MB20107- MANAGERIAL SKILLS AND

COMMUNICATION
UNIT I
Introduction to skills & personal skills Importance of competent managers, skills of
effective managers, developing self-awareness on the issues of emotional intelligence,
self-learning styles, values, attitude towards change, learning of skills and applications of
skills– Negotiation and assertiveness skills.

ROLES OF MANAGER IN AN ORGANIZATION

1. Interpersonal roles: - In the process of management manager needs to interact with
subordinates to get things done by them, and also communicates with superiors, peers, trade union
leaders, customers, government and other agencies whose interest is involved in the business. Its
importance is evident from that a manager spends nearly 80 percent of his time, in interacting with
these parties.
Such interaction calls for proper knowledge and understanding on the part of the manager about
interpersonal behaviour. It helps the manager in establishing effective and congenial interpersonal
relationships and personal rapport with the parties. Such interaction involves the following three
types of interpersonal roles.
a) Figure head role: The manager works in a line of authority. His position is identified in
terms of formal authority, responsibility, obligations and relationship. As a symbol of formal
authority, he performs various ceremonial duties e.g. receiving visitors, attending weddings of
subordinates, singing various documents, delivering speeches and lectures in important social
gathering such as schools, clubs and other religious places. These duties and obligations of
ceremonial nature are very important for the smooth functioning of the organization. Managers are
not only identified with the success and failure of the organization, they also represent members of
organization and outsiders dealings with it.
b) Leadership role: The most important role of the manager is to lead, guide and motivate
subordinates and get work done properly. A manager is responsible not only for his own acts but for
the activities performed by his subordinates. The leadership qualities of the manager help him in
influencing the working behaviour of subordinates, contributing to a higher level of efficiency.
c) Liaison role: A manager serves as connecting link, vertically with superiors and
subordinates, and horizontally, with other managers at the same level. Outside the organization, the
managers have to undertake liaison to assess the external environment to enable the organization
to cope with it. The managers are indulged in power to negotiate and compromise with internal and
external forces such as trade unions, government and competitors.
2. Informal role: - To preserve and protect the identify of an organization and to secure its
smooth functioning, the manager has to scan the external environment on a regular basis and to deal
with outside parties, effectively for which he has to gather a lot relevant information on the various
matters concerning the organizations.
The manager plays three important informational roles while managing the operations of an
organization.
a) Role of monitor: The managers interact and deal with insiders and outsiders and scan
the external environmental constantly to get useful information. He collects information on the
various aspects of the organization and its environment through reports, informal relations dealings
and liaison work. He is the most well-informed member of his work group. While managing, he
monitors every situation closely and minutely, collects information regarding it and finally, solves it
effectively.
b) Role of disseminator: The manager continuously transmits selected information which
he has complied through the role of monitor to his subordinates. He keeps them well-in-formed
regarding any change in the process, structure, policies and other plans of the organization. The
needed information is disseminated among the subordinates by him through formal and informal
meetings, memorandums, orders and instructions issued from time to time.
c) Role of spokesperson: A manager acts as a spokesperson of his group while supplying
information to superiors and peers. Similarly, he keeps outside parties well-informed on behalf of
the organization. He negotiates and enters into comprise with internal and external parties.
3. Decision-making roles: - By interacting with insiders and outsiders, the manager gets
important information, which he can use or taking decisions and solving problems. According to
Mintzberg, information is the basic input for decision-making for managers, who play four decision-
making roles.
a) As an entrepreneur: The managers have a primary responsibility of improving the
overall functioning of their respective work units. They act as an entrepreneur; take bold decisions,
seek better results from subordinates, initiate required changes, implementing them for the
betterment of organization. To initiate and implement changes, managers have to be dynamic,
innovative and creative. They direct efforts towards discovering new product ideas with the active
help of employees examine the economic viability of the ideas and arrange necessary resources for
implementation.
b) As a disturbance or conflict handler: An organization is a collective entity with diversity
of interest and duality of roles for managers. For example, the owners group may be interested in
high profits whereas the employees may seek more benefits in the form of higher wages and better
working conditions. In such situations, it is only by applying managerial knowledge and playing the
role of conflict handlers, thinking analytical and acting practically, that the managers can hope to
effectively integrate the interest of employees with the organization. Similar conflicts may arise with
outside parties which would have to be resolved through meetings, negotiations and compromise.
c) As a resource allocator: To manage the organization, physical and human resources are
mobilized and utilized efficiently by managers for the accomplishment of pre-determined objectives.
They have to play the role of resources allocators. And, in the case of multiple objectives, they set
priorities for allocation of resources. In the life cycle of an organization, priorities keep changing. For
example, at the initial stages of formation of an organization, the survival objectives get top priority
which may be activities. Some activities may be critical or more important for survival and
profitability. Others may be supportive and less important. Managers allocate resources for these
activities in accordance with their priorities.
d) As a negotiator: Managers work on behalf of the organization or work unit, and
subordinates, not only as a spokesperson but also as negotiator. They enter into an agreement on
behalf of the organization. For example, the personnel manager negotiates with trade unions and
representatives of workers. Similarly, the finance manager may negotiate with financial institutions
for securing funds at reasonable cost and the purchase manager may be interested in negotiating
terms and conditions for purchasing raw material etc. sometimes managers negotiate with other
members of the organization for reducing their disagreements about goals and roles. As disputes
arises in an organization, the manager take up the role of indicator, negotiator and arbitrator.

LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT
In an organization, there are levels among managers according to a chain of command. This scalar
chain is made up of superior-subordinate relationships. The levels of management denote a series
of managerial positions as hierarchy of command. These levels determine the authority, role and
status of managers. The number of managerial levels depends upon the size of the concern and
complexity of operations. Management levels have been classified into four categories:

Top Management
Top management of a company comprises of Chairman, President, Chief Executive, Board of
Directors etc. This is the policy-making group responsible for the overall direction and control. Top
management is held responsible for the overall management of the concern. It is the ultimate source
of authority. It establishes overall goals, plans, strategies, and broad operating policies and
guidelines of the company.

Upper Middle Management

Various divisional and departmental heads constitute the upper middle management. These
functional mangers, such as works manager, marketing manager, personnel manager, finance
manager etc. are responsible for the efficient functioning of their units within the framework of the
goals and policies decided by the top management. Upper middle management is mainly concerned
with realizing short term goals and day-to-day management of their departments. It acts as buffer
between the top managers and subordinate managers. Its responsibilities are to translate executive
orders into operation, implement plans, and directly supervise lower level managers.

Middle Management
This level of management consists of deputy heads of departments, sectional officers, plant
managers, office managers, branch managers, area sales managers, chief accountant, purchase
officer etc. these managers have to keep a constant watch on the day-to-day performance. They deal
with operations. They interpret and explain the policies decided by top managers. They issue
detailed and specific instructions regarding operations. They also take problems, difficulties, and
suggestions upward. They develop and train operative personnel.
Supervisory or First-Line Management
First line management consists of plant superintendent, senior foreman, clerical supervisor, lab
supervisor, accounts officers, etc. They deal with technical routine and day-to-day problems. They
are a link between lower level and higher levels of management. Their job is concerned with the
management of workers, resources, and actual operations. They possess technical skills. They
explain work procedures, send reports, supervise and control workers and maintain discipline. They
also harmonize interdepartmental relationships.

