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Natufian Foragers in
the Levant
Terminal Pleistocene Social Changes in Western Asia

edited by
Ofer Bar-Yosef
&
François R. Valla

International Monographs
in Prehistory

Archaeological Series 19
© 2013 by International Monographs in Prehistory
All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

All rights reserved

Paperback:
ISBN 978-1-879621-45-9
Hard Cover:
ISBN 978-1-879621-46-6

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Natufian foragers in the Levant : terminal Pleistocene social changes in Western Asia / edited by
Ofer Bar-Yosef & François Valla.
       pages cm. --  (Archaeological series / International Monographs in Prehistory ; 19)
  Papers from a symposium held in 2009.
  Includes bibliographical references.
  ISBN 978-1-879621-45-9 (paperback : acid-free paper) -- ISBN 978-1-879621-46-6 (hard cover :
acid-free paper)
 1.  Natufian culture--Middle East--Congresses. 2.  Hunting and gathering societies--Middle
East--Congresses. 3.  Pleistocene-Holocene boundary--Congresses. 4.  Social archaeology--Middle
East--Congresses. 5.  Social change--Middle East--History--To 1500--Congresses. 6.  Excavations
(Archaeology)--Middle East--Congresses. 7.  Middle East--Antiquities--Congresses.  I. Bar-Yosef,
Ofer. II. Valla, François Raymond.
  GN774.3.N38N28 2013
  306.3›640956--dc23
2013035516

Printed with the support of the American School of Prehistoric Research (Peabody
Museum, Harvard University)

This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞

International Monographs in Prehistory

Ann Arbor, Michigan
U.S.A.
 Table of Contents

List of Contributors.................................................................................................................... vii

Preface – The Natufian Culture in the Levant: Twenty Years Later

Ofer Bar-Yosef and François R. Valla................................................................................ xv

Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................xix

Northern Levant

Natufian Lifeways in the Eastern Foothills of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains

Nicholas J. Conard, Knut Bretzke, Katleen Deckers, Andrew W. Kandel, Mohamed
Masri, Hannes Napierala, Simone Riehl and Mareike Stahlschmidt...............................1

The Natufian of Moghr el-Ahwal in the Qadisha Valley, Northern Lebanon

Andrew Garrard and Corine Yazbeck...............................................................................17

The Natufian of Southwestern Syria Sites in the Damascus Province

Kurt Felix Hillgruber.........................................................................................................28

The Natufian Occupations of Qarassa 3 (Sweida, Southern Syria)

Xavier Terradas, Juan José Ibáñez, Franck Braemer, Lionel Gourichon and Luis C.
Teira....................................................................................................................................45

The Early Natufian Site of Jeftelik (Homs Gap, Syria)

Amelia del Carmen Rodríguez Rodríguez, Maya Haïdar-Boustani, Jesús E.
González Urquijo, Juan José Ibáñez, Michel Al-Maqdissi, Xavier Terradas
and Lydia Zapata...............................................................................................................61

Fish in the Desert? The Younger Dryas and its Influence on the Paleoenvironment at Baaz
Rockshelter, Syria
Hannes Napierala..............................................................................................................73

Preliminary Results from Analyses of Charred Plant Remains from a Burnt Natufian
Building at Dederiyeh Cave in Northwest Syria
Ken-ichi Tanno, George Willcox, Sultan Muhesen, Yoshihiro Nishiaki, Yousef
Kanjo and Takeru Akazawa..............................................................................................83

Southern Levant

El-Wad

Spatial Organization of Natufian el-Wad through Time: Combining the Results of Past and
Present Excavations
Mina Weinstein-Evron, Daniel Kaufman and Reuven Yeshurun....................................88
The Last Natufian Inhabitants of el-Wad Terrace
Noga Bachrach, Israel Hershkovitz, Daniel Kaufman and Mina
Weinstein-Evron..............................................................................................................107

Domestic Refuse Maintenance in the Natufian: Faunal Evidence from el-Wad Terrace,
Mount Carmel
Reuven Yeshurun, Guy Bar-Oz, Daniel Kaufman and Mina Weinstein-Evron............118

Natufian Green Stone Pendants from el-Wad: Characteristics and Cultural Implications
Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Naomi Porat and Mina Weinstein-Evron.......................139

Eynan

The Final Natufian Structure 215-228 at Mallaha (Eynan), Israel: an Attempt at Spatial
Analysis
François R. Valla, Hamoudi Khalaily, Nicolas Samuelian, Anne Bridault, Rivka
Rabinovich, Tal Simmons, Gaëlle Le Dosseur and Shoshana Ashkenazi.....................146

A Study of two Natufian Residential Complexes: Structures 200 and 203 at Eynan (Ain
Mallaha), Israel
Nicolas Samuelian...........................................................................................................172

Graves in Context: Field Anthropology and the Investigation of Interstratified Floors and
Burials
Fanny Bocquentin, Teresa Cabellos and Nicolas Samuelian.........................................185

Obsidian in Natufian Context: the Case of Eynan (Ain Mallaha), Israel

Hamoudi Khalaily and François R. Valla.......................................................................193

