Perspective: University Spiru Haret Bucharest
Perspective: University Spiru Haret Bucharest
Perspective: University Spiru Haret Bucharest
PERSPECTIVE
COURSE
NOTES
Part
I
Lecturer
Mihai
Moldovanu,
PhD
2014-‐2015
1
Cuprins
Part
I
1.
THE
USE
OF
PERSPECTIVE
IN
ARCHITECTURE
2.
HISTORY
OF
PERSPECTIVE
3.
CONTEXT
IN
PERSPECTIVE
4.
IMAGE
FORMATION
5.
THE
OPTIMAL
PERSPECTIVE
ANGLE
6.
PERSPECTIVE
CLASSIFICATION
7.
ELEMENTS
OF
THE
PERSPECTIVE
SYSTEM
8.
MECANISM
OF
CONICAL
PERSPECTIVE
9.
DEPENDENT
METHODE
PERSPECTIVE
TO
THE
VERTICAL
PLANE
10.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
METHODE
ON
A
VERTICAL
PLANE
11.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
OF
THE
CIRCLE
AND
SPHERE
12.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
CONSTRUCTION
FOR
ACHITECTURE
13.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
AT
TWO
VANISHING
POINT
EYE
LEVEL
14.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
AT
TWO
VANISHING
POINT
ABOVE
EYE
LEVEL
15.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
AT
TWO
VANISHING
POINT
BELOW
EYE
LEVEL
16.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
TO
A
SINGLE
VANISHING
POINT
17.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
ON
AN
INCLINED
PLANE
2
LECTURE
NOTES
-‐
PERSPECTIVE
Lecturer
Mihai
Moldovanu,
PhD
Perspective
explains
the
laws
according
to
which
the
objects
around
us
assume
different
aspects
depending
on
the
spot
from
where
they
are
seen.
The
Perspective
is
a
graphic
procedure
according
to
which
the
three-‐
dimensional
space
may
be
represented
on
a
two-‐dimension
image.
1.
THE
USE
OF
PERSPECTIVE
IN
ARCHITECTURE
-‐
The
study
and
completion
of
an
architecture
creation
cannot
be
valued
without
a
perspective
representation.
The
designing
practice
demonstrated
a
continuous
shift
from
the
representation
in
descriptive
geometry
to
the
perspective
one
and
vice
versa.
-‐
Photography
may
replace
perspective
especially
for
documentation
needs,
not
entirely
but
only
together
with
it,
although
perspective
has
the
dominant
role.
-‐
No
layout
can
completely
replace
perspective.
The
layout
can
only
render
the
volumetry,
but
not
the
relation
with
the
human
dimension.
-‐
Every
study
stage
may
cover
a
perspective,
as
it
proves
to
be
more
economic
and
advantageous
than
a
layout.
Only
perspective
can
render
the
atmosphere
and
the
relation
with
the
environment.
2.
HISTORY
OF
PERSPECTIVE
The
geometry
included
in
perspective
is
necessary,
but
not
sufficient.
Therefore,
a
series
of
graphic
methods
were
used
to
get
the
perspective
drawing
closer
to
the
reality.
Starting
the
1st
century
B.C,
the
Latin
architect
and
engineer
Vitruvius
showed
the
usefulness
of
perspective
in
architecture:
“The
architects
need
scenography
(perspective)
at
any
costs
because
it
teaches
how
to
give
3
convenient
ratios
to
different
sides
of
a
building
without
fearing
that
any
of
the
designed
beauty
would
be
lost
by
construction”
.
-‐
In
Antiquity
perspective
was
known
by
its
“scenographical”
representation.
Geminus
(sec.
I.
B.C.),
historian
of
the
Greek
Mathematics,
gives
the
following
definition:
“Scenography
is
that
branch
of
the
Optics
that
shows
how
drawings
are
made,
representing
objects
at
different
distances
and
heights,
keeping
though
the
proportion
and
shape”
-‐
During
the
Renaissance
it
was
named
“perspective”.
During
this
time,
it
became
a
study
subject
in
all
the
universities
of
the
time.
Leonardo
da
Vinci
(1452
-‐
1519)
shows
that:
“Painting
is
based
on
perspective
...
nothing
is
done
about
it...The
apprentice
must
first
learn
perspective,
according
to
which
it
can
assign
the
right
measure
to
each
object”
Joule
de
la
Gournerie
(19th
century)
defines
the
perspective
as
follows:
“Perspective
is
the
art
of
representing
the
objects
in
space
as
a
picture,
keeping
their
appearance.
It
is
linear
or
aerial,
dealing
with
shape
or
colour”.
-‐
During
the
Modern
period,
the
perspective
still
keeps
the
basic
principles
applied
in
the
Renaissance,
but
the
representation
methods
are
improved.
Perspective
is
not
only
geometry,
but,
as
Adrian
Gheorghiu,
Profesor
at
the
”Ion
Mincu”
University
of
Architecture
was
showing,
it
is
geometry,
optics,
physiology
and
psychology
of
sight
at
the
same
time.
Therefore,
”perspective
is
the
science
that
renders
the
features
of
the
objects
in
space
through
drawing,
as
are
seen
from
a
finite
distance”.