MANAGERIAL SKILLS
A manager’s job is complex and multidimensional. It requires a range of skill to perform the duties
and activities associated with it. Regardless of the level of management, managers must possess and
seek to further develop many critical skills. A skill is an ability or proficiency in performing a
particular task. Management skills are learned and developed.

An effective manager must possess the following skills to perform his job well:
1. Technical Skill: Technical skill is the ability to use the procedures, techniques, and
knowledge of a specialized field. Engineers, accountants, doctors, and musicians all have technical
skills in their respective fields. Technical skill also includes analytical ability and the competent use
of tools and work equipments to solve problems in that specific discipline. Technical skills are
especially important for first-line managers. These skills become less important than human and
conceptual skills as managers move up the hierarchy.
Human or Psychological Skill: Human skill is the ability to work with people by getting along with
them. It is the ability to motivate, lead and to communicate effectively with others. It is also known as
‘people’, ‘interpersonal’ or ‘behavioural’ skill. This skill is important as the managers spend
considerable time interacting with people both inside and outside the firm. Managers require such
skill for the following specific reasons:
● To get the best out of their people.
● To communicate, motivate, lead and inspire enthusiasm and trust.
● To get the job done.
● To coordinate and resolve conflicts.
● To allow subordinates to express themselves.
● To take care of the human side of the organization.
● To facet eh challenges of globalization, workforce diversity and competition.
● To keep people busy.
● To retain good workers in the firm.
● To improve overall organizational performance.

Human skills are equally important at all levels of management. A related aspect of human skill is
political skill which is a distinct type of social skill that is important for managerial success.

2. Conceptual Skill: Conceptual skills are most important at the top management levels.
More specifically, conceptual skills refer to the ability:
● To organize information and to judge relationships within a complex whole.
● To think and to conceptualize about complex situations.
● To see organization as a whole.
● To understand the relationships among various sub-units.
● To visualize how organization fits into its broader environment.
● To recognize significant elements in a situation and to understand the relationships
among the elements.
● To understand how a change in one unit will impact the other units.
● To coordinate and integrated the entire organization’s interests and activities.
● To think in the abstract.
Conceptual skill is often called the ability to see the ‘big picture’. It means the ability to ‘think
strategically’- to take the broad, long-term view. The importance of conceptual skills increases as the
manager is promoted higher in the organization.

3. Diagnostic Skill: This is the skill that enables a manager to visualize the most appropriate
response to a situation. A manager can diagnose and analyze a problem in the organization by
studying its symptoms and then developing a solution. It is the ability to define the problem,
recognize its possible causes, focus on the most direct problem, and then solve it.
It is the ability to determine, by analysis and examination, the nature and circumstances of a
particular condition. It is not only ability to specify why something occurred, but also the ability to
develop certain speculations in ‘what if’ situation.
It can be noted that managers generally use different combinations of skills at different levels of an
organization. For example, top managers rely heavily on conceptual and diagnostic skills and first-
line managers put more emphasis on technical and interpersonal skills. Many experts have
suggested few more additional skills for managers to perform their roles successfully. They are as
follows:

4. Design Skill: According to Koontz and Weihrich, managers at upper organizational levels
must have the skill of a good design engineer in working out a practical solution to problems. Design
skill is the ability to solve problems in ways that benefit the enterprise. Managers must be able
to do more than see a problem. If they become ‘problem watchers’, they will fail. They must be able
to design a ‘workable solution; to the problem in the light of the realities they face.
5. Analytical Skill: These skills involve using scientific approaches or techniques to solve
management problems. In essence, analytical skills are the abilities to identify key factors and
understand how they interrelate. These skills include the ability to diagnose and evaluate. These are
needed to understand problems and to develop plans of action for their solution. It is ability to think
about how multiple complex variables interact.
6. Decision Making Skill: All managers must make decisions, and the quality of these
decisions determines their degree of effectiveness. Duening and Ivancevich state that a manager’s
decisions making skill in selecting a course of action is greatly influenced by his analytical skill. All
managers must have decision making skills. Research indicates that half of managers’ decisions fail
because managers employ ‘failure-prone tactics’.
7. Digital Skill: Managers must how to use digital technology to perform many aspects of
their jobs. This skill increases a manager’s productivity. This skill involves a conceptual
understanding of computers and telecommunications. Through computers, managers can perform
in minute’s tasks in financial analysis, human resources planning and other areas that otherwise task
hour to complete.
8. Interpersonal Skill: Effective communication is vital for effective managerial
performance. This skill is crucial to managers who must achieve results through the efforts of others.
It is the ability to exchange ideas and information’s in ways that other people understand the
message. It also involves feedback from employees to ensure that one is understood. If managers are
to succeed in the workplace, they must strengthen their communication skills.
9. Planning and Administration Skill: This skill involves deciding what tasks need to be
done, determining how they can be done. Allocation resources to enable then to be done, and them
monitoring process to ensure that they are done. Included in this competency are:
● Information gathering, analysis, and problem solving;
● Planning and organizing projects;
● Time management; and
● Budgeting and financial management
10. Teamwork Skill: It is the skill to: (i) design teams properly, (ii) create a supportive team
environment; and (iii) manage team dynamics appropriately. Because more and more organizations
are relying on team to improve quality and productivity, it becomes important for managers to
develop their teamwork skill.
11. Strategic Action Skill: Strategic action skill involves understanding the overall mission
and values of the organization and taking strategic actions. Today, managers at all levels and in all
functional areas are being challenged to think strategically in order to perform their jobs better;
12. Global Awareness Skill: Today, most of the companies are serving global markets. Many
organizations need to set up operations in other countries. Hence, it has become necessary for
managers to develop global awareness competency. This skill is reflected in (i) cultural knowledge
and understanding, and (ii) cultural openness and sensitivity.
13. Self-Management Skill: The dynamic work environment calls for self-awareness and
development. Effective managers have to develop self-employment skill which includes:
● Integrity and ethical conduct,
● Personal drive and resilience,
● Balancing work and life demands,
● Self-awareness and development, and
● Learning about self.

PERSONAL SKILLS
1. DEDICATION: Dedication is the hardware and effort put by an individual or a group
towards any work, task or project considering it to be important.