Flint Knapping and its Objectives in the Early Natufian. The Example of Eynan- Ain
Mallaha (Israel)
Boris Valentin, François R. Valla and Hugues Plisson with the collaboration of
Fanny Bocquentin............................................................................................................203

Searching for the Functions of Fire Structures in Eynan (Mallaha) and their Formation
Processes: a Geochemical Approach
Ramiro J. March...............................................................................................................227

Avifauna of the Final Natufian of Eynan

Tal Simmons.....................................................................................................................284

Bone Ornamental Elements and Decorated Objects of the Natufian from Mallaha
Gaëlle Le Dosseur and Claudine Maréchal....................................................................293

Reconstruction of the Habitats in the Ecosystem of the Final Natufian Site of Ain Mallaha
(Eynan)
Shoshana Ashkenazi........................................................................................................312

iv
 Southern Levant - other sites

Wadi Hammeh 27: an open-air ‘base-camp’ on the Fringe of the Natufian ‘homeland’
Phillip C. Edwards, Fanny Bocquentin, Sue Colledge, Yvonne Edwards, Gaëlle Le
Dosseur, Louise Martin, Zvonkica Stanin and John Webb............................................319

Art Items from Wadi Hammeh 27

Janine Major....................................................................................................................349

The Final Epipaleolithic / PPNA site of Huzuq Musa (Jordan Valley)

Dani Nadel and Danny Rosenberg..................................................................................382

Natufian Settlement in the Wadi al-Qusayr, West-Central Jordan

Michael Neeley.................................................................................................................397

The Steppic Early Natufian: Investigations in the Wadi al-Hasa, Jordan

Deborah I. Olszewski.......................................................................................................412

The Natufian of the Azraq Basin: An Appraisal

Tobias Richter and Lisa A. Maher...................................................................................429

Chert Procurement Patterns And Exploitation Territory: Case Study From Late Natufian
Hayonim Terrace (Western Galilee, Israel)
Christophe Delage............................................................................................................449

A Faunal Perspective on the Relationship between the Natufian Occupations of Hayonim

Cave and Hayonim Terrace
Natalie D. Munro.............................................................................................................463

The Natufian at Raqefet Cave

György Lengyel, Dani Nadel and Fanny Bocquentin.....................................................478

Hof Shahaf: A New Natufian Site on the Shore of Lake Kinneret

Ofer Marder, Reuven Yeshurun, Howard Smithline, Oren Ackermann, Daniella
E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Leore Grosman, Israel Hershkovitz, Noa
Klein and Lior Weissbrod................................................................................................505

The Life History of Macrolithic Tools at Hilazon Tachtit Cave

Laure Dubreuil and Leore Grosman...............................................................................527

General Reviews, Climate and Interpretations

Breaking the Mould: Phases and Facies in the Natufian of the Mediterranean Zone
Anna Belfer-Cohen and A. Nigel Goring-Morris............................................................544

Ruminations on the Role of Periphery and Center in the Natufian

A. Nigel Goring-Morris and Anna Belfer-Cohen............................................................562

v
The Natufian and the Younger Dryas
Donald O. Henry..............................................................................................................584

Scaphopod Shells in the Natufian Culture

Aldona Kurzawska, Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer and Henk K. Mienis.......................611

The Natufian Chronological Scheme – New Insights and their Implications

Leore Grosman.................................................................................................................622

Natufian Foragers and the ‘Monocot Revolution’: A Phytolith Perspective

Arlene M. Rosen...............................................................................................................638

Lithic Technology in the Late Natufian – Technological Differences between ‘Core-area’ and
‘Periphery’
Hila Ashkenazy................................................................................................................649

Variability of Lunates and Changes in Projectile Weapons Technology during the Natufian
Alla Yaroshevich, Daniel Kaufman, Dmitri Nuzhnyy, Ofer Bar-Yosef and Mina
Weinstein-Evron..............................................................................................................671

Specialized Hunting of Gazelle in the Natufian: Cultural Cause or Climatic Effect?

Guy Bar-Oz, Reuven Yeshurun and Mina Weinstein-Evron..........................................685

Commensalism: was it Truly a Natufian Phenomenon? Recent Cntributions from

Ethnoarchaeology and Ecology
Lior Weissbrod, Daniel Kaufman, Dani Nadel, Reuven Yeshurun and Mina
Weinstein-Evron..............................................................................................................699

vi
 Breaking the Mold:
Phases and Facies in the Natufian of the Mediterranean Zone