3.
CONTEXT
IN
PERSPECTIVE
The
human
sight
may
be
approximated
with
a
conic
projection
system
where
the
sightlines
forming
a
visual
cone
follow
the
brims
of
the
seen
object
delimiting
its
apparent
contour.
The
perspective
drawing
of
the
studied
object
is
obtained
by
intersecting
the
visual
cone
with
a
plane.
4
Fig.
1
–
Perspective
mechanism
according
to
Leonardo
da
Vinci
-‐
(wood
engraving
by
Albrecht
Durer
–
1525).
Fig.
2
–
Grafic
perspective
mechanism
according
to
Leonardo
-‐
axonometric
reprezentation.
5
4.
IMAGE
FORMATION
The
study
of
perspective
starts
from
the
analysis
of
the
image
perception
received
by
the
human
eye.
The
eye
lens
functions
as
a
biconvex
lens
generating
a
real
image,
inverted
and
smaller.
The
visual
field
is
the
space
portion
materialised
through
retina
images
when
we
watch
an
object
keeping
our
head
still.
The
visual
perception
is
based
on
the
physiological
and
stereotomic
nature
of
the
eye
including
the
following
characteristics:
1.
Accommodation
–
the
eye’s
possibility
to
bring
an
image
of
any
object
on
the
retina,
through
the
eye
lens
variation
2.
Visual
acuity
–
the
eye’s
capacity
to
perceive
really
small
objects.
3.
Adaptation
-‐
when
passing
from
an
intensity
of
light
to
another
Fig. 3 The eye lens functions as a biconvex lens generating a real image, inverted.
(sursa: Zamfir Dumitrescu, Ciete de perspectivă artistică, Noi Media Print, 1998, Bucuresti).
Legend: RETINA = RETINA (the most sensitive membrane of the eye, consisting in photo
sensible cells, the terminal portion of the optic nerve
6
SCLEROTICA=SCLEROTICA (a white, external, protective membrane of the eye globe).
FOVEA CENTRALA = CENTRAL FOVEA.
COROIDA = CHOROID (a black “coating” of the sclerotica).
Pleoapa superioara = Upper eyelid.
CRISTALINUL = EYE LENS (a biconvex lens with a refraction index between 1,33- 1,48,
actioned by the ciliary bodies).
CAMERA POSTERIOARA = POSTERIOR CHAMBER (the “camera obscura” of the eye
containing the hyaloid body).
VASE SANGUINE = BLOOD VESSELS
IMAGINEA VIRTUALA RETINIANĂ = VIRTUAL RETINAL IMAGE
Pleoapa inferioară = Lower eyelid
CORNEEA = CORNEA (the lower part of the sclerotica, as a first refracting medium with a
refraction index varying between 1,33 and 1,36).
NERVUL OPTIC = OPTIC NERVE
MUSCHII CILIARI = CILIARY MUSCLES (or ciliary bodies; they act on the eye lens
according to the distances where the objects are placed)
IRISUL = IRIS (ring-like membrane, with an opening at the centre called a pupil. Together
with the pupil, the iris ensures the diafragm proces to allow light to enter in the eye.
5.
THE
OPTIMAL
PERSPECTIVE
ANGLE
Visual
fields
clarity
areas:
1.
The
central
area
with
a
clear
and
precise
sight:
28
-‐
37
degrees.
2.
The
moderately
clear
and
less
precise
area:
37
-‐
53
degrees.
3.
The
peripheral,
less
clear
and
less
precise
area:
>53
degrees.
Fig.
4
Visual
field
clarity
areas.
(Acording
to
Horia
Teodoru,
Perspectiva,
Editura
pentru
Literatura
si
Arta,
Bucuresti,
1959)
left
eye
visual
field
right
eye
visual
field
7
binocular
view
monocular
view
Fig.
5
Binocular
fields
of
view.
(
acording
to
Horia
Teodoru,
Perspectiva,
Editura
pentru
Literatura
si
Arta,
Bucuresti,
1959)
Fig.
6
Visual
field
of
the
eye
(acording
to
Horia
Teodoru,
Perspectiva,
Editura
pentru
Literatura
si
Arta,
Bucuresti,
1959)
6.
PERSPECTIVE
CLASSIFICATION
The
first
classification
of
perspective
was
made
by
Leonardo
da
Vinci:
8
1.
The
linear
perspective
=is
obtained
by
intersecting
each
visual
ray
with
the
perspective
picture,
using
different
construction
methods
of
the
perspective
image.
2.
The
aerial
perspective
=
continues
the
linear
perspective,
by
gradual
qualitative
rendering
of
the
lines,
shadow
areas,
light,
colour
according
to
the
distances
of
the
object
towards
the
viewer
and
the
context
where
the
object
is
(light,
space,
depth).
Classification
of
the
linear
perspective:
1.
According
to
the
main
viewing
direction:
A.
–vertical
plane
perspective
(eg.
Fig.
9
-‐C).
B.
–inclined
plane
perspective(
eg.
Fig.
9
-‐
B,
D).
C.
-‐
according
to
the
plane
shape.
Fig.
7
The
main
viewing
direction.
A.
