Assessment expectations explained and discussed Followership

What is followership? Followership is a process whereby an individual or individuals accept the

influence of others to accomplish a common goal. Followership involves a power differential
between the follower and the leader. Typically, followers comply with the directions and wishes
of leaders—they defer to leaders’ power.

Followership also has an ethical dimension. Like leadership, followership is not amoral; that is, it
is not a process that is morally neutral. Followership carries with it a responsibility to consider
the morality of one’s actions and the rightness or wrongness of the outcomes of what one does as
a follower. Followers and leaders work together to achieve common goals, and both share a
moral obligation regarding those goals. There are ethical consequences to followership and to
what followers do because the character and behavior of followers has an impact on
organizational outcomes

Role-Based and Relational-Based Perspectives Followership can be divided into two broad
categories: role-based and relational-based (Uhl-Bien et al., 2014).

The role-based perspective focuses on followers in regard to the typical roles or behaviors they
exhibit while occupying a formal or informal position within a hierarchical system. For example,
in a staff planning meeting, some people are very helpful to the group because they bring energy
and offer insightful suggestions regarding how the group might proceed. Their role as engaged
followers, in this case, has a positive impact on the meeting and its outcomes. Emphasis in the
role-based approach is on the roles and styles of followers and how their behaviors affect the
leader and organizational outcomes.

The relational-based approach to followership is quite different from the role-based approach. To
understand the relational-based approach it is helpful to understand social constructivism. Social
constructivism is a sociological theory that argues that people create meaning about their reality
as they interact with each other. For example, a fitness instructor and an individual in an exercise
class negotiate with each other about the kind of influence the instructor will have and the
amount of influence the individual will accept. From a social constructivist perspective,
followership is co-created by the leader and follower in a given situation. The meaning of
followership emerges from the communication between leaders and followers and stresses the
interplay between following and leading. Rather than focusing on roles, it focuses on the
interpersonal process and one person’s attempt to influence and the other person’s response to
these influence attempts. Leadership occurs within the interpersonal context of people exerting
influence and responding to those influence attempts. In the relational-based approach,
followership is tied to interpersonal behaviors rather than to specific roles (Carsten et al., 2010;
DeRue & Ashford, 2010; Fairhurst & Uhl-Bien, 2012; Uhl-Bien et al., 2014).

Typologies of Followership

Grouping followers’ roles into distinguishable categories to create an accurate classification

system, or typology, of follower behaviors has been undertaken by several researchers. A
typology enhances our understanding of the broader area of followership by breaking it down
into smaller pieces. In this case, these pieces are different types of follower roles observed in
various settings.

Zaleznik (1965) Kelley (1992) Chaleff (1995) Kellerman (2008)

Withdrawn Alienated Resource Isolate
Masochistic Passive Individualist Bystander
Compulsive Conformist Implementer Participant
Impulsive Pragmatist Partner Activist
Exemplary Diehard
Source: Adapted from “Conceptualizing followership: A review of the literature,” by B. Crossman and J. Crossman, 2011, Leadership, 7(4), 481–
497.

The Zaleznik Typology

Zaleznik created a matrix that displayed followers’ behaviors along two axes: Dominance–
Submission and Activity– Passivity. The vertical axis represents a range of followers from those
who want to control their leaders (i.e., be dominant) to those who want to be controlled by their
leaders (i.e., be submissive). The horizontal axis represents a range of followers from those who
want to initiate and be involved to those who sit back and withdraw. Based on the two axes, the
model identifies four types of followers: withdrawn (submissive/passive), masochistic
(submissive/active), compulsive (high dominance/passive), and impulsive (high
dominance/active). Because Zaleznik was trained in psychoanalytic theory, these follower types
are based on psychological concepts. Zaleznik was interested in explaining the communication
breakdowns between authority figures and subordinates, in particular the dynamics of
subordinacy conflicts.