Anna Belfer-Cohen and A. Nigel Goring-Morris

Introduction intention to highlight elements of the variability

evident within different material culture realms
The Natufian of the ‘core area’ is commonly of Natufian ‘core area’ sites. Mostly, we focus upon
treated as a monolithic prehistoric culture, the sole certain ‘stylistic’ components that we believe por-
representative of the Late Epipaleolithic period tray the various, separate traditions, which were
within the Mediterranean zone of the southern inherent to the emergence of the Natufian sensu
Levant (e.g. Bar-Yosef 1983; Belfer-Cohen 1991a; lato. The stylistic differences actually reflect the
Henry 1989; Valla 1995).1 This is especially evi- particular past trajectories of individual Natufian
dent when it is compared to the Natufian of the communities. Accordingly, we shall endeavor to
so-called ‘periphery’ in adjacent, more arid zones illustrate this viewpoint with a number of specific
discovered and described from the 1960s onward examples. These relate to such particularities of the
(e.g. Henry 1973). Most syntheses of the Natufian material culture as: architecture, burial traditions,
phenomenon that focus on archaeological research decorative motifs, and chipped stone artifacts. We
within the ‘core area’ tend to emphasize elements believe that these may provide illustrations of the
of unity rather than highlighting the variability regional dynamics of interactions between different
present within the entity, not only diachronic but Natufian communities.
also synchronic (Fig. 1). In this and the following
paper we endeavor to demonstrate that it is more Natufian Origins
apt to view the Natufian as a cultural complex. As
such it displays considerable intra- and inter-region- We should bear in mind that Early Natufian sites of
al, as well as significant chronological patterning the ‘core area’ most probably reflect amalgamations
through the course of its’ ~3000 year duration (see of different Middle Epipaleolithic kin groups (e.g.
Grosman herein). In part this variability reflects Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen 1989a; Goring-Morris
everyday issues of subsistence. However, it also et al. 2009).2 This is likely to be observed with
relates to aspects of social identity within and be- regards daily existence as well as within symbolic
tween communities during a period of significant realms. We need to search for Natufian origins not
changes in human lifeways corresponding to the just pertaining to the ‘core area’ but also examine
initiation of the ‘Neolithic Revolution’ (e.g. Bar-Yosef processes with regard to adjacent regions. In the
2002; Cauvin 1978; Garrod 1957; Henry 1989). It past it was assumed that the Natufian expanded
is of interest to note that such variability is espe- into the semi-arid ‘periphery’ dispersing from
cially distinctive during the formative, early stage the ‘core area’ during its later stages (though
of the Natufian (Goring-Morris and Belfer-Cohen see Goring-Morris 1987, 1995). Interestingly, the
2003, 2008), when groups first coalesced into larg- absolute dates and lithic techno-typological data
er social units than during the preceding Middle contrast with this assumption, since numbers of the
Epipaleolithic, and became more sedentary (though available Early Natufian dates derive from south
see Kaufman 1992). Transjordanian sites from both the Mediterranean
We do not relate here to the theoretical issue and the semi-arid zones (Baadsgaard et al. 2010;
of what constitutes an archaeological ‘culture’, Byrd 1989a, b; Henry 1989). Accordingly it seems
‘socio-cultural entity’, ‘techno-complex’, or ‘inter- plausible to posit the contemporaneity of the Early
action sphere’; so, too, detailed discussion of the Natufian in both regions (see Goring-Morris and
complexity of the Natufian phenomenon as a whole Belfer-Cohen herein).
is beyond the scope of the present paper, these top- It is widely accepted that the Geometric Ke-
ics deserve more in-depth debate. Rather, it is our baran, a pan-Levantine Middle Epipaleolithic

544
Fig. 1. Map of the distribution of Natufian sites in the southern Levant ‘Core area’ (modified after L.
Grosman).
Anna Belfer-Cohen and A. Nigel Goring-Morris