Vertical
plane
perspective
The
main
viewing
direction
is
horizontal
and
driven
on
the
vertical
face.
According
to
the
observer’s
position
towards
the
horizontal
plane
object
the
vertical
perspective
are
dividet
in:
a.
–central
frontal
perspective
–
one
vanishing
point
.
9
b.
–lateral
frontal
perspective
–
one
vanishing
point
.
c.
-‐corner
perspective
-‐
two
vanishing
points.
Fig.
8
The
observator`s
position
towards
the
horizontale
plane
object.
All
this
tipe
of
perspective,
in
according
to
the
observer’s
position
towards
the
vertical
plane
object,
it
will
be
constructed
in
three
different
ways
:
a
–
eye-‐level
horizon
perspective.
b
–
worm’s
eye
level
(object
above
eye
level)
horizon
perspective.
c
–
bird’s
eye
level
(object
below
eye
level)
horizon
perspective.
10
Fig.
9
a.
eye-‐level
horizon
perspective.
Fig.
10
b.
above
eye
level
horizon
perspective.
11
Fig.
11
c.
below
eye
level
horizon
perspective.
B.
Classification
of
the
inclined
plane
perspective
-‐
three
point
vanishing
:
Fig.
12
a.
the
ascendant
perspective
–looking
up
at
a
tall
building.
The
main
viewing
direction
is
ascendant.
It
is
used
for
the
very
tall
architecture
objects
perspective
or
for
the
interior
perspective
of
the
ceilings.
12
Fig.
13
–the
descendent
perspective.
The
main
viewing
direction
is
descendent.
Used
in
the
perspective
of
the
units
seen
from
great
heights.
C.
Perspective
classification
according
to
the
plane
shape:
Fig.
14.
Different
type
of
shape
plane.
(surse:
M.
Enache,
I.
Ionescu,
Perspectiva
si
Geometrie
Descriptive,
ed.
Didactica
si
Pedagogica,
1988,
Bucuresti)
a.-‐
perspective
on
a
cylindrical
plane
with
vertical
axis.
b.-‐
perspective
on
a
cylindrical
plane
with
frontal
horizontal
axis.
c.-‐
perspective
on
a
spherical
plane.
13
7.
ELEMENTS
OF
THE
PERSPECTIVE
SYSTEM
1.
The
ground
plane
(H)–
the
horizontal
plane
in
descriptive
geometry,
the
land
where
the
objects
and
observer
stand.
2.
The
horizon
plane
(PH)-‐the
main
horizontal
visual
plane.
3.
The
picture
plane
(T)–
the
vertical
plane
perpendicular
on
the
main
visual
ray
where
the
perspective
images
of
the
observed
object
are
formed.
4.
The
neutral
plane
(PN)-‐
the
plane
passing
through
the
point
of
sight,
parallel
to
the
picture.
5.
The
ground
line
XX’
–the
line
of
the
earth.
6.
The
horizon
line
HH’
–line
of
intersection
of
the
picture,
T
with
the
horizon
plane
PH.
7.
The
point
of
view
(O)-‐the
observation
point,
the
centre
of
projection.
8.
The
main
point
of
sight
(P)-‐The
orthogonal
projection
on
the
picture
of
the
point
of
view
O
9.
The
main
direction
of
sight
(OP)-‐
the
sight
distance
perpendicular
on
the
picture
in
P.
The
revealing
perspective
space
consists
of:
1.
The
real
space
–
is
the
space
in
front
of
the
observer
from
the
picture
to
infinite.
2.
The
intermediary
space
–
is
the
space
between
the
picture
and
the
neutral
space.
3.
The
virtual
space
–
is
the
space
positioned
behind
the
neutral
plane.
4.
The
observer’s
distance
(D-‐,D+)
–
distance
from
the
point
of
sight
to
the
picture
14
Fig.
15
Elements
of
the
perspective
system.
(surs:
M.
Enache,
I.
Ionescu,
Perspectiva
si
Geometrie
Descriptive,
ed.
Didactica
si
Pedagogica,
1988,
Bucuresti)
8.
MECANISM
OF
A
CONICAL
PERSPECTIVE
Fig.
16.
Conical
Perspective.
(source
first
picture:
M.
Enache,
I.Ionescu,
Perspectiva,
ed.
Didactica
si
Pedagogica,
1988,
Bucuresti)
In
conical
perspective
the
parallel
line
are
compenting
in
space
and
get
a
point
on
the
horizon.
This
point
is
called
”vanishing
point”
and
we
note
with
F.
If
two
parallel
lines
go
to
the
line
of
horizon
(strait
level)
their
point
of
intersection
is
located
on
the
horizon
in
P.
15
Fig.
17
The
mechanism
of
the
conical
perspective
on
a
vertical
plane
(picture).
Fig.
18
The
mechanism
of
the
conical
perspective
on
a
vertical
plane
(picture).
THE
GEOMETRIC
PROPERTIES
OF
THE
PERSPECTIVE
16
Perspective
as
a
result
of
the
conic
projection
has
the
following
geometric
properties:
-‐it
maintains
the
point,
the
straight
line
and
the
intersection;
-‐it
maintains
the
incidence
relations-‐
collinearity;
-‐it
maintains
the
cross
ratio
of
four
collinear
points;
-‐the
ratio
of
three
points
is
not
maintained
in
perspective;
-‐the
parallel
straight
lines
in
space
appear
concurrent
in
the
vanishing
point
in
perspective.