● It is a feeling of commitment and loyalty towards a thing playing a important role for
individual as well as organization/
● Dedication basically speaks for itself. Managers heed to towards their self-
management so that they can be able to work with dedication towards the individual assignments
given to them.
● Dedication is often related with commitment towards an organization in order to
retain or stay with corporation for a long time. This is the past era.
● Presently in this Era of right sizing, down sizing and mergers expecting such long-
term dedication is unrealistic. Individuals also focus on their career development and switch over
for various job opportunities helpful for their growth and development.
● So in present time managers are expected to maintain self-discipline to accomplish
their basic job functions and show more dedication towards individual assignment or work allotted
to them.
2. PERSISTANCE: Persistence is a firm determination of accomplishing an objective or goal
despite of many difficulties, hurdles and uncertainties. This personal skill involves a manager in
developing an approach to complete or accomplish a defined task in allotted times regardless of
technical. Logistical, organizational or (supply and distribution) personal hurdles. Manager should
have the skills to face all the difficulties coming in the way of task achievement. Time, resources and
risk has to be managed efficiently by a manager. A manager should set up the goals and must do
proper planning to achieve those goals. Persistence is normally an inherited skill. It cannot be built
through training or reminders.
3. ASSERTIVENESS: Assertiveness is a way of expressing views, ideas opinion or desire with
full confidence so that people can notice them. Managers must have the quality to put their views,
ideas or opinions confidently in front of others in the organization working at all the levels of
management top level, middle level and high level. Managers must have the skills to accept the
challenges with positive attitude and confidence. They should be self confident in their thoughts and
actions. Managers should recognize their importance as well as of others.

The seven Learning Style –

1. Visual (Spatial) – You prefer using pictures, imagers and spatial understanding
2. Aural (auditory-musical) – You presser using sound and music
3. Verbal (linguistic) – You prefer using words, both in speech and writing
4. Physical (kinesthetic) – You prefer using your body, hands and sense of touch.
5. Logical (mathematical) – You prefer using logic, rezoning and systems.
6. Social (interpersonal) – you prefer to learn in groups or with other people.
7. Solitary (interpersonal) – you prefer to work alone and use self-study.

Understand the basis of learning styles

Your learning styles have more influence than you may realize/ your preferred style guide the way
you learn. They also change the way you internally represent experiences, the way you recall
information, and even the words you choose. We explore more of these features in this chapter.
Research shows us that each learning style uses different parts of the brain. by involving more of the
brain during learning, we remember more of what we learn. Researchers using brain imaging
technologies have been able to find out the key areas fo the brain responsible for each learning style.

For example –
● Visual – The occipital lobes at the back of the brain manage the visual sense. Both the
occipital and parletial lobes manage spatial orientation.
● Aural – The temporal lobes handle aural content. The right temporal lobe is especially
important for music.
● Verbal – The temporal and frontal lobes, especially two specialized areas called Broca’s
and Wernicke’s areas (in the left hemisphere of these two lobes)

Physical – the cerebellum and the motor cortex (at the back of the frontal lobey) handle much of our
physical movement.
● Logical – The parietal lobes, especially the left side, drive our logical thinking.
● Social – The frontal and temporal lobes handle much of our social activities. The limbic
system (not shown apart from the hippocampus) also in influence both the social and solitary styles.
The limbic system has a lot to do with emotions, moods and aggression.
● Solitary – The frontal and parietal lobes and the limbic system, are also active with this
styles.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
‘Emotional intelligence is aggregate of individuals’ cognition of own and other’s emotions, feeling,
interpretation and action as per environmental demand to manipulate the consequence which in
turn result in superior performance and better human relationship’ (Bhattacharya, 2003).
Emotional intelligence is a measure of the degree to which a person makes use of his/her reasoning
in the process of emotional responses (both positive and negative) in a given situation. So having
high emotional intelligence doesn’t mean that the person never panics or loses his/her temper. It
does mean that he/she brings own feelings under control and channels them into productive
behaviors. The ability to bring out-of-control emotions back into line results in what earlier
generations called emotional maturity.

Emotional intelligence :- “Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand your emotions and
those of other people and to behave appropriately in different situations.

Emotions:- A strong feeling such as love, year or anger.

“Emotions are responses to specific events that have meaning to the individual either positive or
negative.

Intelligence: - “A ability to understand anything in a logical way about things.

The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by
Goleman (1995). He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social competences.
Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves, whereas social competence determines
how we handle our interpersonal relationships.

Goleman’s emotional intelligence model (1995)

Emotional intelligence

Personal competence Social competence

Self- Empathy, Social Skills

awareness,
Self-
regulation
Motivation

PERSONAL COMPETENCIES
How we understand and management are emotions and manager ourselves.
1. Self Awareness: - Self awareness is an ability of an individual to observe – understand their
feelings of emotions when they arise
“Recognize the feelings as the occur”
This includes self-confidence, self-assessment a openness to positive criticism.
2. Self-regulation:- Self regulation is the ability to control emotions and to redirect those
emotions that can have negative impact and change them into positive behavior and attitude. It
includes trust worthiness integrity and attitude towards change acceptance.
Self Motivation:- Motivation is the ability to channelize and stimulate your emotions of action
through self gathering or control towards achievement of certain goals of objectives in spite of inertia
(i.e. difficulty lack of desire of energy of ability to move to change or to action.) People who have this
ability are optimistic and committed towards organization as well as individual goals.

SOCIAL COMPETENCIES
How we understand the emotions of others and handle and management are interpersonal
relationships.
3. Empathy: - Ability to feel as get concerned for others. Ability to understand others their
feelings, perceptions, perspectives and to treat them according to their emotional reactions. People
having this competency or ability are experts in motivating others.
4. Social Interpersonal Skills: - Ability to built a good rapport of relationship with people in
the organization.
Handling interpersonal relationship conflict resolution an negotiations.

SOME MYTHS ABOUT EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotional intelligence must be taken in right perspective. However, because of certain myths about
emotional intelligence, it is not taken in right perspective. Some of the most common myths about
emotional intelligence are as follows:
1. Emotional intelligence is sometimes treated as being nice to others which is not true.
Emotional intelligence generates rational behaviour which must suit to the situation. In many
situations, ‘being nice to others’ is not a rational behaviour because the other person does not expect
such as nicety. In these situations, even conforming or avoiding behaviour is the demand of
emotional intelligence.
2. Emotional intelligence does not mean giving free rein to feelings. Rather, it involves
managing feelings so that these are expressed appropriately and effectively, enabling people to work
together towards common goals.
3. There is a myth that men have higher emotional intelligence than women. It is not true.
Various researches have shown that emotional intelligence has nothing to do with gender though
there are certain gender-specific characteristics of men and women. Men and women have their
personal profile of strengths and weaknesses which may vary among different groups of men and
women.
4. There is myth that emotional intelligence is fixed genetically and develops only in, early
childhood. This is not true. While IQ does not change much after adolescence, emotional intelligence
changes over the period of time. This happens because IQ is a biological phenomenon. Therefore,
emotional intelligence changes over the period of time through learning which life-long process is.
In fact, through training and development programs, it has been possible to increase the emotional
intelligence of people.

DEVELOPING EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotional intelligence is a learned phenomenon and, therefore, it can be developed in people. Even
scientists believe that emotional intelligence has nothing to do with biological factors of a person
and it can be developed in people. However, this development process begins at the early stage of
childhood and this process continues throughout the life, through in the later part of the life, this
development process becomes much slower. Therefore, in an organizational context, concerted
efforts are required to develop emotional intelligence.

