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EVOLUTION OF HIGHWAY FAILURES AND THEIR MAINTENANCE

Golla Rama kishore1, K.Ramu2

M. Tech Scholar1, Asst Professor2, Department of Civil Engineering, A.M.REDDY Memorial College of Engineering
and Technology, Narasaraopet (M),Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
--------------------------------------------------------------------------***-----------------------------------------------------------------------
ABSTRACT: A well-developed transportation infrastructure is essential for economic, industrial, social and cultural
development of a country. Due to this need, human being has developed three modes of transport, i.e., by land, by water
and by air. The road network has expanded from 4 lakh km in 1947 to 20 lakh km in 1993 and almost 55 lakh kms as on 31
March, 2015. India has less than 3.8 kms of road per 1000 people; including all its paved and unpaved roads. In terms of
quality, all season, four or more lane highways; India has less than 0.07 kms of highway per 1000 people as of 2010.
Inadequate maintenance of roads accounts to an act of disinvestment and sacrifice of past investment in roads. Roads have
been receiving decreasing share of total Five Year Plan expenditure (decreasing from 6.7% in first plan to 3% in second
plan). The Vehicle Operating Cost increases at a rapid rate as the condition of existing pavements starts deteriorating. The
loss due to bad conditions of the main road network would be around Rs.12000 crore per annum. Pavement structure can
be destroyed in a single season due to water penetration. Defects in flexible pavements is a problem of multiple
dimensions, phenomenal growth of vehicular traffic (in terms of no. of axle loading of commercial vehicles), the rapid
expansion in the road network, non-availability of suitable technology, material, equipment, skilled labour and poor funds
allocation have all added complexities to the problem flexible pavements. Maintenance of a road network involves a
variety of operations, i.e., identification of deficiencies and planning, programming and scheduling for actual
implementation in the field and monitoring. The essential objective should be to keep the road surface and appurtenances
in good condition and to extend the life of the road assets to its design life. The purpose of the proposed study is to discuss
the possible causes of pavement failures, and recommends better ways to minimize and hopefully eliminate the causes of
failures in pavements.

Key Words: Distress, Highway Failures, Maintenance and repairs.

1. INTRODUCTION and ruts for paved roads. They include repairing pot
holes, surface patching, sealing of cracks and
1.1 General
Road surface marking. Transportation contributes to the
From the beginning of history, human sensitivity has economic, industrial, social and cultural development of
revealed an urge for mobility leading to a measure of any country. Transportation is vital for the economic
Society's progress. The history of this mobility or development of any region since every commodity
transport is the history of civilization. For any country to produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products
develop with right momentum modern and efficient or medicine needs transport at production and
Transport as a basic infrastructure is a must. Transport distribution stages. The inadequate transportation
(British English) or transportation (American English) facilities retard the process of socio-economic
is the movement of people and goods from one place to development of the country. The adequacy of
another. The term is derived from the Latin trans transportation system of a country indicates its
("across") and portare ("to carry"). economic and social development.
A road network system is perhaps one of the most India is a vast country having extreme variation in
important necessities for the economic development of climatic conditions. North-Eastern region gets very
any country, particularly developing countries. Many of heavy rainfall and annual rainfall as much as 600 cm per
developing countries, therefore, invest huge amount on year has been recorded, whereas the deserts of Western
road construction, while many developing countries India get very less rainfall. Even in a particular area the
appreciate the necessity for huge investment in capital difference between maximum and minimum
development of roads. Only a few give due importance to temperature of the year may be as high as 420c. North
the road maintenance. It is found more glamorous to India experiences heavy snowfall during winter at
embark on new construction than to maintain what is altitudes above 2000m. These climatic conditions have
already in existence. But unfortunately pavement great influence on the type of problems existing on the
structure can be destroyed in a single season due to road as only 47% are surfaced roads, balance being
water penetration. Maintenance activities may be earthen roads.
required at intervals throughout the year, but their
frequency varies with traffic, topography and climatic
conditions, type of roads, grading and repairing pot holes

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1.2 Introduction of roads in India

Roads are considered as the lifeline of any country. Some

of the important roles roads in India’s economy are:

1. Connection to villages.

2. Communication in hilly terrain.

3. Carriers of freight and passengers complementing the

railways

4. Helps agricultural development

5. Administrative convenience, etc.

Engineers have been always with open mind to adopt  Figure 1. Pavement Layers
any material available to them for its use for the
construction purposes. It is logical to see that the 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
purpose of highway construction is to provide a firm and
even surface for the carriageway or the pavement which Zulufqar Bin Rashid1, Dr. Rakesh Gupta emphasised on
could stand the stress caused due to number of load the parameters influencing the performance of
applications. pavements and to identify them. For efficient
maintenance of road pavements, the deficiencies in our
1.3 Types of Pavements existing highway system need to be clearly understood.
Proper design, regular inspection and maintenance of
The term pavement ordinarily means the surfacing layer pavement is of utmost importance and in preserving the
only. But in highway design, it means the total thickness investment made on highway system and in providing
of pavement including surfacing, base and sub base if comfort and safety to the road user.
any. It is a hard crust constructed over the natural soil
for the purpose of providing stable and even surface for DR. NDEFO OKIGBO studied the conditions of the roads
the vehicles. It is therefore a structure consisting of in Nigeria and their effects to the citizen, government
superimposed layers of materials above the natural soil and the economy of the country. Some of the identified
subgrade, whose primary function is to distribute the causes were; poor design and construction, poor
applied vehicle loads to the subgrade. The pavement maintenance of already built highways, use of low
structure should be able to provide a surface of quality materials in construction, poor workmanship and
acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance and poor supervision of construction work. Some of the
low noise pollution. recommendations to remedy the situation are; Use of the
appropriate design of the roads, avoiding unnecessary
From the point of view of structural performance, congestion of the roads especially heavy traffics that
pavements can be classified as: were not meant for the roads in the first place, prompt
maintenance of the roads, application of suitable
 Flexible construction material in the construction.
 Rigid
 Semi-rigid Mr. Devidas Chavade, Mr. Kedarnath worked on the on-
 Composite going researches about the defects in Flexible and Rigid
pavement and the maintenance in Flexible and Rigid
pavements. The essential objective should be to keep the
road surface and appurtenances in good condition and to
extend the life of the road assets to its design life.
Broadly, the activities include identification of defects
and the possible cause there off, determination of
appropriate remedial measures; implement these in the
field and monitoring of the results.

Aaron Steinfield, BenedicteBougler, Dan Empey

emphasise on snow removal and how it is critical for
winter highway maintenance operations. However, it is
subject to significant risk due to adverse operating
environmental conditions such as total visual whiteout,

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low tire/road traction, difficulty for detecting roadway alignment, vertical alignment, intersections, and various
boundaries and obstacles buried in or obscured by snow. design details. These basic elements are common to all
linear facilities, such as roadways, railways, and airport
SurajoAbubakar Wada worked on road detoriation. Road runways and taxiways. Although the details of design
deterioration is a critical situation for road sector standards vary with the mode and the class of facility,
because of the high cost for construction of new roads most of the issues involved in geometric design are
and maintenance of existing roads and routes. Therefore, similar for all modes. In all cases, the goals of geometric
better funding and management should be provided in design are to maximize the comfort, safety, and economy
order to keep the pavements in good condition and from of facilities, while minimizing their environ-mental
getting damaged due to the aforementioned distresses. impacts. This chapter focuses on the fundamentals of
geometric design, and presents standards and examples
3. HIGHWAY PLANNING & DESIGNING from different modes.
Highway design is only one element in the overall The geometric design of highways deals with the
highway development process. Historically, detailed dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway.
design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the The features normally considered are the cross section
preceding phases of planning and project development elements, sight distance consideration, horizontal
with the subsequent phases of right-of-way acquisition, curvature, gradients, and intersection. The design of
construction, and maintenance. It is during the first three these features is to a great extend influenced by driver
stages, planning, project development, and design, that behaviour and psychology, vehicle characteristics, traffic
designers and communities, working together, can have characteristics such as speed and volume. Proper
the greatest impact on the final design features of the geometric design will help in the reduction of accidents
project. In fact, the flexibility available for highway and their severity. Therefore, the objective of geometric
design during the detailed design phase is limited a great design is to provide optimum efficiency in traffic
deal by the decisions made at the earlier stages of operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost.
planning and project development.
The planning cannot be done stage wise like that of a
3.1 The Stages of Highway Development pavement, but has to be done well in advance. The main
components that will be discussed are:
Although the names may vary by State, the five basic
stages in the highway development process are: 1. Factors affecting the geometric design,
planning, project development (preliminary design),
final design, right of way, and construction. After 2. Highway alignment, road classification,
construction is completed, on-going operation and
maintenance activities continue throughout the life of 3. Pavement surface characteristics,
the facility.
4. Cross-section elements including cross slope,
various widths of roads and features in the road
margins.

5. Sight distance elements including cross slope,

various widths and features in the road margins.

6. Horizontal alignment which includes features like

super elevation, transition curve, extra widening
and set back distance.