Dominance (Controlling)

Compulsive Impulsive

Withdrawn masochistic

Passivity Submission (Being Controlled) Activity

The Kelley Typology Kelley’s (1992) typology is currently the most recognized followership
typology. Kelley believes followers are enormously valuable to organizations and that the power
of followers often goes unrecognized. He stresses the importance of studying followers in the
leadership process and gave impetus to the development of the field of followership. While
Zaleznik (1965) focused on the personal aspects of followers, Kelley emphasizes the motivations
of followers and follower behaviors. In his efforts to give followership equal billing to
leadership, Kelley examined those aspects of followers that account for exemplary followership.
Kelley sorted followers’ styles on two axes: independent critical thinking–dependent uncritical
thinking and active–passive. These dimensions resulted in five follower role types:

 Passive followers (sometimes pejoratively called “sheep”), who look to the leader for
direction and motivation
 Conformist followers, who are “yes people”—always on the leader’s side but still
looking to the leader for direction and guidance,
 Alienated followers, who think for themselves and exhibit a lot of negative energy,
 Pragmatics, who are “fence-sitters” who support the status quo but do not get on board
until others do, and
 Exemplary followers (sometimes called “star” followers), who are active and positive and
offer independent constructive criticism.
Theoretical Approaches to Followership

What is the phenomenon of followership? Is there a theory that explains it? Uhl-Bien and her
colleagues (2014) set out to answer those questions by systematically analyzing the existing
followership literature and introducing a broad theory of followership. They state that
followership comprises “characteristics, behaviors and processes of individuals acting in relation
to leaders” (p. 96). In addition, they describe followership as a relationally based process that
includes how followers and leaders interact to construct leadership and its outcomes (Uhl-Bien et
al., 2014, p. 99). Based on these definitions, Uhl-Bien et al. proposed a formal theory of
followership. They first identified the constructs (i.e., components or attributes) and variables
that comprise the process of followership as shown in following table

Followership Leader Followership (and Followership

Characteristics Characteristics Leadership)Behavior Outcomes
Follower Traits Leader Power Followership Behaviors Individual Follower
Outcomes
Follower Perceptions and Leadership Behaviors Individual Leader
Motivation Constructions Outcomes
Follower Leader Affect Relationship
Perceptions and Outcomes
Constructions
Leadership Process
Outcomes

The constructs listed in above table are a first attempt to differentiate the major components of
followership. Followership characteristics refer to the attributes of followers, such as the
follower’s traits (e.g., confidence), motivations, and the way an individual perceives what it
means to be a follower. Leader characteristics refer to the attributes of the leader, such as the
leader’s power and/or willingness to empower others, the leader’s perceptions of followers, and
the leader’s affect (i.e., the leader’s positive or negative feelings toward followers). Followership
behaviors are the behaviors of individuals who are in the follower role—that is, the extent to
which they obey, defer, or resist the leader. Leadership behaviors are the behaviors of the
individuals in the leadership role, such as how the leader influences followers to respond.
Finally, followership outcomes are the results that occur based on the followership process. The
outcomes can influence the individual follower, the leader, the relationship between the leader
and the follower, and the leadership process. For example, how a leader reacts to a follower,
whether the follower receives positive or negative reinforcement from a leader, and whether a
follower advances the organizational goals all contribute to followership outcomes.

New Perspectives on Followership

In an attempt to advance the study of followership and present followership in a positive light,
Carsten et al. (2014) suggest several practical perspectives on followership. These perspectives
are intended to help organizations understand followers and to help individuals understand the
positive facets of being a follower.

Perspective 1: Followers Get the Job Done

In the past, there has been what Meindl (1995) called a “romance of leadership,” which
emphasized the importance of leaders and leadership to the functioning of groups and
organizations. There has been less recognition of the importance of followers to getting the job
done. When viewed from a less leader-centric perspective, leadership can be seen as something
that occurs among followers as a result of how they interpret leadership. This places less
emphasis on the personality of the leader and more on followers’ reactions to the leader. It
shifts attention away from leaders as the causal agents of organizational change and
focuses on how the behavior of followers affects organizational outcomes. Clearly, followers
carry out the mission of the group and the organization; in short, they do the work. They
are central to the life of the organization. Going forward, more attention needs to be given
to the personalities, cognitive abilities, interpersonal skills, and problem-solving abilities of
followers (Carsten et al., 2014).