culture, is antecedent to the Natufian within the the ‘core area’, or beyond. Still, in a few Early
Mediterranean zone. Still, we should be aware Natufian assemblages, e.g. Kebara cave (Garrod
that in the neighboring Negev and Sinai areas, the 1932: figures A, B; Turville-Petre 1932: figure F),
local Geometric Kebaran overlapped with and was truncated and Helwan-backed, finely denticulated
replaced by the Mushabian entity and its successor, sickle blades are found; these broadly resemble
the Ramonian. These entities precede the emer- Geometric Kebaran trapeze-rectangles.3
gence of the local Early Natufian (Goring-Morris Geometric Kebaran and Early Natufian as-
1987, 1995; and see Goring-Morris and Belfer-Cohen semblages in the ‘core area’ do significantly differ
herein). in such respects as: raw material choice (chert and
In common with earlier Epipaleolithic entities, flint vs. more translucent/colorful varieties of flint),
the Geometric Kebaran is marked by a general technology (single platform blade/let vs. irregular
paucity of material culture attributes other than blade/let/flake cores) and typology (scrapers on
lithics. This may largely derive from the very lim- blades and trapeze-rectangles vs. scrapers on flakes
ited exposures in many Geometric Kebaran sites and lunates). Here, it is important to note that it
within the ‘core area’. Indeed, current evidence for was only in 1970 that the Geometric Kebaran was
architectural features is sparse, being limited to first defined (Bar-Yosef 1970). Thus, “... the unrec-
isolated examples from Haon II and Ein Gev III ognized presence of Geometric Kebaran microliths
(Bar-Yosef 1975; Martin 1978). Nevertheless, the [within supposed ‘clean’ Natufian contexts] seem-
evidence does indicate that architectural endeavors ingly provided evidence for a much greater degree
in Geometric Kebaran contexts were flimsy, more of [Geometric] Kebaran/Natufian typological con-
along the lines of those during the early Epipaleo- tinuity than is accepted today” (Belfer-Cohen and
lithic (e.g. Ohalo II and Ein Gev I – Goring-Morris Goring-Morris 2007:17). A case in point is the site of
and Belfer-Cohen 2003; Nadel 2003; Nadel and el-Wad (Garrod and Bate 1937), where a substantial
Werker 1999; Stekelis and Bar-Yosef 1965). This component of characteristic obliquely truncated
contrasts with the larger, more durable stone-built and backed Kebaran bladelets and, especially,
structures of the subsequent local Natufian (Gor- Geometric Kebaran trapeze-rectangles are found
ing-Morris and Belfer-Cohen 2008). incorporated within the thick and profuse Natufian
In recent years numbers of burials have been re- layer B (Belfer-Cohen and Goring-Morris 2007: fig.
ported from Geometric Kebaran contexts, including 3). Similar observations were made in Kebara cave,
Moghr el-Ahwal, Neve David, Uyyun al-Hammam where a Geometric Kebaran component is observed
(WZ148) and Wadi Mataha (Bocquentin et al. 2011; within both the Kebaran and the Early Natufian
Garrard and Yazbeck 2003; Kaufman and Ronen levels (Belfer-Cohen and Goring-Morris 2007: fig.
1987; Maher 2005; Stock et al. 2005). These all 4). Indeed, the more recently postulated gradual
appear to be single, articulated interments. It is replacement of trapeze-rectangles by (Helwan)
interesting to note that in at least two cases the lunates at Hayonim terrace most probably reflects
burials were accompanied by stone bowls (Neve the mechanical admixture of two separate, sloping
David and Wadi Mataha). Most intriguing are the occupation horizons (Henry et al. 1981). This ta-
10 burials described from Uyyun al-Hammam in phonomic phenomenon is observed in other sites
the central Jordan valley, two seemingly associated as well, especially since the Natufians, as a rule,
with a canid skeleton (Maher et al. 2011). dug into layers of previous occupations, e.g. into the
Material elements of Geometric Kebaran in- Aurignacian layer at Hayonim cave (Belfer-Cohen
ventories include small quantities of groundstone and Bar-Yosef 1981).
tools, marine mollusks, as well as occasional bone All this raises questions concerning the as-
tools and symbolic manifestations (Bar-Yosef 1976; sumed in situ evolution of the ‘core area’ Natufian
Goring-Morris and Belfer-Cohen 1997; Kaufman directly out of the local Geometric Kebaran, a tenet
1999). Overall, the major material components of current-day discourse related to the appearance
of Geometric Kebaran remains are the flint as- and evolution of the Natufian phenomenon (e.g.
semblages, characterized by some technological Henry 1981; Valla 1999; and see also Kaufman
variability but with considerable typological ho- 1992).
mogeneity (Belfer-Cohen and Goring-Morris 2002; In sum, we believe that the variability observed
Goring-Morris 1995; Marder 2002). In general there in the Natufian material repertoire reflects the
is relatively little stratigraphic (contra Henry et al. complexity of Natufian origins, deriving from the
1981) or lithic evidence for direct continuity from intermingling of varied Middle Epipaleolithic tra-
the Geometric Kebaran into the Natufian within ditions (Goring-Morris and Belfer-Cohen herein).