1. Preparation for Change 3. Transfer and maintenance

2. Training 4. Evaluation of change

1. Preparation for Change: Preparation for change is the first phase for developing emotional
intelligence. This phase occurs even before an individual begins training for developing emotional
intelligence. Preparation for change occurs at both organizational and individual levels. This phase
is basically related to assessing organizational and individual needs for developing emotional
developing emotional intelligence. Usually, this phase consists of the following steps:
(i) Assessing the Organisation’s Needs: The organisation must assess whether its
personnel need training for developing emotional intelligence and, if yes, what type of training is
required. In assessing the organizational needs, two points are important which must be taken into
account. First, many employees in the Organisation and work performance. Second, there is a need
for identifying various emotional competencies required for success in the organization.
(ii) Assessing Personal Strengths and Weaknesses: There is a need for assessing personal
strengths and weaknesses. While assessing such strengths and weaknesses, care should be taken to
assess the employees approach towards the need for emotional intelligence and their learn ability
so that emotional competencies can be infused in them. Often, there are two challenges that lie in
assessing personal strengths and weaknesses. First, people are less aware of skill weaknesses in the
social-emotional domains. Second, emotional competencies are primarily manifested in social
interactions. Therefore, the best approach is one which involves ratings by experts who interact with
employees.
(iii) Providing Feedback. People are eager to get feedback about any assessment of them.
Therefore, immediate feedback must be made available to them. However, there are many pitfalls in
providing feedback on emotional competencies as these are closely linked to employee’s identity and
self-esteem. Therefore, in the feedback is not provided carefully and with sensitivity and skill,
employees often become defensive. Generally, employees respond.
(iv) Encouraging Participation. Emotional intelligence is perceived to be soft and, thus,
somewhat suspect. Therefore, employees may decide not to participate in its development unless
they are convinced that management of the oraganisation strongly endorses it. Since development
of emotional intelligence requires active participation of employees, it is necessary to encourage this
participation.
(v) Linking learning Goals to Personal Values. There is a direct linkage between the
benefits of learning and the learner’s motivation to learn. Thus, if employees feel that developing
emotional intelligence is directly beneficial to them, they will be motivated to develop emotional
intelligence. Therefore, it is necessary that management links learning with the personal goals of the
employees that they value.
(vi) Recognising Readiness to Change. After completing the above steps of preparation for
change, it is desirable to measure readiness of employees to change, that is, to determine whether
employees are ready to participate meaningfully in training programme for developing emotional
intelligence. Research on behaviour change programmes reveals that employees pass through
several stages of readiness for change before they are actually ready to make commitment for
change.

2. Training: At the second phase of development of emotional intelligence, training is provided

to the participants in development programme. There may be training on different aspects of
emotional intelligence like overcoming negative emotions, developing interpersonal skills,
developing empathic listening, and time management, and so on depending on the participants’
individual needs. However, while providing such training, following points should be observed:
i. Forging Relationship with Participants: for a trainer, it is’ essential that he forges a
positive relationship between him and participants because the relationship between trainer and
learner is critically important. The positively motivated, he will not take concrete steps for change.
Therefore, it is desirable for the trainer to create a motivating environment for learning by showing
empathic, warm, and genuine interest in learners. All these are important ingredients of emotional
learning.
ii. Setting Clear Goals: Emotional learning can be made more effective by setting clear
goals. Generally, all persons do not require similar types of emotional training because of individual
differences. They have separate sets of strengths and weaknesses. Not control fear or other
emotional variables. Therefore, depending on the weaknesses of participants, specific and clear goals
should be set so that training efforts are well directed. The trainer can help the participants to set
their own specific learning goals.
iii. Breaking Goals into Manageable Steps: Since larger goals are generally unmanageable
especially in the context of emotional change, it is better that these goals are broken into manageable
units so that these are achieved step-by-step. When a particular goal, even a small one, is achieved,
this increases people’s efficacy which, in turn, leads to setting more challenging goals and efforts for
achieving them. In this way, achieving of higher goals, that is, development of emotional intelligence,
is possible.
iv. Maximising Self-directed Change: Employees are more likely to develop emotional
intelligence when they decide their own goals for developing particular emotional competencies
with the help of the trainer. In the same way, training programmes on emotional intelligence are
more effective when the trainer adopts, the training to match employees’ needs, goals, and learning
style preferences. Since individuals differ, a common approach of training for all employees may not
be suitable. Rather, individual differences and motivates them for self-directed change.
v. Maximising Opportunities for Practice: As far as possible, employees should be
provided maximum possible opportunities to develop emotional intelligence through practice
during the training period. Since development of emotional intelligence is an art, rather than a
science, it can be developed through practice and not merely through lectures and other one-sided
methods of training. Emotional learning because old, ineffective neural connections need to be
weakened and new, more effective ones established. Such a process requires repetition over a
prolonged period of time.
vi. Relying on Experiential Methods: For making training programmes on development of
emotional intelligence effective, it is better to rely on experiential methods such as role playing,
sensitivity training, emotion-related games, group dynamics training, and other simulation methods.
These methods rely more on learners’ participation, hence suitable for behavioral change & unlike
lectures which emphasis on developing knowledge and not the practice. Lectures are suitable only
for understanding various facets of emotional intelligence.
vii. Using Models: In training programmes for developing emotional intelligence, models
must be as far as possible because modeling of the desired behaviour is particularly valuable in
emotional learning. By using models, a great deal can be learned as emotional learning is practice-
oriented. Learning is further enhanced when the trainer encourages and helps learners to study,
analyze, and emulate the models.
viii. Providing Frequent Feedback: Feedback to employees is very important during the
change process as it works as an indicator whether the employees are on right track. Feedback also
acts as reinforce and sustains motivation of employees to learn new behaviour. In emotional training,
feedback is especially important because learners often have trouble in recognising how their
emotional behaviour manifests itself. In fact, self-awareness is an important element for developing
emotional intelligence, and it is not necessary that every learner is competent enough to have self-
awareness. Feedback fulfils this gap.
ix. Preventing Relapse: Preventing relapse is necessary in emotional learning. The essence
of preventing relapse is to prepare employees mentally to face slips, to recognise that setbacks are
normal part of the change process. Participants in an emotional training programme are likely to
encounter many setbacks as they strive to apply new behaviors. Without adequate preparation for
such setbacks, they may easily become discouraged and give up their efforts for change before the
task of neural learning has reached the point where the newly learned Reponses become automatic
ones.
3. Transfer and Maintenance: After finishing training, the learners return back to their normal
jobs with old prevailing work environment, the learners find many old cues of behaviour and tend
to behave in the ways which have been changed during training process. With the result, newly-
learned ingredient of behavioral pattern. Thus, transfer and maintenance of new behaviour become
really a challenging task for the Organisation. An Organisation can take two steps for transfer and
maintenance of learning in its employees: encouraging the use of skills on the job and supportive
organizational culture.
i. Encouraging Use of Skills: A new behaviour may become a part of an individual’s normal
pattern of behaviour if it is supported by the persons with whom he interacts in the Organisation.
Such persons may be his superiors, peers, subordinates, and outsiders who interact with him. These
persons are required to change their behavioral expectations from the individual. If they have the
old expectations, they may not appreciate the new behaviour of the individual. Therefore, such
persons may also require some kind of change which may occur on their own practice or through
training. That is why emotional training is not very effective if it is imparted on isolated basis. Its
effectiveness is ensured only through Organisation-wide training.
In addition to change in behavioral expectations, the newly trained employees should be encouraged
to work according to the new skills. such an encouragement may come from all the persons
interacting with the individual, however, the role of his immediate superior is more important
because he is in a better position to provide reinforcement to the new behaviour displayed by his
subordinate. It has been seen that reinforcement is necessary for learning and adoption of new
behaviour.
ii. Supportive Organizational Culture: supportive organizational culture is necessary for
transfer and maintenance of emotional learning because organisational culture is the framework
within which the behaviors of the members take place. Organisational culture is the set of
assumptions, beliefs, values, and norms that are shared by an organisation’s members every with
some unique modes of behaviour. These unique modes distinguish an Organisation from others. If
the organisatoinal culture is supportive, it facilitates transfer and maintenance of emotional learning
by allowing the members to experiment innovation and organisational culture characterized by
challenging jobs, linking rewards with performance, emphasis on creativity and innovation, and
creating alignment by translating core values into goals, strategies, and practices is more suitable for
developing emotional intelligence. Such cultural characteristics motivate organisatoinal members to
increase their productivity through more appropriate behaviours. Emotional intelligence
contributes significantly to adopt appropriate behaviours.
4. Evaluation of Change: The last phase in emotional development is evaluation of change. In
the process of development of emotional intelligence, it should be ensured that the efforts made are
proceeding in right direction and these are achieving the results stipulated. The term evaluation
refers to a process that focuses on continuous improvement in behaviour due to development of
emotional intelligence. it is an on-going process rather than being one-shot action. Evaluation of
training programmes for emotional learning, though necessary for measuring effectiveness of the
programmes, is often missed by many organisations. With the result, the efforts of such
organisations do not produce the results up to desired level. Keeping this phenomenon in mind,
many organisations programmes, whether behavioral or others must be evaluated. in evaluating the
effectiveness of change efforts related to the development of emotional intelligence, following steps
are followed:
i. Defining Change Objectives: Any evaluation of an action is made in the light of the
objectives which it seeks to achieve. Therefore, the change programmes related to the development
of emotional intelligence must be evaluated in the light of emotional competencies that are to be
developed in the participants. However, since such competencies may be of different types, these
must be identified in advance. Similarly, the criteria for the acquisition of each type of emotional
competencies must also be specified in advance. However, prescribing such criteria may not be easy
task because of the operation of a number of factors affecting one’s behaviour at workplace. In order
to overcome this phenomenon, the criteria may be determined in two forms: immediate criteria and
ultimate criteria. Immediate criteria are related to behavioral pattern shown by learners during the
training process. These criteria are easily measurable through psychological tests. Problems emerge
in the case of ultimate criteria which are defined in terms of learner’s actual behavioural pattern at
the workplace. Since behavioural pattern at the workspace is affected by a number of factors external
to the learners, these factors must be identified in advance and care should be taken to measure the
effects of these factors. After eliminating the effects of these factors, objective evaluation of change
efforts can be made.
ii. Collection of Information: For evaluating the effectiveness of change efforts to develop
emotional intelligence, information should be collected from various sources. These sources are in
the form of learner’s immediate superior and other superiors with whom he interacts, his peers and
subordinates, outsiders with whom the learner interacts in the course of organisational working,
and the learner’s own views. In fact, many organisations have adopted this practice for appraising
performance of their employees. This system is known as 360 degree appraisal. Besides collecting
information from these sources, information should be collected about the actual output of the
learner as reflected in the form of productivity, absenteeism, tardiness, etc.
iii. Analysis: Collected information may be analysed to interpret the impact of change efforts
for developing emotional intelligence. There may be several aspects is being affected by several
factors, the analysis may be carried out further to identify the contribution of change efforts. Two
points are important in information collection and its analysis. First, information to measure the
immediate impact of change efforts should be collected immediately after change efforts are over
because learners may observe the old behaviour even after change efforts if the new behaviour is
not gratifying due to various organisational constraints. Second, there should be immediate feedback
to the learners concerned so that they are also able to know the results of change efforts. Immediate
feedback also acts as energising factor.