Perspective 2: Followers Work in the Best Interest of the Organization’s Mission

Although not true of all followers, proactive followers are committed to achieving the goals of
the group or organization to which they belong. Rather than being passive and blindly obedient
to the wishes of the leader, these followers report asserting themselves in ways that are in
alignment with the goals of the organization. They put the organization’s goals ahead of the
leader’s goals. The advantage of proactive followers is that they guard against leaders who act in
self-serving or unethical ways. For example, if the president of the United States asked a cabinet
member to do something that would personally benefit only the president, the cabinet member
might refuse, arguing that what she was asked to do was not in the best interests of the country,
which she ultimately serves. Followers act as a check and balance on a leader’s power,
protecting the organization against abuse of this power. Proactive followers keep the
organization front and center.

Perspective 3: Followers Challenge Leaders

As illustrated in the typologies outlined earlier in the chapter, being engaged, active, and
challenging are identifying characteristics of effective followers. But followers who challenge
the leader can also help to make an organization run more effectively and successfully. When
followers have knowledge about a process or procedure of which the leader is unaware, the
followers become a strong asset both to the leader and to the organization. They become extra
“eyes” to make sure the leader sees the organization from another angle. In addition, followers
who are proactive and challenge the leader can keep the leader in sync with the overall mission
of the organization.

Perspective 4: Followers Support the Leader

In addition to challenging a leader, it is equally important for followers to support the leader. To
advance an organization’s mission, it is valuable for leaders when followers validate and affirm
the leaders’ intentions. Consider what happens in a small-group setting when an individual
member attempts to make a point or advance an idea. If someone in the group supports the
individual, the group member’s idea is heard and gains traction in the group, as does the group
member.

However, if an individual member does not receive support from other group members, the
individual tends to feel disconfirmed and questions his or her role in the group. For a leader,
having a follower who supports you is like having a lieutenant. The lieutenant affirms the
leader’s ideas to others and in so doing gives the leader’s ideas validity. This support strengthens
a leader’s position in the group and helps to advance the leader’s goals. We all need lieutenants,
but leaders especially need lieutenants. Support from others is essential to advancing ideas with
others. An example of how not having this support can 455 affect outcomes can be seen at the
national level, when U.S. president Donald Trump wanted to advance a new national health care
policy but could not muster enough support in his own party (the Republicans) to get the
measure to pass in Congress. In this case, not having the support of others in a group is
detrimental to a leader.

Perspective 5: Followers Learn From Leaders

A serendipitous outcome of being a follower is that in the process of following you learn about
leading. Followership gives individuals the opportunity to view leadership from a position
unencumbered from the burdens and responsibilities of being the leader. Followers get to
observe what does or does not work for a leader; they can learn which leadership approaches or
methods are effective or ineffective and apply this learning if they become leaders.

Consider the training that individuals undergo to become teachers. In most education programs,
becoming certified as a teacher requires students to do “student teaching” or “supervised
teaching,” spending a semester working with a certified teacher in a classroom where actual
teaching and learning are taking place. The student gets a chance to observe what teachers do
and what teaching requires without the full responsibility of being in charge of the students and
the educational outcomes. These student teachers have the opportunity to explore their own
competencies and hone their teaching skills. From a followership perspective, the student is
playing the following role but in the process learns the leadership role.

How Does Followership Work?

Learning leadership provide several “takeaways” that have valuable implications for practicing
followership.

First, simply discussing followership forces us to elevate its importance and the value of
followers. By focusing on followership, we are forced to engage in a new way of thinking about
those who do the work of leadership and to explore the merits of the people who do the work of
followership. Leadership does not exist in a vacuum; it needs followers to be operationalized.
Followership research highlights the essential role that followers fulfill in every aspect of
organizational accomplishments. Why should we focus on followership? Because it is just as
important as leadership.