546
 Phases and Facies in the Natufian of the Mediterranean Zone

Variability within the ‘Core Area’ temporary hunting stations.6 Rather we witness
Natufian a more complex categorization, with pronounced
variability. For sure none of these settlement types
Settlement Patterns and Architecture stands on its own.7 This may reflect changing per-
ceptions towards the landscape (Goring-Morris and
There is marked variability in the architectural Belfer-Cohen 2010).
elements that tends to be glossed over. Here, we
relate not just to the issue of settlement patterns and Burials and grave goods
the supposed dichotomy of permanent base-camps/
hamlets vs. temporary task-specific and seasonal Interactions between the living and the dead
camps and stations (Bar-Yosef 1983; Perrot 1968; during the Natufian are complex and vary from
Valla 2008). There are numerous intermediate one site to the next. The variety of burial modes is
situations depending on the specific region and wide, ranging from single primary (in a wide array
locality (and see the discussion of environmental of positions) through multiple, single and partial
variability in Goring-Morris et al. 2009; also Binford secondary burials, including skull removal. While
1982). certain diachronic trends can be identified, these
The massive scale of Early Natufian structures are by no means all encompassing. They include:
in hamlets such as Wadi Hammeh 27, el-Wad and more decorated burials in the Early Natufian,
Eynan is quite unparalleled in the later Natufi- and the absence of supine burials and more skull
an – here, individual structures commonly have removal in the Late Natufian. Thus the secondary
internal floor spaces on the order of 40-150+ m2 burial of long bones and skulls is observed during
(Edwards 2009; Goring-Morris 1996; Goring-Morris the Late Natufian at Hayonim cave (Belfer-Cohen
and Belfer-Cohen 2003, 2008; Perrot et al. 1988; 1988b), while the nearby contemporaneous Hilazon
Samuelian 2010; Valla 1989; Weinstein-Evron et al. cave contains (among others) primary burials with
herein). Given the coeval presence of several such the long bones and skulls removed (Grosman et al.
structures in each of the above sites, we believe that 2008). In certain instances graves were marked
these were primarily residential. Each individual (e.g. Late Natufian Nahal Oren), while in several
structure most probably represents the domicile of Early Natufian sites ornamentation of the deceased
a social unit larger than the nuclear family.4 The (especially mollusks on clothes and headdresses)
internal spatial patterning of symbolic artifact and grave goods have been identified (Stekelis and
categories within these structures likely represents Yisraely 1963: Garrod and Bate 1937). Differences
the integration of profane and symbolic activities in such grave goods were observed long ago, and the
of particular social units, each distinct from its issue of inherited social stratification was discussed
immediate neighbour. and refuted (e.g. Belfer-Cohen 1995; Byrd and Mo-
Concomitantly, some other Early Natufian sites, nahan 1995 vs. Wright 1978). Yet, the socio-cultural
also usually considered as ‘base-camps’ actually implications of such variability have hardly been
appear to have different functional roles, most prob- investigated within the wider framework of group
ably related to the ritual/symbolic sphere.5 These origins, group identities, ties with other bands,
sites, e.g. Hayonim cave, contain small structures etc. Ornamentation from contemporaneous sites
(2-6 m2) that definitely could not have accommo- differs both in quantity and in kind (e.g. el-Wad
dated the mundane activities of functioning living vs. Hayonim Cave) as well as in its nature - from
units, which were more probably located outside on elaborate bone tools to the inclusion of parts of
the adjacent terrace. This is relevant also to Late animals, i.e. gazelle horn cores, turtle carapaces,
Natufian sites, as for example the ‘base-camps’ fox mandibles, etc. (Bocquentin 2003). A beguiling
(once again defined as such through the variegated issue is whether the intentional co-association of
material remains) of Raqefet, Hilazon and Nahal human and animal remains are limited only to sites
Oren, where most of the constructions actually in the Galilee, e.g. the joint burials of humans and
appear to pertain to burials (Goring-Morris and dogs at Eynan and Hayonim terrace (Davis and
Belfer-Cohen 2008; Grosman and Munro 2007; Valla 1978; Tchernov and Valla 1997; Valla 1996).8
Munro and Grosman 2010; Lengyel and Bocquentin What do these patterns signify?
2005; Nadel 2006). Indeed, Natufian burials have to date only been
It is quite clear that the Natufian of the ‘core recovered in ‘core area’ sites, geographically defined
area’ represents a settlement pattern that is as the Mediterranean phytogeographic zone.9 This
not just dichotomous: permanent base-camps vs. seems to relate to more than simple taphonomic

547
Anna Belfer-Cohen and A. Nigel Goring-Morris

issues. While others have noted this dichotomy in concerns not just the presence and/or absence of
relating to ‘core’ vs. ‘periphery’, there has been little particular types of beads and ornaments, but also
discussion of the actual significance of this pattern. their relative frequencies within sites (Fig. 2). For
example, it is interesting to note that perforated
Bone tools distal tibiotarsus partridge beads are limited only
to Hayonim cave (where they are relatively domi-
Bone tools are one of the few material culture nant), and Eynan and Erq el-Ahmar (where they
categories that have been systematically studied occur only in low numbers) (Belfer-Cohen 1988a;
within their geographic and chronological contexts Pichon 1983). By contrast gazelle phalange beads
(e.g. Stordeur 1991; Le Dosseur 2006). They vary are found in opposing proportions at Eynan, Erq
in relative quantities, and also in the specific types el-Ahmar and Hayonim cave (Belfer-Cohen 1991b).
represented within sites. While the more mundane The carved and perforated gazelle metatarsal beads
types such as points, awls, spatulae, handles, etc. are common in el-Wad but rarely found elsewhere
are quite similar in most assemblages,10 there is (Garrod and Bate 1937; Le Dosseur 2006), while
a broad consensus that the decorative aspects the plano-convex type is common in numerous sites,
should be considered as social markers (Belfer-Co- but almost completely absent in Eynan (Marechal
hen 1991b; Noy 1991). Here, the significance 1991; Phillips et al. 1998).

Fig. 2. Distinctive ‘Core area’ Natufian ornaments: 1-6, phalange & tibio-tarsus beads (1-3, Hayonim
cave, 4-6, Erq el-Ahmar); 7-17, flat polished pendants (Hayonim cave); 18-20, plano-convex polished
pendants (el-Wad). Modified after Belfer-Cohen 1988a, Garrod and Bate 1937, Neuville 1951).

548
 Phases and Facies in the Natufian of the Mediterranean Zone

Another example is the remarkable similarity Lithics

of a carved and perforated spread wing bird motif
pendant from Wadi Hammeh 27 (Major 2009) Over the years considerable research has been
and one from Fazael VI (Fig. 3). Intriguingly, the conducted on various typological aspects of Natu-
application of a fine ‘pointillist’ basketry-style dec- fian chipped stone assemblages, especially with
oration occurs on spatulae (Fig. 3) only at Kebara, regards chronological developments. Nevertheless
Hayonim, and Iraq et-Dubb caves, and seemingly we believe that there remains much fertile ground
spans the Early through Late Natufian (Bar-Yosef for studying such aspects as intra- and inter-site
and Belfer-Cohen 1999; Bar-Yosef and Tchernov technologies and raw material patterns (and see
1966; Kuijt et al. 1991). Delage 2001, 2007; Weinstein-Evron et al. 1999).