-‐the
metric
relations
are
not
maintained
in
perspective-‐
the
linear
dimensions,
the
surfaces
and
angles;
-‐the
curves
maintain
their
degree
and
tangent.
METHODES
OF
PERSPECTIVE
ON
A
VERTICAL
PLANE.
In
design
practice
have
revealed
four
distinct
methods
of
construction
of
perspective:
A. dependent
methode
–
that
use
plan
and
elevation
from
descriptive
geometry.
It
was
intiated
and
developed
by
Brunelleschi,
Leonardo
da
Vinci
and
Monge.
This
is
an
accurate
and
laborious
methode.
B. Free
methode
–
represents
direct
method
that
allowing
construction
perspective
without
using
dual
orthogonal
projection.
It
operates
on
intuition
because
all
operations
are
solve
directly
the
painting.
It
was
intiated
and
developed
by
Desargues,
Lambert
and
Poncelet.
C. Axonometric
method
-‐
drawing
directly
on
a
network
perspective
what
is
built
before
on
the
picture.
It
was
initiated
by
Renaissance
painters
and
developed
by
Desargues,
Abraham
Bosse
and
Pierr
Olmer.
D. Observational
perspective
–
it
is
a
methode
of
drawing
after
the
nature,
that
develops
a
good
view
into
space.
In
practice
these
methods
are
intertwined;
the
dependent
perspective
put
volumes
in
the
page
and
free
perspective
allows
finishing
details
for
that.
In
our
course
we
will
study
more
free
method
of
construction
perspective,
and
the
dependent
perspective
methode
it
will
remember
as
an
old
method.
9.
DEPENDENT
METHODE
OF
PERSPECTIVE
TO
THE
VERTICAL
PLANE
17
Fig.
40
Leonardo
Vitro.
(source
first
picture:
M.
Enache,
I.Ionescu,
Perspectiva,
ed.
Didactica
si
Pedagogica,
1988,
Bucuresti).
Dependence
perspective
is
the
method
to
determine
the
points
of
intersection
of
the
visual
rays
to
the
verticale
plane.
Aurelian
Gheorghiu
say
about
that
is
“a
methode
of
visual
rays
drawn
drawn
in
double
orthogonal
projection”.
Fig.
19
Volumes
construction.
Method
line
by
line
(F,F90)
(sourse:
Aurelian
Tanasescu,
Geometrie
descriptiva,
Perspectivă,
Axonometrie,
Ed.Didactia
si
pedagogica,
Bucuresti
1975)
18
Fig.
21
Volumes
construction.
Method
poin
by
point
(w,P)
(sourse:
Aurelian
Tanasescu,
Geometrie
descriptiva,
Perspectivă,
Axonometrie,
Ed.Didactia
si
pedagogica,
Bucuresti
1975)
Fig.
20
Volumes
construction.
Method
wF.
(sourse:
Aurelian
Tanasescu,
Geometrie
descriptiva,
Perspectivă,
Axonometrie,
Ed.Didactia
si
pedagogica,
Bucuresti
1975)
19
Fig.
22
Volumes
construction.
Method
wF.
(sourse:
Aurelian
Tanasescu,
Geometrie
descriptiva,
Perspectivă,
Axonometrie,
Ed.Didactia
si
pedagogica,
Bucuresti
1975)
10.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
METHODE
ON
A
VERTICAL
PLANE
It
is
the
method
to
obtain
the
objects’
perspective
in
space
directly
on
the
plane
using
the
invariant
geometry
properties
by
conic
projection,
without
using
the
epure
in
descriptive
geometry.
Advantages
of
the
free
perspective:
-‐it
is
intuitive
and
closer
to
the
visual
perception.
-‐it
is
faster
because
it
operates
with
fewer
lines.
-‐it
allows
the
control
of
the
image
starting
with
the
first
lines.
-‐it
allows
the
construction
of
the
perspective
with
elements
set
in
the
initial
plane,
so
that
the
perspective
image
does
not
need
to
be
transposed
or
augmented.
The
point
on
perspective
20
1.
The
perspective
of
a
A1
point
is
the
A
intersection
point
between
the
OA1
sight
distance
and
the
plane.
2.
The
perspective
of
a
point
and
its
horizontal
projection
are
placed
on
the
picture’s
plane
always
on
the
same
vertical
direction.
3.
If
the
perspective
of
two
points
in
space
coincide
on
the
plane,
the
point
that
is
further
away
from
the
plane
is
the
one
having
the
perspective
of
its
horizontal
projection
further
than
the
horizon
line.
4.
If
the
horizontal
perspectives
of
two
points
in
space
coincide,
high
level
in
relation
to
the
horizontal
plane
shows
what
point
is
further
from
the
picture.
5.
If
a
point
in
the
horizontal
plane
is
confused
with
its
horizontal
projection,
than
their
perspective
will
be
confused
as
well.