Second, followership is about how individuals accept the influence of others to reach a common
goal. It describes the characteristics and actions of people who have less power than the leader
yet are critical components in the leadership process. The typologies of follower behaviors
discussed in this chapter provide a criterion of what followers typically do in different situations
when they are being influenced by a leader. Do they help the leader, or do they fight the leader?
Do they make the organization run better or worse? Categorizations of followers are beneficial
because they help us understand the way people act when occupying a follower role.

Third, followership research provides a means of understanding why harmful leadership occurs
and sometimes goes unrestrained. Followers are interdependent with leaders in the leadership
process—each affects and is affected by the other. When leaders are abusive or unethical, it
affects followers. But followers often feel restrained to respond. While they may want to respond
to destructive leaders, followers will often become passive and inactive instead. This occurs
because they fear losing the security provided by their membership in the group.

Transformational Leadership vs. Transactional Leadership

Transformational Leadership is all about initiating change in organizations, groups, oneself and
others. Transformational leaders motivate others to do more than they originally intended and often
even more than they thought possible. They set more challenging expectations and typically achieve
higher performance. Statistically, transformational leadership tends to have more committed and
satisfied followers. This is mainly so because transformational leaders empower followers.

Transactional Leadership This is a leadership that maintains or continues the status quo. It is
also the leadership that involves an exchange process, whereby followers get immediate, tangible
rewards for carrying out the leader’s orders. Transactional leadership can sound rather basic,
with its focus on exchange

Model of Transformational Leadership

Creating high-performance workforce has become increasingly important and to do so

business leaders must be able to inspire organizational members to go beyond their task
requirements. As a result, new concepts of leadership have emerged - transformational
leadership being one of them. Transformational leadership may be found at all levels of the
organization: teams, departments, divisions, and organization as a whole. Such leaders are
visionary, inspiring, daring, risk-takers, and thoughtful thinkers. They have a charismatic appeal.
But charisma alone is insufficient for changing the way an organization operates. For bringing
major changes, transformational leaders must exhibit the following four factors:

Inspirational Motivation: The foundation of transformational leadership is the promotion of

consistent vision, mission, and a set of values to the members. Their vision is so compelling that
they know what they want from every interaction. Transformational leaders guide followers by
providing them with a sense of meaning and challenge. They work enthusiastically and
optimistically to foster the spirit of teamwork and commitment.

Intellectual Stimulation: Such leaders encourage their followers to be innovative and creative.
They encourage new ideas from their followers and never criticize them publicly for the mistakes
committed by them. The leaders focus on the “what” in problems and do not focus on the
blaming part of it. They have no hesitation in discarding an old practice set by them if it is found
ineffective.

Idealized Influence: They believe in the philosophy that a leader can influence followers only
when he practices what he preaches. The leaders act as role models that followers seek to
emulate. Such leaders always win the trust and respect of their followers through their action.
They typically place their followers needs over their own, sacrifice their personal gains for them,
ad demonstrate high standards of ethical conduct. The use of power by such leaders is aimed at
influencing them to strive for the common goals of the organization.

Individualized Consideration: Leaders act as mentors to their followers and reward them for
creativity and innovation. The followers are treated differently according to their talents and
knowledge. They are empowered to make decisions and are always provided with the needed
support to implement their decisions.

The common examples of transformational leaders are Mahatma Gandhi and Obama. How does
Transformational leader work? Transformational leadership inspires people to achieve
unexpected or remarkable results. It gives workers autonomy over specific jobs, as well as the
authority to make decisions once they have been trained. Some of the basic characteristics of
transformational leadership are inspirational, in that the leader can inspire workers to find better
ways of achieving a goal; mobilization, because leadership can mobilize people into groups that
can get work done, and morale, in that transformational leaders raise the well-being and
motivation level of a group through excellent rapport. They are also good at conflict resolution.
All of these traits make transformational leadership a good fit for many types of business

https://www.iare.ac.in/sites/default/files/lecture_notes/IARE_LCM_NOTES.pdf

Narrative Vs. Action Oriented Leadership

Narrative Leadership refers to the use of stories and narratives to increase employee
morale, create a shared need to produce change, and lead collaboration. These stories,
whether focusing on how the organization encountered and overcame difficulties or how it seizes
new opportunities, are all designed to create a shared vision for those who are at present with the
organization or those who will be employed in the future.