EXAMPLES OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGNECE

1. You are in a meeting when a colleague takes credit for work that you have done. What do you
do?
a. Immediately and publicly confront the colleague over the ownership of your work.
b. After the meeting, take the colleague aside and tell her that you would appreciate in
the future that she credits you when speaking about your work.
c. Nothing, it’s not a good idea to embarrass colleagues in public.
d. After the colleague speaks, publicly thank her for referencing your work and give the
group more specific details about what you were crying to accomplish.
2. You are a manager in an organization that is trying to encourage respect for racial
and ethnic diversity. You overhear someone telling a racist joke. What do you do?
a. Ignore it. The best way to deal with these things is not to react.
b. Call the person into your office and explain that their behaviour is inappropriate and
is grounds for disciplinary action if repeated.
c. Speak up on the spot, saying that such jokes are inappropriate and will not be
tolerated in your organization.
d. Suggest to the person telling the joke that he go through a diversity training program.
3. A discussion between you and your partner has escalated into a shouting match. You are both
upset and in the heat of the argument, start making personal attacks which neither of you really
mean. What are the best things to do?
a. Agree to take a 20-minute break before continuing the discussion.
b. Go silent, regardless of what your partner has to say.
c. Say you are sorry, and ask your partner to apologize too.
d. Stop for a moment, collect your thoughts, then restate your side of the case as
precisely as possible.
4. You have been given the task of managing a team that has been unable to come up with a
creative solution to a work problem. What is the first thing that you do?
a. Draw up an agenda, call a meeting and allot a specific period of time to discuss each
item.
b. Organize an off-site meeting aimed specifically at encouraging the team to get to
know each other better.

Begin by asking each person individually for ideas about how to solve the problem.
c. Start out with a brainstorming session encouraging each person to say whatever
comes to mind, no matter how wild.
5. You have recently been assigned a young manager in your team and have noticed that he
appears to be unable to make the simplest of decisions without seeking advice from you. What do
you do?
a. Accept that he “does not have what it takes to succeed here” and find others in your
team to take on tasks.
b. Get an HR manager to talk to him about where he sees his future in the organization.
c. Purposely give him lots of complex decisions to make so that he will become more
confident in the role.
d. Engineer an ongoing series of challenging but manageable experiences for him, and
make yourself available to act as his mentor.

LEARNING
Meaning of learning:
Learning is the process by which individuals acquire knowledge & experience to be applied in future
reaction to situation. Learning from particulars phenomenon depends upon one’s personality,
perception, motivation & situation. The learning process involves motivation, eyes, responses &
reinforcement.