Fig. 3. 1-3, Spatulae with pointillist motifs (1, Hayonim cave; 2, Kebara cave; 3, Iraq ed-Dubb); 4, Pen-
dant with spread-wing bird motif from Fazael VI. Modified after Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen 1999;
Kuijt et al. 1991.

549
Anna Belfer-Cohen and A. Nigel Goring-Morris

For example, the systematic preference for shiny/ with reduction sequences in coeval southern (i.e.
translucent chalcedony/flint has been noted in some ‘peripheral’) assemblages.12
(but not all) ‘core area’ Early Natufian sites, e.g. Past publications have dealt with differences in
Kebara and Wadi Hammeh 27. In the latter instance the frequencies of tool categories between assem-
the raw material was claimed to be heat-treated blages from the ‘core area’ and the ‘periphery’ but
(Edwards and Edwards 1990).11 there is little mention (if at all) of the typological
Differences between the Natufian industries of variability observed within the former assem-
the ‘core area’ and the ‘periphery’ (e.g. the Negev) blages. For example, Natufian deep ‘spokeshave’
were observed and reported from both typological denticulates and notches, common during the
and technological aspects. Thus it was noted that the chronologically preceding Ramonian and Early
Negev Natufian industry tends to be more bladey Natufian in the ‘periphery’, occur in some Early
and all assemblages there feature the systematic Natufian ‘core area’ assemblages but are absent
use of the microburin technique (Goring-Morris in others (Goring-Morris 1995; Goring-Morris and
1987; Goring-Morris et al. 1998). Within the ‘core Belfer-Cohen herein). Another example concerns
area’ most lithic studies have focused on the typo- the elongated picks (Fig. 4). These are common at
logical characteristics of specific assemblages and, Hayonim cave (Belfer-Cohen 1988a), but sporadic
where comparisons are made, they are based on the in other sites, e.g. Eynan and el-Wad (Garrod 1932;
literature with but rare exceptions (Valla 1984). To Perrot 1966), or seemingly absent in others, e.g. Ke-
date no systematic comparisons of reduction se- bara (Turville-Petre 1932). Functional explanations
quences have been conducted beyond more general may suffice here to explain such variability, but in
technological studies (but see Ashkenazy herein; some cases these may be insufficient and it is quite
Henry 1973). Yet, cursory and superficial studies possible that different, community ‘traditions’ may
do reveal differences between many assemblages also be relevant. A case in point concerns Natufian
with regards raw material preferences and specific perforators, a new and significant category, recov-
reduction sequences (e.g.Kebara cave vs. Hayonim ered from all lithic assemblages throughout the
cave vs. el-Wad terrace, pers. obs.). ‘core area’ (and beyond). Their consistent presence
There is much to be done in this field, but suffice indicates that they were in use everywhere. Still,
it to mention the presence/absence of the microburin basalt, sandstone and shell perforator ‘hand-guards’
technique (mbt), also an issue of style and group (sometimes named ‘palettes’, or ‘thimble-type’
traditions (see Marder et al. 2007). Garrod (1957) miniature basalt bowls), most probably indicating
considered the presence of the mbt as a chronolog- the existence of the bow drilling technique, were
ical marker, the technique being instrumental in recovered only in certain sites; these include Eynan
shaping backed lunates in the Late Natufian (Henry (Perrot 1966), Wadi Hammeh 27 (Edwards 1987),
1974). Later, more detailed research revealed that Salibiya XII (pers. obs.) and Kebara cave, while
the mbt is known from both Early and Late Natu- they are absent in others (Fig. 5). Thus, the drilling/
fian contexts within the ‘core area’; while the final perforating actions were performed differently in
product was typologically similar (Helwan lunates various sites, likely demonstrating that there were
in the Early Natufian and backed lunates in the different ways of carrying out the task at hand, i.e.
Late Natufian), the particular technique employed different traditions.
to shape those tools differed between the various One can go on citing examples from the various
sites (Bar-Yosef and Valla 1979). Furthermore, there material culture realms, but two issues are quite
are differences in the type of mbt employed; for evident: a) there is significant variability among
example, the Krukowski variant (usually depicted the ‘core area’ sites; and b) that virtually no sys-
as an accidental by-product of microlith production) tematic studies have been conducted to explore this
being an intentional technique at Late Natufian phenomenon (beyond chronological phasing) as a
Eynan (Marder et al. 2007). first step towards trying to explain it.
The origins of the mbt clearly lie in the south and
east, outside the ‘core area’, where it was habitually Discussion
used in certain industries from the Early Epipaleo-
lithic onwards (Byrd 1988; Goring-Morris 1995). In How can we provide explanatory frameworks for
light of this variability, it would be interesting to the phenomena described above? To date discussion
investigate whether those ‘core area’ assemblages of the nature and development of the Natufian,
featuring the habitual use of the technique also sensu lato, has largely followed the geography of
display other technological features in common the history of research. With but a few exceptions