6.
all
the
points
of
the
perspective
plane
are
their
own
perspective.
The
horizontal
projections
of
these
points
are
situated
on
the
xx
line
of
the
plane.
7.
All
the
points
on
the
line
at
infinity
of
the
horizontal
plane
have
their
perspective
on
the
hh
line
of
the
horizon.
8.
There
is
a
perspective
correspondent
to
each
point
in
the
horizontal
plane
situated
in
the
real
space-‐
a
point
in
the
picture
plane
situated
between
the
xx
base
of
the
picture
and
the
hh
horizon
line.
9.
If
a
point
is
situated
in
the
intermediary
space,
than
the
perspective
of
the
horizontal
projection
is
situated
in
the
picture
plane
under
the
xx
base.
ex.
E1
point.
10.
if
a
point
is
situated
in
the
vertical
plane,
than
the
perspective
of
the
horizontal
projection
is
placed
in
the
picture
plane
above
the
hh.
line
ex.
G1
point.
21
Fig.
23
The
perspective
point
on
the
vertical
plane.
(source:
Aurelian
Tănăsescu,
Probleme
de
Perspectiva,
ed.
Didactică
si
Pedagogică,
Bucuresti,
1971)
Fig.
24
Different
positions
of
the
point
in
perspective.
(source:
Aurelian
Tănăsescu,
Probleme
de
Perspectiva,
ed.
Didactică
si
Pedagogică,
Bucuresti,
1971)
The
perspective
of
the
straight
line
22
The
straight
lines
have
the
same
classifications
in
perspective
as
in
descriptive
geometry.
Fig
..25
Random
straight
lines
in
perspective.
Fig.
26
Particular
straight
lines
in
perspective
Fig.
27
Straight
line
in
any
kind
of
position.
Staight
line(c)
and
(b)
have
upward
position
and
intersect
plan
of
earth
befor
obs.
in
point
(h)
below
the
horizon;
Stright
line
(a
)
and
(d)
have
a
downward
position
intersect
plan
of
earth
behind
obs.
in
point
(h)
above
the
horizon.
23
Fig.
28
Particular
straight
line.
Straight
line
(A)have
a
horizontal
position;
straight
(B)
have
a
frontal
position,
straight
line
(C)
have
a
frontal
and
horizontal
position,
Straight
line
(D)
is
perpendicular
to
the
horizontal
plane,
straight
line
(E)
is
a
straight
end
line.
The
plane
perspective
The
plane
will
have
different
representations
according
to
its
position
towards
the
projection
plane:
horizontal
plane,
vertical
plane,
frontal
plane,
end
plan.
Fig.
29
The
plan
perspective
have
same
proprieties
like
plane
geometry.
24
Fig.
30
Vertical
plane
in
perspective.
Fig.
31
End
plane
in
perspective
Fig.
32
Horizontal
plane
in
perspective
Fig.
33
Frontal
plane
in
perspective
Divisions
in
perspective
25
Fig.
34
The
division
of
a
straight
line
segment
into
equal
parts.
Fig.
35
The
vertical
division
of
a
straight
line
segment
Fig.
36
Division
of
a
facade
into
equal
parts.
26
Fig.
37
Division
of
a
facade
into
equal
parts.
Fig.
38
Equal
parts
added
on
right
and
left
of
a
façade
in
perspective.
Fig.
39
Division
perspective
on
inclined
planes.
27
Construction
based
to
vanising
point.
Fig.
40
The
diagonal
vanishing
points
method.
Fig.
41
-‐
The
+F45/-‐F45
method.
28
Fig.
43
The
D+/D-‐
distance
points
(used
in
the
interior
perspective).
Construction
based
to
measuring
point.
Fig.
42
The
measuring
points
method
(used
in
the
Restitution
of
perspective
).
11.
THE
CIRCLE
AND
THE
SPHERE
IN
PERSPECTIVE
29
Fig.
44
Circles
perspective
(sursa:
M.
Enache,
I.Ionescu,
Perspectiva
si
Geometrie
descriptiva,
ed.
Didactica
si
Pedagogica,
1988,
Bucuresti)
CIRCLE
A
circle
in
perspective
has
a
unique
characteristic,
it
is
viewed
however
obliquerly,
the
shape
it
markes
is
a
perfect
ellipse.
According
to
the
observer
and
their
position,
the
perspective
of
a
circle
may
be:
1.
An
ellipse
–
when
the
neutral
plane
doesn’t
cut
the
circle,
the
observer
being
in
the
real
or
intermediate
space.
2.
A
parabola
–
when
the
neutral
plan
is
tangential
to
the
visual
conical
surface,
therefore
the
neutral
line
is
the
tangent
of
the
circle.
3.
A
hyperbola
–
when
the
neutral
plane
cuts
the
circle
in
two
points,
thus
the
observer
is
inside
the
circle.
Projecting
a
circle
requires
fitting
the
circle
inside
a
square.
In
perspective,
the
circle
appears
as
an
ellipse
depending
on
the
orientation
of
the
square
to
one
or
two
vanishing
points.
For
a
more
accurate
drawing,
we
will
construct
an
ellipse
in
8
points.
30
Fig.
