Module 4-1
Module 4-1
Module 4-1
DEFINE ELECTRONICS
WHAT IS ELECTRONICS ?
• The branch of physics and technology concerned with the design of circuits using
transistors and microchips, and with the behavior and movement of electrons in
a semiconductor, conductor, vacuum, or gas.
• The branch of science that deals with the study of flow and control of electrons
(electricity) and the study of their behavior and effects in vacuums, gases, and
semiconductors, and with devices using such electrons.
• The main difference between electrical and
electronics circuits is that electrical circuits have no decision
making (processing) capability, while electronic circuits do.
Evolution of electronics
Diode vacuum tube was the first electronic component invented by J.A. Fleming.
Later, Lee De Forest developed the triode, a three element vacuum tube capable of
voltage amplification.
In 1947, Bell laboratories developed the first transistor based on the research of
Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain.
In 1959, Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments developed the first integrated circuit.
Resistance
• When there is current through a material, the free electrons move through the material
and occasionally collide with atoms. These collisions cause the electrons to lose some of
their energy, thus restricting their movement. The more collisions, the more the flow of
electrons is restricted. This restriction varies and is determined by the type of
material. The property of a material to restrict or oppose the flow of electrons is called
resistance, R.
• Resistance is expressed in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω).
2. Length
3. Cross-sectional area
4. Temperature
R = ρl / A
• The inductance of a coil is one henry when current through the coil, changing at
the rate of one ampere per second, induces one volt across the coil.
• Intrinsic or pure semiconductors are those that are ideal, with no defects, and no
external impurities.
conductivity.
• Extrinsic semiconductors have some impurities added to modify the concentration
of charge carriers and hence the conductivity.
• An extrinsic semiconductor is formed by adding
impurities, called dopants to an intrinsic
semiconductor to modify the former's
electrical properties.
•
If we add a pentavalent atom (As, P etc.) as an impurity, the dopant atom replaces
a silicon atom substitutionally. As the dopant has five electrons, only four of these
can be used in forming covalent bonds while the fifth electron is loosely bonded to
the parent atom. This electron can become detached from the dopant atom by
absorbing thermal energy
PN-junction Diode
• A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type
material creating a semiconductor diode
• If the diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the other
hand, if the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow.
• The p-n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors works at higher
temperature when compared with the p-n junction diodes made from germanium
semiconductors.
Biasing of p-n junction semiconductor diode
• The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor
diode is called biasing. External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any
of the two methods: forward biasing or reverse biasing.
• When a PN junction diode is forward biased, the anode is positive with resect to the
cathode.
• When reverse biased the cathode is positive with respect to the anode.
• The process by which a depletion region at the p-n junction is destroyed and allows a
large reverse current is called depletion region breakdown.
Silicon and Germanium Semiconductor Diodes
• For designing the diodes, silicon is more preferred over germanium.
• The p-n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors works at high temperature than
the germanium semiconductor diodes.
• Forward bias voltage for silicon semiconductor diode is approximately 0.7 volts whereas for
germanium semiconductor diode is approximately 0.3 volts.
• Silicon semiconductor diodes start allowing the current flow, if the voltage applied on the
diode reaches 0.7 volts.
• Germanium semiconductor diodes start allowing the current flow, if the voltage applied on
the germanium diode reaches 0.3 volts.
• The cost of silicon semiconductors is low when compared with the germanium semiconductors.
VI characteristics of PN Junction Diode
• The Zener breakdown takes place in heavily doped diodes.
• If reverse voltage is applied on the narrow depletion p-n junction diode, the
immobile ions in the depletion region gains energy from the external voltage.
Hence, the electric field of the immobile ions increases. As a result, the overall
electric field of the narrow depletion region increases.
• At this point, a small increase in reverse voltage causes sudden rise in reverse
current.
• The charge carrier of the PN-junction diode absorbs heat from the
environment at normal room temperature. When the reverse biased
applied across the junction, the kinetic energy of the electrons increases
and they starts moving at high velocity. While moving, they collide with
the other atoms and creates the number of free electrons which causes
the reverse saturation current. Because of this saturation current, the
AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN mechanism occurs in the diode.
• One of the major difference between the Avalanche and the Zener breakdown is
that the Avalanche breakdown occurs because of the collision of the electrons due to
increased velocity, whereas the Zener breakdown occurs because of the high electric
field.
CB Configuration
CE Configuration
CC Configuration
Additional information
• Introduction to Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-VwPSDQmdjM
• Common Base CB Configuration
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NMD4KECE-7I
• Common Emitter Configuration
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KynKHr2cXgk
• Common Collector Configuration
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qwWj3bqnuDk
• Common Emitter Amplifier | Why Phase Shift between input & output ?
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAl1wSGyGho
• Transistor as Amplifier & Switch
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7RPmlhynHoY
• Relation between current amplification factors - alpha and beta
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4AgynmNJ6xQ
Why the current flows opposite to the direction of flow of electrons?
The concept of electricity was established before the discovery of electrons. So, it was
believed that the passage of current is due to the flow of positive charges. This is what
we call the conventional flow of current, i.e. in the direction of flow of positive charges.
After the discovery of electrons, it was observed that the electron are the particles that
flow in a conductor. Electrons being negatively charged flow from the negative terminal to
the positive terminal of the voltage source. So, the actual direction of current should be
from negative to positive terminal. However, the conventional direction had already been
established firmly in scientific fraternity. So, the current flow is considered in the
direction opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.