7. Vertical alignment and its components like

gradient, sight distance and design of length of
curves.

8. Intersection features like layout, capacity etc.

3.3 Factors affecting geometric design

Figure 2. Process of Highway Planning
Design speed: Design speed is the single most important
factor that affects the geometric design. It directly affects
3.2 Geometric Design
the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of
Geometric design for transportation facilities includes vertical curves. Since the speed of vehicles vary with
the design of geometric cross sections, horizontal

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driver, terrain etc., a design speed is adopted for all the 1. Cracks:
geometric design.  Alligator Cracking
 Longitudinal Cracking
Topography: It is easier to construct roads with  Block Cracking
required standards for a plain terrain. However, for a  Edge Cracking
given design speed, the construction cost increases multi  Centre Cracking
form with the gradient and the terrain. 2. Rutting and Shoving:
Traffic factors: It is of crucial importance in highway  Rutting Classification
design, is the traffic data both current and future  Shoving
estimates. Traffic volume indicates the level of services 3. Pot Holes and Patching:
(LOS) for which the highway is being planned and  Pot Holes
directly affects the geometric features such as width,  Patch Deterioration and Repairs
alignment, grades etc., without traffic data it is very 4. Bleeding, Revelling and Weathering:
difficult to design any highway  Bleeding
 Revelling and Weathering
Design Hourly Volume and Capacity: The general unit 5. Miscellaneous Type of Defects:
for measuring traffic on highway is the Annual Average  Polished Aggregates
Daily Traffic volume, abbreviated as AADT. The traffic  Corrugations
flow (or) volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low
value during off peak hours to the highest value during 4.2 Types of Distresses/Failures and Definitions:
the peak hour. It will be uneconomical to design the
roadway facilities for the peak traffic flow. 1. Longitudinal Cracking: These are cracks parallel to
the pavement centreline or lay down direction, which
Environmental and other factors: - The environmental may eventually lead to moisture infiltration, roughness,
factors like air pollution, noise pollution, landscaping, and may indicate the possible onset of alligator cracking
aesthetics and other global conditions should be given and structural failure. The possible causes include poor
due considerations in the geometric design of roads. drainage, shoulder settlement, weak joints between
adjoining spread of pavement layers or differential frost
4. HIGHWAY PAVEMENT FAILURE heave. The possible treatment depends on whether the
pavement is structurally sound or unsound. Where the
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of pavement is structurally sound, the cracks should be
superimposed layers of processed materials above the filled with low viscosity binder or slurry seal or fog seal
natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to depending on the width of the cracks. Unsound cracked
distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The pavements would need strengthening or rehabilitation
pavement structure should be able to provide a surface treatment.
of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance,
favourable light reacting characteristics, and low noise
pollution. The major Flexible pavement failures are
fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The
fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal
tensile strain at the bottom of the asphaltic concrete. The
failure criterion relates allowable number of load
repetitions to tensile strain and this relation can be
determined in the laboratory fatigue test on asphaltic
concrete specimens. Rutting occurs only on flexible
pavements as indicated by permanent deformation or
rut depth along wheel load path. Two design methods Figure 3. Longitudinal cracking on road
have been used to control rutting: one to limit the
vertical compressive strain on the top of sub-grade and 2. Fatigue Cracking: Cracks in asphalt layers that are
other to limit rutting to a tolerable amount (12 mm caused by repeated traffic loadings. The cracks indicate
normally. Thermal cracking includes both low fatigue failure of the asphalt layer. When cracking is
temperature cracking and thermal fatigue cracking. characterized by interconnected cracks, the cracking
pattern resembles that of an alligator’s skin or chicken
4.1 Common Flexible Pavement Failure/ Distresses: wire. Therefore, it is also referred to as alligator
cracking.
Various defects in flexible pavements have been seen
and those are listed below:

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Figure 4. Fatigue cracking on road

3. Block Cracking: These cracks appear as Figure 7. Rutting on road

interconnected cracks forming blocks of square or
rectangular shape on pavement surface. The size of the 6. Transverse Cracking: Cracks that are predominately
block cracking varies from 1000 sq.cm to 10000 sq.cm (1 perpendicular to pavement centreline and are not
sq.ft. to 10 sq.ft.). Block cracking is shown in located over Portland cement concrete joints. Thermal
photographs below. cracking is typically in this category.

Figure 8. Transverse cracking on road

Figure 5. Block cracking on road 7. Reflection Cracking: Cracks in HMA overlay surfaces
that occur over joints in concrete or over cracks in HMA
4. Edge Cracking: Crescent-shaped cracks or fairly pavements.
continuous cracks that intersect the pavement edge and
are located within 2 feet of the pavement edge, adjacent
to the unpaved shoulder. Includes longitudinal cracks
outside of the wheel path and within 2 feet of the
pavement edge.