45
Circles
perspective
–
in
a
ortogonal
construction
we
can
draw
a
circle
using
a
square
and
join
the
diagonal
what
intersecting
the
circle.
Afther
that
we
can
divide
a
circle
in
8
point
and
project
this
to
vanishing
point.
Fig.
46
Circle
perspective
–
perspective
construction
with
point
F45.
31
Fig.47
Circle
perspective
–
construction
with
8
point
of
circle
drawing
in
a
square,
and
his
horizontal
projection.
Fig.48
Cylinder.
The
cross-‐section
of
a
cylinder
is
a
circle
so
naturally
each
end
will
be
seen
in
perspective
as
an
ellipse.
We
draw
each
ellipse
to
a
new
level.
32
SPHERE
Fig.49
Identification
imagine
of
sfere
on
the
vertical
plane
in
perspective.
Apparent
outline
1.
If
the
observer
concentrates
his
sight
on
the
centre
of
the
sphere,
the
sphere
will
appear
as
a
circle;
failing,
it
will
be
an
ellipse.
2.
The
perspective
of
the
sphere
seen
from
the
inside.
The
plane
covers
the
perspectives
of
the
meridians,
while
the
section
covers
the
nature
of
the
parallel
circles.
Fig.50
Putting
into
perspective
the
sphere
orthogonal
points.
33
Fig.
51
Construction
interior
design
perspective
of
the
sfere.
(ellipse
/
ellipse
/
parabola
/
hyperbola
/
hyperbola
/
hyperbola)
Fig.
52
Perspective
view
of
the
interior
design
of
Pantheon,
Roma.
34
12.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
IN
A
VERTICAL
PLANE
FOR
ACHITECTURE
The
free
perspective
method
to
a
vertical
plane
has
the
following
characteristics:
-‐it
achieves
a
good
proportion
of
the
perspective
through
the
clear
visibility
circle.
-‐it
establishes
the
optimal
distance
from
the
viewer
to
the
object
using
the
geometrical
relation
of
the
clear
visibility
radius
of
the
circle.
-‐the
clear
visibility
circle
allows
the
easy
choice
of
the
de
370
or
530
optimal
visual
angle.
-‐it
uses
the
measuring
points
for
a
proportional
representation.
-‐it
allows
the
establishment
of
a
graphic
scale
in
relation
with
the
human
height
and
the
dimensions
of
the
architectural
object.
-‐it
allows
an
easy
lay-‐out
in
relation
with
the
representation
surface.
The
free
perspective
resolves
two
categories
of
issues
directly
on
the
plane:
1.
Position
issues
(divisions,
intersection,
collinearity,
concurrence,
tangent,
parallelism)
2.
Metric
issues
(lengths
and
angles)
The
requirement
for
a
good
perspective
Fig.
53
The
perspective
visor
created
by
Horia
Teodoru.
The
visor’s
perception
proposed
by
professor
architect
Horia
Teodoru
in
his
treatise
”Perspectiva”
edited
in
1962,
is
a
model
in
35
choosing
a
good
perspective.
It
is
represented
by
a
3
cm
circle
on
a
cardboard
and
a
tangent
arm
to
the
visor
circle
where
the
distances
towards
the
centre
are
marked
(2
radii,
3
radii,
4
radii)
These
indicate
the
optimum
angle
for
perspective:
1.
-‐
4
radii
distance-‐
the
angle
of
the
visual
cone
has
280.
2.
–3
radii
distance-‐
the
angle
of
the
visual
cone
has
370.
3.
–2
radii
distance-‐
the
angle
of
the
visual
cone
has
530.
4.
–when
the
distance
is
less
than
2
radii,
the
perspective
will
be
forced.
Fig.
54
Wiewfinder
perspective
is
represented
to
a
window
where
we
drew
more
clear
visibility
circles.
We
can
choose
the
distance
from
the
glass
and
we
can
choose
angles
of
vision
clear
as
we
look
at
the
subject.
At
a
distance
of
4
rays
viewing
angle
is
28
degrees,
at
a
distance
of
3
rays
viewing
angle
will
be
37
degrees,
at
a
distance
of
2
rays
viewing
angle
is
53
degrees.
Considering
that
the
human
eye
yellow
spot
has
a
viewing
angle
of
35
clear
we
adapt
our
perspectve
an
angle
of
37
horizontal
and
28
degree
vertical.
36
Choosing
the
good
point
of
distance
Fig.
55
The
distance
of
the
point
of
view
towards
the
object.
-‐The
distance
determines
the
angle
under
which
the
perspective
object
is
seen
(2).
-‐The
visual
angle
gets
wider
when
getting
close
to
the
object
(3).
-‐When
the
angles
are
very
small
the
image
is
flat
(1).
-‐The
vanishing
angle
of
the
edges
is
enhanced
when
the
visual
angle
is
increased,
reaching
a
deformed
perspective
(4).
Good
visibility
areas:
In
order
to
obtain
a
good
perspective,
we
must
take
into
consideration
the
best
position
of
the
viewer
towards
the
architectural
object
for
a
right
visibility
so
that
the
representation
keeps
the
projected
proportion
as
close
to
reality
as
possible.