This stimulates careful listening to the history and determining the boundaries erected by a
story. Narrative Leadership is the willingness to learn the storied history of people and their
organization then deliberately and cooperatively using those stories to design a future.
According to Bruner (1991), “most of our knowledge about human knowledge-getting and
reality-constructing is drawn from studies of how people come to know the natural or
physical world rather than the human or symbolic world.”

The application of the idea of constructing human and symbolic reality in David Boje’s study on
narrative leadership (1991) became a kind of milestone in this field. He studied the dynamics of
storytelling in a large office-supply firm and illustrated how people make sense of organizational
storytelling. His empirical study indicated the potential of stories for leadership; and since the
early 1990s, the discussion about storytelling and narrative leadership has meandered and
increased greatly.

Storytelling leadership has become more popular in academic texts and particularly in normative
texts that treat stories often instrumental in inspiring and motivating followers or to manage
change. It is thus seen as a “managerial tool”. The stories make sense in the organizational flow,
which takes place discursively in social interaction, both on formal and informal occasions.

Narrative leadership is a method and as such adaptable to all organizations. Generally, the term
means two things. The first is to create or introduce change by relating the change initiative
to stories. The second is to see that an organization has a story or stories that define it. In
this use, before any change is initiated the leader will determine those stories and how they
may impact what is proposed. Narrative leadership can be used in any organization. It is best
used where change can take effect over time.

https://www.technofunc.com/index.php/leadership-skills-2/leadership-styles/item/narrative-
leadership

Action Centered Leadership (ACL, or the "Three Circles Model") is a popular and influential
tool that was first published in 1973 by leadership expert, John Adair.

It focus on the major actions that you must take to lead the team effectively. These actions are
grouped into three areas:
 Task: the actions that you take to achieve a goal.
 Team: your actions at the group level, to encourage effective teamwork and group
cohesion.
 Individual: actions that address each team member's unique needs.

These areas are represented by three interlocking circles, as shown in figure 1, below.

Figure 1 – John Adair's Action Centered Leadership Model.

The Three Circles model is reproduced here with the kind permission of John Adair and Adair
International Ltd.

The shaded areas of the interlocking circles show that each area relies on one or both of the
others for success. So, to be an effective leader, you must balance your actions across all
three areas of responsibility.

In practice, achieving balance isn't always easy. For example, let's say that your team works well
together, but one person is falling behind schedule. As a result, productivity declines, the team
misses its deadline, and group morale suffers. Here, issues with the individual negatively impact
the task and the team.
Now, imagine what would happen if you, as leader, didn't clearly state your team's goal. Your
team members are highly skilled, and they collaborate well, but progress is slow because no one
knows what they're aiming for. In this example, individual and team needs are being met, but
the task itself is being ignored, and the team is likely heading for failure.

Action Centered Leadership in Practice

Action Centered Leadership is simple to use, and it can be adapted to any leadership situation.
There are three stages to the model: develop your core leadership skills, focus on the three key
areas of responsibility, and adapt the model to your situation.

1. Develop Leadership Skills

Action Centered Leadership can be applied to every level of an organization, not just to the top
tier. However, Adair and his colleague David Faraday state that, for the model to be effective,
leaders at different levels need to develop particular leadership skills.

Team leaders need planning and briefing skills. They must define tasks and exert control. They
should support and motivate their team members, and evaluate their performance effectively.
Team leaders should lead by example .
Operational leaders need to influence and inform their teams, interpret goals and results, and
initiate plans and projects. They must have the skills necessary to implement decisions, to
network, and to plan successions .