550
 Phases and Facies in the Natufian of the Mediterranean Zone

from the late 1970’s onwards research has radi- evidence to indicate that, within the ‘core area’ as
ated outwards from the Carmel/Galilee/Judean well as elsewhere (e.g. Goring-Morris 1987), there
hills southwards, eastwards and northwards (e.g. is a broader and finer-grained range of site types.
Bar-Yosef 1970, 1983; Garrod 1957; Mortensen Indeed, marked differences in the style (and inten-
1972; Perrot 1968). This has largely colored debates sity) of decorations and types of ornaments were
concerning what actually constitutes the term observed among the assemblages of ‘core area’ base-
‘Natufian’, its geographical distribution, its chrono- camps (Belfer-Cohen 1988, 1991a; Henry 1989). But,
logical framework, inter-site functional variability, while significant variability has been noted with
and the issue of ‘sedentism’ (e.g. Belfer-Cohen 1989; regards specific realms of material culture, to date
Byrd 1989b; Edwards 1989; Olszewski 1988). Since no systematic integration of these multiple threads
the mid-1980’s the chronological and/or regional of evidence (cursorily described herein) has been
variability observed between Natufian sites was attempted.
explained through differing functions, primarily It seems to us that sufficient data has accrued
related to ecological and phytogeographic location. in recent years to attempt to modify and assimilate
However, such distinctions were observed only in some of the principal concepts that guided past
a coarse-grained manner (e.g. Byrd 1989b; Henry research. It is accordingly quite obvious that the
1983; Higgs and Vita Finzi 1972; Olszewski 1993). simplistic dichotomy of ‘base-camp’ vs. ‘hunting
Thus, base-camps (defined through a list of presence/ station’ anywhere within the Natufian sphere is
absence attributes) were predominately located in no longer apposite, even though from the very be-
lusher environmental settings, while temporary ginning the model was offered more as a guideline
stations (with a limited array of material culture than as portraying actual reality. Indeed, complex
remains) were found in more peripheral (climate/ Natufian sites have been reported recently from
environment-wise) surroundings. Debate arose areas far removed from the classic ‘core area’, e.g.
concerning the interrelations between these two the sites of Dederiyeh and Jeftelik in the northern
groupings, although the issue of inter-site variabil- Levant (Rodríguez Rodríguez et al. 2010; Tanno
ity was rarely discussed (though see Noy 1991:561 et al. herein), which now place the previously
concerning the ‘Mt. Carmel tradition’). There is somewhat enigmatic Tell Abu Hureyra Natufian

Fig. 4. 1-3, Distinctive Natufian picks (1-2, Hayonim cave; 3, Kebara cave). After Belfer-Cohen 1988a;
Turville-Petre 1932.

551
Anna Belfer-Cohen and A. Nigel Goring-Morris

Fig. 5. 1-7, hand guards and bases for boring equipment; 8-13, coarse awls and borers (1, Kebara cave;
2-13, Salibiya XII).

occupation in greater perspective (Moore et al. in the Negev (Goring-Morris 1998; Goring-Morris
2000). Nevertheless, complexity is apparent also et al. 1999). Here it is worth noting the uncertain
in sites reported from borderline peripheral phy- status – ‘core area’ or ‘periphery’ - of many of the
togeographic areas, e.g. Ain el-Saratan (Azraq 18) Natufian occurrences along the southern Transjor-
in eastern Jordan (Garrard 1991), or Upper Besor danian ‘spine’ in Edom (e.g. Byrd and Colledge1991;
VI and the Rosh Horesha-Saflulim site complex Henry 1995; Janetski and Chazan 2004; Neeley