Three general definitions

● Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a
result of Prior Experience
● Generally learning is describes as the process of having one’s Behaviour modified more or
less permanently by what he does & the consequences of his action or by what he observes.
● Learning can be defines as relatively permanent change in behaviour potentiality that
results from reinforced practice of experience

Definitions by Authors
Learning could be defined as a relatively permanent change in Behaviour that occurs as a result of
prior experience
E.R. Higard
Learning has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, responds as a result of experience in a
manner different from the way he formally Behaved.
W. Mchehee

Process of Learning
1. Learning invariably involves a change though not necessary improvement in Behaviour.
The learning may be good or bad from an organizations point of view for ex., bad habits, prejudice,
work restrictions may be learned by an individual.
2. Change in behaviour must be relatively permanent temporary changes may be only
reflexive and fail to represent any learning. Changes called by fatigue or temporary adaptations are
not covered in learning.
3. Change in behaviour should occur as a result of Experience, practice or training. The
change may not be evident until a situation arises in which new behaviour can occur.

Theories of Learning
There are four theories which explain how individuals learn new patterns of behaviour

Classical Conditioning Operant Social Cognitive

Conditioning Learning Learning

1. Classical Conditioning
Learning through classical conditioning (C.C) was first studied by Ivan Pavlov, a famous Nobel Price
winning physiologist, at the turns of 20th century. The C.C. theories deals with the association of one
event with another desired event resulting in a desired behaviour of learning

Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog to study the relation between the dog’s salivation and
ringing of a bell. A simple surgical procedure helped him to measure accurately the amount of salvia
secretes by dog. When Pavlov presented a piece of meat to the dog, he noticed a great deal of
salivation. He termed the food unconditional stimulus (food automatically caused salivation)
And salivation – an unconditioned Response when the dog sew the meat it salivated during the
second stage
Pavlov merely rang a bell (neutral stimulus) the dog did not salivate. Pavlov subsequently introduced
the sound of bell each time the meat was given to dog. Thus meat & ringing of bell were linked
together. The dog eventually leant to salivate in response to ringing bell even when there was no
meat.
2. Operant Conditioning (OC)
O.C is defined as “Behaviour the that produces effect.” OC is based on work of B.F. Skinner who
advocated that individual’s exhibit responses that are rewarded and will not exhibit response that
are either not rewarded or are punished.
O.C also called instrument conditioning refers to the process that our behaviour produces certain
consequences & how we behave in future will depend on what those consequences. If our action
have pleasant effect then we will be more likely to repeat them in future. If however our actions have
unpleasant effect we are less likely to repeat them in future.

3. Social Learning
Also called observational learning, social learning theory, emphasizes the ability of individual to
learn by observing others. The important may include parents, teachers, Peers, Motion Pictures TV
artists, bosses & others.
Social Learning

By Observation By Experiment

Social learning can takes place through:

1. Modeling: People acquire behaviour by directly observing and imitating other. Many
pattern of behaviour are learned by watching the behaviour of model such as parent, teacher, film
star etc. The following process determines the influence:
i. Attentional process: People only learn from a model when they recognized and pay
attention to its critical feature.
ii. Retention process: A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual
remember the model action, when after the model is no longer readily available.
iii. Motor Reproduction Process: After a person has been a new behaviour by observing
the no del the watching must be converted into doing.
iv. Reinforcement /process: Individual will be motivated to exhibit the modeled
behaviour if positive incentives or reward are provided.
2. Symbolism: It refers to learning through social action reaction symbolization and
interaction.
3. Self Control: Learning is self development process; people are introduced in self
analysis, appraisal and improvement.
4. Fore thought: It issued by Person to anticipate, plan and guide their behaviour and action.
5. Self Efficiency: It refers to the individual’s perception as he or her ability to perform a
specific task in a particular situation
4. Cognitive Learning
Relating to the mental process involved in knowing, learning and

understanding Feedback

Prior Learning Behaviour Perceived

choice consequences

COMPONENTS OF LEARNING PROCESS

A person receives a variety of stimulus inputs. When specific stimuli become associated with specific
responses in a sufficiently permanent manner that the occurrence of the stimuli elicits or tends to
elicit a particular response, it is important to understand the role of various components of learning.
These components are: drive, cue stimuli, responses, reinforcement, and retention.
1. Drive: learning frequently occurs in the presence of drive any strong stimulus that impels
action. without drive, learning does not take place or, at least, is not discernible because drive
arouses an individual and keeps him ready to respond’ thus, it is the basis of motivation. A motive
differs from drive mainly in that it is purposeful, or directed towards the specific goal, whereas drive
refers to an increased probability of activity without specifying the nature of the activity. Drives are
basically of two types-primary or physiological drives and secondary or psychological drives. These
two categories of drives often interact. Individuals operate under many derives at the same time. To
predict behaviour, it is necessary to establish which drives are stimulating the most.
2. Cue Stimuli: Cue Stimuli are any objects existing in the environment as perceived by the
individual. It is common to speak of cue stimuli simply as stimuli or to use the term cues and stimuli
interchangeably. The idea here is to discover the conditions under which a stimulus will increase the
probability of eliciting a specific response. There may be two types of stimuli so far as their results
in terms of response are concerned: generalisation and discrimination.
(i) Generalisation: generalisation occurs when a response is elicited by a similar but
new stimulus. If two stimuli are exactly alike, they will have the same probability of evoking a
specified response, but the more dissimilar the stimuli become, the lower will be the probability of
evoking the same response. The principle of generalisation has important implications for human
learning. It makes possible stability in man actions across the time. Because of generalisation, a
person does not have to completely relearn each of the new tasks or objects which constantly
confront him. It allows the organizational members to adapt to overall changing conditions and
specific new or modified job assignment. The individual can borrow from past learning experiences
to adjust more smoothly to new learning situations. However, there are certain negative implications
of generations for learning. a person may make false conclusion because of generalisation. For
example, stereotyping or halo effect in perception occurs because of generalisation.
(ii) Discrimination: discrimination is opposite of generalisation: this is a process
whereby an organism learns to emit a response to a stimulus but avoids making the same response
to a similar but somewhat different stimulus. For example, a rat may learn to respond to the white
colour but not to the black.
Discrimination has wide application in organizational behaviour. For example, a supervisor can
discriminate between two equally high producing workers, one with low quality and other with high
quality. The supervisor discriminates between the two workers and positively responds only to ht e
quality conscious worker. As there in no positive response (reinforcement), the low quality
producing worker may extinct his learning.
3. Responses: the stimulus results into responses. Responses may be in the physical form or may
be in terms of attitudes, familiarity, perception, or other complex phenomena. usually, however,
learning psychologists attempt measurement of learning in behavioral terms, that is, responses must
be operationally defined and preferable physically observable.
4. Reinforcement: reinforcement is a fundamental condition of learning. Without reinforcement,
no measurable modification of behaviour takes place. The term reinforcement is very closely related
to the psychological process of motivation. However, motivation is a basic psychological process and
therefore is broader and more complex than is implied by the learning principle of reinforcement.
Reinforcement may be defined as environment events affecting the probability of occurrence of
responses with which they are associated. The role of reinforcement in learning is very important.
of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed
by satisfaction (reinforcement) will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely
followed by discomfort (negative reinforcement or punishment) will be less likely to occur.
(a) Positive reinforcement: Positive reinforcement strengthens and enhances
behaviour by the presentation of positive reinforces. There are primary reinforces and secondary
reinforces. Primary reinforcement satisfies basic biological needs and includes food, water, and
sexual pleasure. However, primary reinforces do not always reinforce. For example, food may both
be a reinforce to someone who has just completed a five course meal. Most behaviour in organisation
are influenced by secondary reinforce. This includes such benefits as money, status, grades,
trophy’s& praise form other. These become positive reinforces because of their association with
primary reinforce & hence there are called as conditioned reinforces
(b) Negative reinforcement: In Negative reinforcement an unpleasant event that
precedes behaviour is remove then the desired behaviour a course. This procedure increased the
likely hood that the desire behaviour will occur.
(c) Punishment: punishment is the attempt to eliminate or weaken undesirable
behaviour it is used in two based. One way to punish a person is to apply negative consequences
called punisher following and undesired behaviour. The other way to punish a person is to
be withhold a positive consequences following and undesirable behaviour
(d) Extinction: extinction may be defined as losses of memory. Extinction of a well
learned response is usually difficult to achieve because once something is leaned, it
is never truly unlearned. Extinction merely means
that the response in question has been repressed or it may be replaced by leaning of incompatible
response. Thus, under repeated conditions of non-reinforcement, there is a tendency for the
conditioned response to decreases or disappear.
5. Retention: The stability of learned behaviour over time is defined as retention and the
converse is forgetting. Some of the learning is retained over a period of time, while other may be
forgotten. Extinction is a specific form of forgetting.