Therefore,
in
the
figures
below
we
distinguish:
-‐ Four
areas
of
good
frontal
visibility,
-‐ Two
areas
of
good
corner
visibility
included
in
field
B.
Fig.
56
The
angle
for
the
good
visibility
areas
depending
of
our
position.
37
Fig.
56
Views
possible
in
two
point
perspective.
There
is
an
infinity
of
possible
position
for
an
object
viewed
in
two-‐point
perspective.
Object
can
be
viewed
from
above,
from
underneath
and
the
left
and
right
in
the
same
way
as
those
viewed
in
one-‐
point,
the
difference
being
that
in
two-‐point
the
object
is
turned
at
an
angle
to
the
PP.
Fig.
58
Adifferent
angle
requres
a
different
vanishing
point.
Fig.
57
Objects
positioned
at
a
different
angle
to
the
PP.
38
13.
PERSPECTIVE
AT
TWO
VANISHING
POINT
EYE
LEVEL
HORIZON.
Two
point
perspective
is
the
most
commonly
used
construction
method
in
artistic
and
architectural
work.
In
the
following
we
will
see
a
model
representation
of
a
cube
in
a
corner
perspective
(two
vanishing
points)
looked
at
eye
level.
The
cube
can
be
associated
with
a
form
arhtectural,
any
interventions
on
it
change
its
shape
and
appearance.
Before
we
begin
setting
up
a
drawing
we
need
to
be
clear
about
what
is
meant
by
two-‐point
perspective.
If
an
object
is
viewed
in
two
point
perspective,
it
means
that
it
appears
to
stand
on
a
horizontal
plane;
its
side
planes
are
turned
at
an
angle
to
the
viewer
and
all
its
vertical
lines
are
parallel
to
the
PP.
When
drawing
an
object
viewed
in
two
point
perspective,
two
VP
(F,
F90)
are
used
and
horizontal
lines
appear
to
vanish
to
the
left
or
right
F
and
F90.
Fig.
57
Draw
distance
point
of
view
at
two
rays
from
horizon
line.
Choose
vertical
edge
of
a
cube
and
divided
to
find
unit
for
measuring.
39
Fig.
58
Draw
the
circle
of
clear
visibility
with
the
size
range
previously
established.
Considering
that
the
proportion
will
be
good
design
can
go
to
the
next
step.
Fig.
59
From
position
of
viewer
(Q),
that
corresponding
to
angle
530
we
draw
vanishing
points
at
90
degrees.
We
obtain
points
F
and
F90.
40
Fig.
60
Estabilishing
the
measuring
points.
Each
M
and
M90
is
found
by
taking
the
distance
from
the
F
AND
F90
to
the
eye
and
layng
it
along
horizon
line
with
the
F
and
F90
as
the
pivot,
or
putting
a
compass
point
on
a
F,F90
and
inscribing
an
arcthrough
Q
up
to
intersect
HL
Fig.
61
From
extreme
points
of
the
vertical
edge
of
the
cube
we
will
draw
directions
to
vanishing
point
F,
F90.
41
Fig.
62
Draw
horizontal
edges
in
the
true
size
of
the
cube.
They
are
marked
by
a
horizontal
line
taken
from
the
top
vertical
edge,
and
it
will
have
the
same
size
as
that.
Fig.
63
Draw
the
edges
of
the
cube
in
perspective
with
measurement
points.
Drawing
vertical
edges
of
the
points
of
intersection
established
vanishing
directions.
Thus
we
get
the
volume
of
the
cube
in
perspective
image.
42
Fig.
64
Divide
the
each
cube
faces
by
3
equal
parts.
The
measure
will
be
placed
to
the
horizontal
and
vertical
edges
of
the
cub
and
after
that
it
will
be
transferred
to
his
faces.
Fig.
65
Drawing
on
the
faces
of
the
cube
shape
contour
derived
from
volumetric
cube.
.
Method
to
draw
all
points
inside
of
architectural
envelope.
43
Fig.
66
Fore
more
complex
design
we
will
draw
a
grid
on
the
ceiling
to
facilitate
implementation
of
the
plan
of
buiding.
Fig.
67
Determination
of
a
point
located
inside
the
tire.
Measuring
the
coordinates
of
the
point
on
the
ceiling
plane
(1)
and
from
that
place
draw
a
vertical
line.
From
anvelope
edge
will
draw
a
vertical
(2)
to
front.
Level
of
the
point
we
measuring
to
first
edge
as
the
tire
and
it
will
draw
(3)
the
point
of
running
front
(F).
From
the
point
of
intersection
of
this
two
lines
(2)
and
(3)
we
will
draw
a
straight
horizontal
line(4)
oriented
to
the
vanishing
point
(F90),
that
it
will
meet
vertically
line
(5).
This
will
be
the
point
we
are
looking
for.
44
14.
PERSPECTIVE
AT
TWO
VANISHING
POINT,
OBJECT
BELOW
EYE
LEVEL
(a
bird’s
eye
view).
Fig.
68
Setting
up
the
framework.
Drawing
measuring
of
building
on
the
front
edge
and
estimate
viewer
distance
at
1,5
rays
from
P.
Fig.