552
 Phases and Facies in the Natufian of the Mediterranean Zone

2010, herein; Olszewski and Hill 1997; Pedersen required no more than 5-7 m2/person (e.g. Byrd 2000;
1995; Sellars 1991). But these issues are beyond Casselberry 1974; Cook and Heizer 1968; Steadman
the scope of the present article and merit their 2004), it may be estimated that up to 12-25 adults
own independent consideration. What we wish resided in these structures. Each one may thus
to stress here is that there is now sufficient data have accommodated extended families (or other
available to elucidate and evaluate at least some social factions – whether moieties, lodges, clans,
of the variability documented within and between or age, or gender groupings), resulting in a degree
the so-called ‘base-camp’ hamlets of the Mediter- of scalar stress that would have required consider-
ranean zone. At least some clearly differ in most able social mechanisms to alleviate (Belfer-Cohen
of those aspects that had assigned them, a priori, and Bar-Yosef 2000; Dunbar 2004; Johnson 1982).
to the Natufian ‘base-camp’ category. Here, it is interesting to note that such numbers
We now face a crucial challenge to integrate for a single structure could correspond to the size
and synergize the nature and intensity of the mul- of a Geometric Kebaran band.
tiple networks and directions of relations between An issue barely touched upon is the relative
Natufian communities, rather than simply adding packing of Natufian sites, even within the ‘core
morsels of knowledge to outdated frameworks. area’, a combination of the visibility of sites and
For it was these networks of inter-relations at the the paucity of detailed regional surveys. As an ex-
material culture level that represent the social ample, we believe that the special setting of Lake
correlates of the constituent groups comprising the Huleh could easily have supported several more
Natufian entity as a whole (Figs. 6-8). Preliminary sites around its shores on the scale of Eynan. In
isotopic research on small samples of gazelle and such favored settings the size of annual foraging
human remains appear to indicate a considerable ranges would shrink. Such a situation would have
degree of ‘regionalism’ between the sampled Natu- had immediate ramifications concerning the na-
fian sites (Shewan 2004: figure 4). We have noted ture, frequency and intensity of interactions within
elsewhere (Goring-Morris and Belfer-Cohen 2003, and between communities, both at the level of the
2008) that the large structures of Early Natufian individual as well as between communities. There
sites such as Eynan, Wadi Hammeh 27, el-Wad and would have been a concomitant expansion in the
Upper Besor VI were too large (75-150 m2) to have intensity and geographic scope of networks, whether
accommodated nuclear families (Goring-Morris for mating, immediate or delayed exchange, and/or
1996; Weinstein-Evron et al. herein). In light of reciprocity that increased significantly in compar-
recent estimates that hunter-gatherers may have ison to previous periods.

Fig. 6. Generalized mating networks – the individual in society.

553
Anna Belfer-Cohen and A. Nigel Goring-Morris

Fig. 7. Schematic illustration of Middle Epipaleolithic networks.

Fig. 8. Schematic illustration of Late Epipaleolithic (early) Natufian networks.

554
 Phases and Facies in the Natufian of the Mediterranean Zone

Summary 4
We do accept that there are unique structures
within some of these sites, i.e. ‘Habitation 1’ at Ey-
There is a huge amount of research still to be nan, whose function was primarily symbolic (Perrot
carried out in order to understand the scope, origins 1966; Goring-Morris and Belfer-Cohen 2003).
and dynamics operating within the Natufian ‘inter- 5
These are commonly lumped together in the
action sphere’ (Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen 1989b; literature with the sites specified above since they
Richter et al. 2010). But we do believe that the first incorporate similar material remains categories,
step is to acknowledge the existence of this state i.e. architecture, burials, lithics, bone artifacts,
of affairs. Differing degrees of sedentism, varying ornaments, etc.
modes of subsistence, and accompanying adapta- 6
Somewhat surprisingly evidence for ephemeral
tions were all relevant, dictating the particularities sites in the ‘core area’ only appears during the Late
of the separate units within the Natufian realm, Natufian, although the influence of rising sea lev-
whether ‘core area’, or ‘periphery’, or intermediate els also needs to be taken into consideration with
situations; but by themselves they cannot explain regards the coastal plain.
the range of variability observed. They were likely 7
Similar complex patterning can also be iden-
prime movers in the basic dichotomy between the tified in the so called Natufian ‘periphery’, starting
so-called Natufian ‘core area’ and ‘periphery’. Still, with the Early Natufian and continuing through the
the particularities and fine-tuning of the differenc- Late Natufian (see Goring-Morris and Belfer-Cohen
es between Natufian communities in the various herein).
phytogeographic zones, as well as between groups 8
The contextual association of the dog described
located within the very same region, pertain to the at el-Wad (Garrod and Bate 1937) remains unclear.
specifics of the social realm. These relate to the 9
The only burials east of the Rift Valley are those
origins of the particular groups, their communal, from Azraq 18 (Ain es-Saratan), on the border be-
shared memories and traditions, ties to specific tween the Mediterranean zone and the ‘periphery’,
locations within the ancestral landscape, and while none have been reported from sites in Edom
territorial boundaries based on historical rights, (Garrard 1991).
amongst others. Although all of these can be directly 10
It is nevertheless notable that amongst the
tied-in with the very basic aspects of daily existence, more mundane bone tools there is also some de-
the social fabric of a community is more than the gree of variability. Thus, short, stubby bone awls
sum of the ingredients that mold it. For, it was on gazelle metapodials - present already since the
social interactions that influenced and shaped the early Epipaleolithic in the Levant (Goring-Morris
particularities of both the inner structure and the 1980) - are common in some sites such as Eynan
outward appearance of each group, as well as the but are virtually absent in others, e.g. Hayonim
nature of relationships with other groups within cave (Belfer-Cohen 1988a; Le Dosseur 2001, 2008).
the Natufian complex. 11
Similar patterns were present in the Negev
and Sinai already during the Middle Epipaleolithic
Ramonian (Goring-Morris 1987).
Notes 12
To this very day, no systematic study has
been conducted to evaluate those sites with mbt
1
The ‘core area’ (Belfer-Cohen 1989) is the re- technology bearing in mind a possible southern or
gion (Carmel and Judean hills) where the Natufian eastern connection.
was first defined by Garrod (1932) and Neuville
(1934), subsequently including the Galilee, i.e.
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