
The rightmost amplifier, along with the resistors labelled R2 and R3 is just the standard differential
amplifier circuit, with gain = R3 / R2 and differential input resistance = 2·R2. The two amplifiers on
the left are the buffers. With Rgain removed (open circuited), they are simple unity gain buffers; the
circuit will work in that state, with gain simply equal to R3 / R2 and high input impedance because
of the buffers. The buffer gain could be increased by putting resistors between the buffer inverting
inputs and ground to shunt away some of the negative feedback; however, the single resistor Rgain
between the two inverting inputs is a much more elegant method: it increases the differential-
mode gain of the buffer pair while leaving the common-mode gain equal to 1. This increases the
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the circuit and also enables the buffers to handle much
larger common-mode signals without clipping than would be the case if they were separate and
had the same gain. Another benefit of the method is that it boosts the gain using a single resistor
rather than a pair, thus avoiding a resistor-matching problem (although the two R1s need to be
matched), and very conveniently allowing the gain of the circuit to be changed by changing the
value of a single resistor. A set of switch-selectable resistors or even a potentiometer can be used
for Rgain, providing easy changes to the gain of the circuit, without the complexity of having to
switch matched pairs of resistors.
The ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation amplifier is zero. In the circuit shown,
common-mode gain is caused by mismatches in the values of the equally-numbered resistors and
by the mis-match in common mode gains of the two input op-amps. Obtaining very closely
matched resistors is a significant difficulty in fabricating these circuits, as is optimizing the
common mode performance of the input op-amps. An instrumentation amp can also be built with
2 op-amps to save on cost and increase CMRR, but the gain must be higher than 2 (+6 dB).
Instrumentation amplifiers can be built with individual op-amps and precision resistors, but are
also available in integrated circuit form from several manufacturers. An IC instrumentation
amplifier typically contains closely matched laser-trimmed resistors, and therefore offers excellent
common-mode rejection.
Instrumentation Amplifiers can also be designed using "Indirect Current-feedback Architecture",
which extend the operating range of these amplifiers to the negative power supply rail, and in
some cases the positive power supply rail. This can be particularly useful in single-supply
systems, where the negative power rail is simply the circuit ground (GND).
- 23 -
Feedback-free instrumentation amplifier is the high input impedance differential amplifier

designed without the external feedback network. This allows reduction in the number of amplifiers
(one instead of three), reduced noise (no thermal noise is brought on by the feedback resistors)
and increased bandwidth (no frequency compensation is needed).
Instrumentation Amplifier
An instrumentation Amplifier is basically a difference amplifier, having two Inputs & Output is
proportional to the difference between its two inputs. Ideal instrumentation amplifier should exhibit
following properties.
1. Very high & stable gain

2. Infinity (very high) input impedance (common mode & differential mode) to avoid loading on
input source.
3. Zero Output impedance.
4. Infinite common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) i.e. amplifiers should be very sensitive to
difference signal only & to reject or ignore common mode signals.
5. High gain stability
6. Extremely high linearity between Output & Input
7. NO off set errors.
8. Zero drift (Time & Thermal)
OP AMP (IC-324):
The LM324 IC is derived high popular that used in many circuit diagram. Which is a package of
four operational amplifiers (OP-AMP) that can be powered by a battery or other single-polarity
supply (positive and negative only) over a very wide voltage range.
The four op-amps are installed in a single 14-pin package. You can use only one of the op-amps
or all four. The current consumption is unaffected by the power supply voltage.
- 24 -
PIN DIAGRAM OF IC LM324:
Fig. Pin Diagram of LM324

PIN DESCRIPTION:
Pin No Function Name

st
1 Output of 1 comparator A Output
2 Inverting input of 1st comparator A -Input
st
3 Non-inverting input of 1 comparator A +Input
4 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 32V) V+
5 Non-inverting input of 2nd comparator B +Input
nd
6 Inverting input of 2 comparator B -Input
7 Output of 2nd comparator B Output
rd
8 Output of 3 comparator C Output
rd
9 Inverting input of 3 comparator C -Input
10 Non-inverting input of 3rd comparator C +Input
11 Ground (0V) GND
12 Non-inverting input of 4th comparator D +Input
13 Inverting input of 4th comparator D -Input
th
14 Output of 4 comparator D Output
SPECIFICATIONS OF LM324:
1. Short Circuited Protected Outputs.
2. True Differential Input Stage
3. The power supply voltage range that they use: +3 volts to +30 volts.
4. The power supply current (minimum) that they use: 0.8 milliamperes.
5. The normal output current each op-amp (at pin-output to ground) of: 20 milliamperes
typical (10 ma minimum).
6. Four Amplifiers per Package.
7. The output current that flow from the positive supply to output-pin: 8 milliamperes
typical (5 mA minimum).
- 25 -
8. The maximum voltage gain (typical): 100,000. The gain is set by a feedback resistor
between output-pin and inverting (-) input.
9. Internally Compensated
10. Common Mode Range Extends to Negative Supply
11. Industry Standard Pinouts
12. ESD Clamps on the Inputs Increase Ruggedness without Affecting Device Operation
13. NCV Prefix for Automotive and Other Applications Requiring Unique Site and Control
Change Requirements; AEC−Q100Qualified and PPAP Capable
14. These Devices are Pb Free, Halogen Free/BFR Free and are RoHS Complian
CONCEPT:
When you tap the board the filament wire inside the bulb flexes causing strain in the wire element.
Many applications require amplifications of low level/weak signals from remote place. Mostly such
signals are from various transducers/sensors used in industry for process control.
Transducers such as thermocouple, strain gauges etc. gives low level electrical Output & may be
from distance place. Thus these low level signals are required to be amplified precisely with low
noise, low thermal drift / time drift to generate Output capable to drive indicators/display or other
control circuitry.
An instrumentation Amplifier is basically a difference amplifier, having two Inputs & Output is
proportional to the difference between its two inputs.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Figure 9.1
PROCEDURE:
OFFSET ADJUSTMENT:

2. Place the IC LM324 on bread board and make the connection as shown in Figure 9.1
3. Connect both the input terminals, V1 & V2 of instrumentation Op-Amp to ground i.e.
V1 = V2 = 0.
- 26 -
4. Set a Multimeter into Voltage mode and connect +ve of multimeter to Output and -ve to
GND.
5. Keep the Gain Pot P2 to minimum position (i.e. fully anti clockwise).
7. Now adjust offset adjustment potentiometer P3 to set Output of instrumentation Op-Amp
to zero.
This off set adjustment is necessary to adjust zero Output for zero Input, due to non ideal
performance of practical circuits.
Now you can perform the experiment of instrumentation amplifier.
8. Connect +ve terminal external variable power supply to V1 and –ve terminal to GND. This
voltage is V1.
9. Similarly Connect +ve terminal of another external power supply to V2 and –ve terminal to
10. Apply input voltages V1 and V2 as given in the observation table below.
11. Measure the output voltage at output with Multimeter.
12. Calculate the theoretical output voltage and compare it with practical value.
13. Calculate and compare theoretical and practical gain.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. DC input voltage Difference Output Voltage(Vout) Gain

V1 V2 V= V2-V1 Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
CALCULATION:
Theoretical output voltage Vout =
= ……………V
Theoretical Gain =
=………………
- 27 -
Practical Gain =
=………………
Where R1 = R3 = R4 = 47KΩ
Gain Resistor =R2=10K variable pot.
- 28 -
Table of Contents
SPECIFICATION…….…………………………………..…………………..……………………1
BLOCK DESCRIPTION ……….…..…………………………………………………………….2
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION……………..……………………………...……………………..3
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………4-7
EXPERIMENTS………………………....…………………………….…...........................8-28
Experiment-1 Study Method of Eliminating Offset Voltage of an Op Amp…………..8-9

Experiment-2 Study and Test Inverting DC & AC Amplifier Circuit…………..…....10-11
Experiment-3 Study and Test Non Inverting DC & AC Amplifier Circuit…………..12-13
Experiment-4 Study and Test Op-Amp as Voltage Follower………………….…….….14
Experiment-5 Study and Test Inverting Adder / Summer Circuit..…………………15-16
Experiment-6 Study and Test non-Inverting Adder / Summer Circuit……………..17-18
Experiment-7 Study and Test Difference Amplifier / Subtractor Circuit…...……...19-20
Experiment-8 Study and Test Properties of Schmitt Trigger Circuits……….…….21-22
Experiment-9 Study and Test Instrumentation Amplifier Using IC LM324.............23-28
- 29 -

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a total solution for

B-4,Lotus C.H.S., Near P&MC. Bank, Plot No. 8,

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER TRAINER KIT

 Sine wave Generator

- Output Waveform - SINE

- One LED indicator to indicate Power Input.

- Supply connections to OP Amp (± 12 V) Internally Provided to the circuit

- All interconnections are made using 2mm banana Patch cords.

 Bare board Tested Glass Epoxy PCB is used.

SINE WAVE GENERATOR SECTION:

POWER SUPPLY SECTION:

1. Fixed DC power supply : + 12 V/ 1A

OFFSET NUL SECTION:

OP-AMP 741 SECTION:

RESISTOR BANK SECTION:

CAPACITOR BANK SECTION:

ZENER DIODE SECTION:

BREAD BOARD AREA:

An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 741:

The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown as above, where:

 V−: inverting input

Fig. An op-amp without negative feedback (a comparator)

Fig. An op-amp with negative feedback (a non-inverting amplifier)

If predictable operation is desired, negative feedback is used, by applying a portion of the

By combining terms, we determine the closed-loop gain ACL:

Fig. An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier

An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties:

TO STUDY METHOD OF ELIMINATING OFFSET VOLTAGE OF AN OP AMP

Note: Supply (+/-12V) for Op-Amp is internally provided.

Internal offset Null adjustment (using offset pins)

1. Connect the AC Supply to the Kit.

TO STUDY AND TEST INVERTING DC AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

Note: 1. Supply (+/-12V) for Op-Amp is internally provided.

1. Connect the AC Supply to the Kit.

Input Volts Output Volts Output Volts when

 Input voltage is inverted at the Output.

TO STUDY AND TEST INVERTING AC AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

Note: Supply (+/-12V) for Op-Amp is internally provided.

1. Connect the AC Supply to the Kit.

 Output signal is inverted as compared to the input signal.

TO STUDY AND TEST DC NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

Note: Supply (+/-12V) for Op-Amp is internally provided.

1. Connect the AC Supply to the Kit.

InputVolts Output Volts Output Volts

 Gain of the amplifier depends on feedback resistance divided by Input resistance.

TO STUDY AND TEST NON- INVERTING AC AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

Note: Supply (+/-12V) for Op-Amp is internally provided.

1. Connect the AC Supply to the Kit.

 Output signal is inverted as compared to the input signal.

TO STUDY AND TEST OP-AMP AS VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

Note: Supply (+/-12V) for Op-Amp is internally provided.

1. Connect the AC Supply to the Kit.

 Output signal is simply equal to the input signal.

TO STUDY AND TEST INVERTING ADDER / SUMMER CIRCUIT

A summing amplifier sums several (weighted) voltages:

 When , and independent