Attitudes and Values

Introduction
Attitudes constitute an important psychological attribute of individuals which shapes their
behaviour. Schemerhorn, have defined attitude as a predisposition to respond in a positive or
negative way to someone or something in one's environment. When a person says that he likes or
dislikes something, an attitude is being expressed.
Some of the important definitions of attitudes are as follows:
"An attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a
directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with
which it is related."
G.W. Allport
Attitudes are defined as a mental predisposition to act that is expressed by evaluating a particular
entity with some degree of favour or disfavour. Individuals generally have attitudes that focus on
objects, people or institutions. Attitudes are also attached to mental categories. Mental .orientations
towards; concepts are generally referred to as values. Attitudes are comprised of four components
referred as
ABCD of attitude:
1. Cognitions: Cognitions are our beliefs, theories, expectancies, cause and effect beliefs, and
perceptions relative of the local object.
2. Affect: The affective component refers to our feeling-with respect to the focal object such
as fear, liking or anger.
3. Behaviour Intentions: Behavioural Intentions are our goals, aspirations, and our expected
responses to the attitudes object,
4. Evaluation: Evaluations are often considered the central component of attitudes. Evaluations
consist, of the imputation of some degree of goodness or badness to an attitude object. When we
speak of a positive or negative attitude towards: an object, we are referring to the evaluative
component. Evaluations are function of cognitive, affect and behavioural intentions of the object.
It is most often the evaluation that is stored in memory, often without the corresponding
cognitions and affect that were responsible for its formation.

FEATURES OF CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDES

The important characteristics of attitudes are as follows:
1. Attitudes affect Behaviour: People have the natural tendency to maintain consistency
between two attitudes or attitude and behaviour. Attitudes can lead to intended behaviour if there
is no external intervention.
2. Attitudes are Invisible: Attitudes constitute 3 psychological phenomenon which cannot be
observed directly. However, we may observe an attitude indirectly through observing its
consequences. For example, if a person is highly productive. We may infer that he has a positive
attitude towards his work.
3. Attitudes are Acquired: Attitudes are gradually learnt over a period of time. The process of
learning attitudes starts right from childhood and continues throughout the life of a person However,
in the beginning, the family members nave a greater impact on the attitude of a child.
For example, if the family members have a positive attitude towards business and negative towards
service, there is a greater likelihood that the child will inculcate similar attitudes towards these
objects.
4. Attitudes are Pervasive: Attitudes are formed in the process of socialization and may relate
to anything in the world. For example, a person may have positive or negative attitude towards
religion, politics, politicians, countries and so on. At our place of work, We have attitudes towards
work, superiors, peers, subordinates, and clients, government and its policies, investors and so on.
Thus, there is an endless list of attitude objects.
5. Attitude is effective and behavioural: Attitudes refer to feelings and beliefs of individuals or
group of individuals. The feelings and beliefs are directed towards other people, objects or ideas.
When a person says, "I like my job''. It shows that he has a positive attitude towards his job.

6. Attitude is evaluative: Attitudes are evaluative statements, either favourable or

unfavourable. When a person says he like or dislikes something or somebody, an attitude is being
expressed.
7. Attitude may be unconsciously held: An attitude may be unconsciously held. Most of our
attitudes may be about those objects which we are not clearly aware of. Prejudice furnishes a good
example.

SOURCES OF ATTITUDES
The central idea running through the process of attitude formation is that thoughts, feelings and
tendencies to behave are acquired or learned gradually. The attitudes are acquired from the
following sources:
1. Direct Personal Experience: The quality of a person's direct experience with the attitude
object determines his attitude towards it. For example, if a worker finds his work repetitive,
inadequately paid, supervisor too tough, and co-operative, he would develop a negative attitude
towards his job because the quality of his direct experience with the job is negative.
2. Association: A new attitude object may be associated with an old attitude object and the
attitude towards the latter may be transferred towards the former. For example, if a newly recruited
worker remains most of the time in the company of a worker towards whom the supervisor has a
favourable attitude, the supervisor is likely to develop a positive attitude towards the new worker
also. Hence, the favourable attitude for the old worker has been transferred towards the new worker.
3. Social Learning: Attitudes are also learnt from others as example, from parent, teachers,
superiors, models etc. An individual may learn by having contact with others or even watching
models over the
T.V. In fact, social learning makes it possible for a person to develop attitude towards something even
when he has no direct experience of the attitude object. For example, an unemployed person entering
the job market for the first time may be favourably disposed towards a government jobs. Thus, the
social Learning is a convenient way of developing attitude.
4. Institutional Factors: Religious institutions, social organizations educational institutions, etc.
also help in shaping the attitudes of people.
5. Mass media: Attitudes are generally less stable as compared to values. Advertising message,
for example, attempts to alter the attitude of the people towards a certain product or service.
Similarly social message on TV and in newspapers can have mass appeal among the people. That is
why, publicity campaign against use of drugs and tobacco products and for use of iodized salt is
carried out in the electronic, media repeatedly.
6. Economic Status and Occupations: Our economic and occupational positions also contribute
to attitude formation. They determine, in part, our attitudes towards unions and management and
our belief that certain laws are “good" or "bad". Socio-economic background influence both present
and future attitudes of people,

THE DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ATTITUDES ARE- SHOWN AS :-