Strategic leaders need all of the above skills, and more. They "make things happen," and
provide direction and inspiration. Ideally, they work toward Transformational Leadership .
This means that they understand – and articulate – the organization's mission , and how the work
of each team and individual feeds into the organization's wider goals. They must build
partnerships and develop potential leaders in order to be successful.

2. Focus on the Three Key Areas of Responsibility

Next, think carefully about the actions you take as a leader, and the extent to which each of these
activities applies to the three key areas: task, team and individual.

You can visualize this by drawing your own three circles diagram. Draw each circle in
proportion to the amount of attention that you give to each area.

For example, let's say that you do a great job of developing your team members as individuals,
but that you pay little attention to team dynamics . Your team usually gets the job done, but not
always to the standard you'd like.
In this example, your circles might look like those in figure 2, below.

Figure 2 – Real-Life Example of an Action Centered Leadership Diagram.

The Three Circles model is a trademark of John Adair and Adair International Ltd. Reproduced
with permission.

You can then work toward dividing your time more equally between each area of responsibility.

There are a number of ways to fulfill each area of responsibility. Use the following lists as a
guide, and add or remove tasks based on your own circumstances.

Achieve the Task

As a leader, your role is to direct a team toward achieving its goal. Here are some of the
actions you can take to do this:
 Identify and define your team's tasks, priorities and purpose, and communicate  them
clearly.
 Create plans – including timescales, measures, strategies, and deliverables, as
appropriate.

 Define "success."

 Allocate resources, tools and processes, and ensure that everyone understands them.

 Set and explain quality, timeliness and reporting standards.

 Control the pace of work.

 Monitor and evaluate performance.

 Review and report on progress.

Build the Team

These actions can enable your team to work more effectively as a unit:

 Set group behavior and performance standards.

 Make sure that everyone has the necessary skills, training and ability.

 Monitor team relationships, and manage conflict .

 Facilitate and encourage effective communication.

 Motivate  the group.
 Encourage team building, and foster team spirit.

 Give feedback on the team's performance.

 Identify the team's culture, and its working style.

 Alter group composition.

 Develop Individuals

It's essential to understand the unique needs, fears and motivations of each of your team
members. Here are some strategies for doing so:

 Clearly define each person's role and tasks.

 Support individuals to plan their own development.

 Allocate time with each team member for assessment, and identify their personality and
behavioral styles, their strengths and weaknesses, their aims and needs, and any special
skills or experience they can bring to the team.

 Encourage quieter team members to contribute, and control more enthusiastic individuals.

 Offer coaching  and support.
 Give regular, constructive feedback .
 Praise and reward individuals for their contribution.

3. Adapt the Model to Your Situation

The real-world demands of leadership mean that you won't always be able to balance your efforts
across the three areas equally. In fact, the most appropriate balance varies according to the
situation, and over time.

You might, for example, have a new team member who requires more coaching. You may lead a
completely new group, and need to focus on team formation . Or, you might have a crucial
deadline that gives you no choice but to focus solely on the task.
When all three areas of responsibility compete for your attention, you'll have to prioritize . Start
by considering your organization's goals. But remember that there may be times when the needs
of the team or an individual can take precedence – for example, when a team member suffers ill
health or a bereavement, or when the team experiences a major setback, such as a catastrophic
data loss.
Use your judgment to decide what balance of responsibilities works best at that point in time,
and adjust your focus accordingly. The key is to limit your change in focus to the short term, and
to restore the balance when the matter is resolved.

Key Points

Leaders have many responsibilities, and it's easy to focus on one area at the expense of the
others. This can lead to poor performance, unhappy staff, and a loss of team cohesion.

Action Centered Leadership is a simple model that can help you to keep the three key areas of
responsibility – task, team and individual – in balance.

The model is applied in three stages:

1. Develop the core skills necessary for your level of leadership.

2. Focus on your key responsibilities, and identify the actions that you need to take in order
to fulfill them.

3. Accept that the "correct" balance of responsibilities may vary according to your
circumstances. Limit any change in focus to the short term, and return to a more balanced
focus as soon as you can.