69
After
construction
of
vanishing
point
(F,F90)
and
measuring
point
(M,M90)
we
can
drawing
the
box
.
45
Fig.
70
After
drawing
the
box
we
must
finding
point
in
the
interior
of
box.
Fig.
71
Drawing
a
grid
on
the
earth
plane
for
a
perspective
with
below
eye
level.
46
Fig.
72
Determination
of
a
point
located
inside
the
tire.
Measuring
the
coordinates
of
the
point
on
the
ceiling
plane
(1)
and
from
that
place
draw
a
vertical
line.
From
anvelope
edge
will
draw
a
vertical
(2)
to
front.
Level
of
the
point
we
measuring
to
first
edge
as
the
tire
and
it
will
draw
(3)
the
point
of
running
front
(F).
From
the
point
of
intersection
of
this
two
lines
(2)
and
(3)
we
will
draw
a
straight
horizontal
line(4)
oriented
to
the
vanishing
point
(F90),
that
it
will
meet
vertically
line
(5).
This
will
be
the
point
we
are
looking
for.
15.
PERSPECTIVE
AT
TWO
VANISHING
POINT,
OBJECT
ABOVE
EYE
LEVEL
(a
worm’s
eye
view).
Fig.
73
Setting
up
the
framework
for
a
good
below
eye
level
perspective.
Drawing
measuring
of
building
on
the
front
edge
and
estimate
viewer
distance
at
1,5
rays
from
P.
47
Fig.
74
After
construction
of
vanishing
point
(F,F90)
and
measuring
point
(M,M90)
we
can
drawing
the
box
.
Fig.
75
After
drawing
the
box
we
must
finding
point
in
the
interior
of
box..
48
16.
FREE
PERSPECTIVE
TO
A
SINGLE
VANISHING
POINT.
Fig.
71
Front
view
perspective
to
a
single
vanishing
point.
Taking
the
distance
point
(D)
at
a
length
equal
to
the
width
of
the
drawing
results
in
a
53°
angle
perspective.
(D)
point
allows
drawing
the
respective
grid
on
the
floor.
Fig.
72
Methods
of
construction
of
one
point
perspective
vanishing.
49
Fig.
73
Representing
one
point
perspective
vanishing.
Fig.
74
Methods
of
drawing
perspective
one
point
vanishing
eye
level.
50
Fig.
75
Methods
of
drawing
perspective
one
point
vanishing
bird’s
level
view.
Fig.
76
One
point
vanishing
perspective
after
Leonardo
da
Vinci.
51
Fig.
77
Study
one
point
vanishing
perspective
after
a
painting
by
Leonardo
da
Vinci.
16.
PERSPECTIVE
ON
AN
INCLINED
PLANE
In
case
of
perspectives
on
an
inclined
plane,
the
vertical
lines
seem
to
converge
to
a
third
vanishing
point.
These
perspectives
will
always
have
three
vanishing
points.
1.
Worm’s-‐eye
view
is
a
view
of
an
object
from
below.
It
is
used
when
projecting
extremely
high
architectural
objects
or
ceilings.
2.
Bird’s-‐eye
view
is
a
view
of
an
object
from
above.
It
is
used
when
projecting
the
structures
seen
from
considerable
heights.
52
Fig.
78
Reprezentarea
unor
cladiri
in
perspectiva
ascendenta
pe
tablou
inclinat.
Fig.
79
Reprezentarea
unor
cladiri
in
perspectiva
descendentă
pe
tablou
inclinat.
If
the
image
view
are
from
skay
to
earth
all
paralle
verticals
in
perspective
competing
in
a
new
vanishing
point
Fv,
that
is
considered
the
third
point
perspective
construction.
After the main direction of view picture perspective can be:
a. bottom-‐up perspective
53
-‐
vanishing-‐point
of
verticals
is
located
above
the
horizon.
-‐ the viewer looks building from its base to up.
-‐verticals
are
not
parallel
to
the
picture,
they
appear
inclined
and
competing
in
perspective.
-‐
point
of
view
(P)
is
not
situated
on
the
horizon,
it
is
above
or
below
to
that,
depending
on
the
type
of
perspective.
a
downward
perspective
-‐
vanishing
point
of
verticals
is
located
below
the
horizon.
-‐
the
viewer
is
somewhere
above
the
building.
-‐
verticals
are
not
parallel
to
the
picture,
they
appear
inclined
competing
in
perspective.
-‐
unit
of
vertically
measurement
is
not
realy,
it
has
decreased
by
the
laws
of
the
decrease
perspectives.
Constructing
the
three
vanishing
point-‐perspective
on
an
inclined
plane.
Fig.
80
Folding
perspective
two
vanishing
points
allows
the
construction
of
the
3-‐point
perspective
vanishing.
54
Fig.
81
Setting
the
measuring
points
and
the
main
directions
of
view.
The
point
P
is
intersection
of
main
direction.
Fig.
82
Cube
in
a
perspective
with
3
vanishing
points.
Constuction
methode
use
vanishing
point
F45.
55
Fig.
83
Method
diagonals
construction
perspective.
Fig.
84
Method
of
measurement
points
for
construction
perspective.
56