FORMATION OF ATTITUDES
The above mentioned sources are the important ways in which attitudes are learnt. But what
type of attitudes will ultimately develop is dependent on the following factors:
1. Psychological Factors: The psychological make-up of a person is made up of his
perceptions, ideas, beliefs, values and information etc. It has a crucial role in determining a
person's attitudes. for example, if a person perceive that generally all superiors are exploitative
he is likely to develop a negative attitude towards his superior who in fact may not be
exploitative.
2. Family Factors: During childhood, a person spends a major part of his time in
family.
Thus he learns from the family members who provide him with ready-made attitudes on
a variety of issues such as education, work, health, religion, politics, economics, etc. Every family
instills or attempts to instill such attitudes among its members as are considered appropriate to
its socioeconomic status in the society. Therefore, a person from a middle class family may hold
a different attitude towards spending than a person from an affluent family. In the later years of
"life, however, any person whom we admire, respect or fear may have greater influence on our
attitudes.
3. Social Factors: Societies differ in terms language, culture, norms, values, beliefs, etc., all
of which influence a person's attitudes. For example, people in India in general hold different
attitudes towards communism than people of China. Similarly, Indians and Americans differ is
their attitudes towards religion. Thus, people belonging to a particular nation develop attitudes.
Which would be in tune with the needs and aspirations of the society.
4. Organizational Factors: It should be remembered that a worker spends a major part of
his life in the institution in which he works. Thus, organizational factors such as nature of
job, factory or office layout, fellow workers, quality of supervision, monetary rewards
associated with the job, trade unionism, informal group, organization's policies and practices,
play an important role in shaping the job attitudes of a person. For example, if a creative
person finds the nature of his job to be repetitive, dull, boring, and less changing; he is likely
to develop a negative attitude towards his job.
5. Economic Factors: A person's attitudes towards a host of issues such; as, pleasure, work,,
marriage, working women, etc., is influenced by economic factors such as his economic status
in the economic conditions. For example, during the Gulf crisis, the Government of India made a
big drive to save oil so as to cut the import bill. A big campaign was started to educate people in
this regard. It aimed at promoting negative attitude towards pleasure .trips and positive attitude
towards proper driving and maintenance of vehicles.
6. Political Factors: Politics plays a crucial role in-the-administration of a country. There-
fore, political factors such as ideologies of the political parties; political stability and the
behaviour of the political leaders greatly influence the attitudes of the people. For example, the
enforcement el' emergency and suspension of democracy by Kin;; in Nepal and increased
insurgency activities in Bangladesh compelled the government of India to announce its inability
to participate in SAARC summit at Dhaka in Feb. 2005.

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE
1. Adjustment Function: Attitude helps the people to adjust their attitude towards
anything. Positive attitude towards organization helps the employees to adjust themselves well
in that.
2. Ego-defense functions: Ego defensive attitude is farmed an used to cop with a
feeling of guilt or threat. People farm and maintain such attitude to protect their own self-image
to satisfy their ego.
3. Expressive functions: This function helps in-
a. Expressing individual central value and self-identity
b. Expressing the culture, concept, status in behaviour of person
c. Expressing the manner in which individuals thinks an relate themselves to the
group.
4. Knowledge function: This function helps in providing a stable, organized and
meaningful structure and also provides the standards or frames of reference by which
 individual judges and object, person or situation. Applicable in consumer behaviour.
CONCEPT OF VALUES
Values are ever encompassing concepts values are tinged with moral favour, involving an
individual's judgment of what is right, good or desirable. They are at the core of personality of
an individual and, therefore, are a powerful, through silent, force affecting behaviour. Values are
so embedded that they can be inferred from person's behaviour and their expressed attitudes.
What may 'appear' to be a strange behaviour in an employee can make sense if managers
understand the value underlying that behaviour. Values have an important influence on the
attitudes, perceptions, needs and motives of people at work. That is why, it is extremely
important to study values from an organizational behaviour perspective.

A value is defined as a "concept of the desirable, an internalized criterion or standard of

evaluation a person possesses. Such concept and standards are relatively few and
determine or guide an individual's evaluation in every day life.
Milton Rokeach, a noted psychologist, has defined values as giobal beliefs that guide actions
and judgments across a variety of situations. He further said, "Values represent basic
convictions that a specific mode of conduct (or end-state of existence) is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite mode of conduct (or end-state of existence)".

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ATTITUDE AND VALUES

ATTITUDES VALUES
I. Attitudes represent predispositions 1. Values represent judgment of what ought to
to respond. be. This judgment is basic to respond in a
given way.
2. Attitudes are derived 2, Values are derived from social and cultural
from personal experiences. norms.
3. An attitude represents several 3. A value represents single belief that guides
beliefs focused actions

CHARACTERISTICS OF VALUES
1. Values provide standards of morality.
2. Values are relatively permanent and resistant to change.
3. Values are most central to the core of a person.
4. Values have two attributes-content and intensity. The content attribute stresses that a
particular code of conduct is important. The intensity attribute specifies how important that
particular code of conduct.
5. Values transcend specific objects, situations or persons.
6. Values are fewer in number than attitudes.
Values contain a judgment element, i.e., they carry an individual's ideas as to what is right
desirable. Values have both content and intensity attributes. The content attributes emphasizes
that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. The intensity attribute specifies
how id is. When we rank an individual's values in terms of their intensity we obtain the values
system of that person.

TYPES OF VALUES
All port and his associates have categorized values into six major types as follows:
Theoretical : Interest in the discovery of truth through reasoning and
systematic thinking.
Economic : Interest in usefulness and practicality, including the
accumulation of wealth.
Aesthetic : Interest in beauty form and artistic harmony,
Social : Invest in people and human relationships.
Political : Interest in gaining power and influencing other people.
Religious : Interest in utility and understanding the cosmos as a whole.
What is Assertive Communication?
Assertive communication is the ability to express positive and negative ideas and feelings in an
open, honest and direct way.

It recognises our rights whilst still respecting the rights of others.

It allows us to take responsibility for ourselves and our actions without judging or blaming other
people.

And it allows us to constructively confront and find a mutually satisfying solution where conflict
exists.

Advantages of Assertiveness Skills in Communication

There are many advantages of assertiveness skills in communication, most notably these:

Assertiveness helps us feel good about ourselves and others

Assertiveness leads to the development of mutual respect with others
Assertiveness increases our self-esteem
Assertiveness helps us achieve our goals
Assertiveness minimizes hurting and alienating other people
Assertiveness reduces anxiety
Assertiveness protects us from being taken advantage of by others
Assertiveness enables us to make decisions and free choices in life
Assertiveness enables us to express a wide range of feelings and thoughts

What is an example of assertive communication?

Here are a few examples of assertive communication:

"I completely understand what you’re saying but I have to disagree”

“I feel frustrated when you are late for meetings. I don't like having to repeat information."

“Could you explain the reasoning behind your decision, so I can try to understand what you’re
doing”

"I understand that you have a need to talk and I need to finish what I'm doing. So what about
meeting in half an hour?"

“I want you to help me with this report”

“Can you suggest a time we can talk about the missed deadline. I’m concerned”

The 3 C's of assertive communication are:

Confidence: you are composed and believe in yourself and what you’re saying

Clarity: your message is clear and easy to understand

Control: You are in control of the situation and are monitoring what’s happening