Figure 9.Reflections cracking on road

8. Corrugation: Transverse undulations appear at

regular intervals due to the unstable surface course
caused by stop-and-go traffic

Figure 6. Edge cracking on road

5. Rutting: Rutting is a longitudinal surface depression

or groove in the wheel path. If the rutting is accompanied
by adjacent bulging, it may be sign of subgrade
movement. This phenomenon takes place when either
pavement thickness is inadequate or there is heavy
channelized traffic.

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Figure 10. Corrugations on road Figure 13. Overlay bumps on road

9. Shoving: It is a form of plastic movement resulting 12. Delamination: Loss of a large area of pavement
into localized bulging of surface. Shoving occurs surface. Usually there is a clear separation of the
characteristically at points where traffic starts or stops pavement surface from the layer below. Slippage
or at sharp curves. Shoving is shown in photographs. cracking may often occur as a result of poor bonding or
adhesion between layers.

Figure 11. Shoving on road

Figure 14. Delamination on road
10. Depression: Small, localized surface settlement that
can cause a rough, even hazardous ride to motorists. 13. Pot holes: These are bowl shaped holes of various
sizes in the surface layer or extending into the base
course. These are caused by localized disintegration of
material and usually appear at water logged places or
after rains.

Figure 12. Depression on road

11. Overlay Bumps: In newly overlaid pavements,

bumps occur where cracks in old pavements were Figure 15. Pot Holes on road
recently filed. This problem is most prevalent on thin
overlays. 15. Ravelling: Wearing away of the pavement surface in
high-quality hot mix asphalt concrete that may be caused
by the dislodging of aggregate particles and loss of
asphalt binder.

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Figure 16. Ravelling on road

16. Stripping: The loss of the adhesive bond between

asphalt cement and aggregate, most often caused by the
presence of water in asphalt concrete, which may result Figure 19. Pumping
in raveling, loss of stability, and load carrying capacity of
the HMA pavement or treated base. 19.Segregation: Separation of coarse aggregate from
fine aggregate as a result of mishandling of the mix at
several points during mix production, hauling, and
placing operations. Segregation leads to non-uniform
surface texture and non-uniform density.

Figure 17. Stripping on road

17. Polished aggregate: Polished aggregate refers to the

smoothness of the exposed aggregate. Bleeding and
polished aggregate reduce the skid resistance of the Figure 20. Segregation of Coarse Aggregate
pavement with resulting safety consequences. Bleeding
is a film of bituminous material on the pavement surface, 20. Checking: Short transverse cracks, usually 1 to 3
which creates a shiny, glass-like, reflecting surface that inches in length and 1 to 3 inches apart, which occur in
usually becomes sticky. It is caused by high asphalt the surface of the HMA mat at some time during the
content or low air void content. Since the bleeding compaction process. The cracks do not extend
process is not reversible during cold months, asphalt will completely through the depth of the course, but are only
accumulate on the surface and lower the skid resistance. about ½inch deep.

Figure 18. Polished Aggregate

18. Pumping: Seeping or ejection of water and fines Figure 21. Checking on road
from beneath the pavement through cracks.

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21. Bleeding/Flushing: Excess bituminous binder as constructed or as subsequently improved and the
occurring on the pavement surface. May create a shiny, operation of highway facilities and services to provide
glass-like, reflective surface that may be tacky to the satisfactory and safe transportation, is called
touch. Usually found in the wheel paths. maintenance of Highways.

5.1 Surface maintenance of Roads:

Pavement maintenance and rehabilitation programs

restore riding quality and maintain the structural
integrity of the pavement over its full design life.

5.2 General surface maintenance:

 For maintenance of gravel roads blading and

occasional resurfacing is required.
 For surface treatments of low type bituminous
surface in maintenance of roads; Patching, seal
coating or possible loosening oiling, re mixing
Figure 22. Bleeding & Flushing and relaying are involved.
 For high type bituminous concrete and Portland
22. Rock Loss: Wearing away of the pavement surface in cement concrete, the Removal and replacement
seal coats. of failure areas and resurfacing are approximate
treatment methods for highway maintenance.
 Use same material and methods for road surface
maintenance as far as possible.
 Highway Maintenance must be planned for
rapid performance and to cause least possible
disruption or hazard to traffic.

5.2.1Shoulders: Depend on the surface character of

these areas:

 SOD shoulders must be moved and occasionally

bladed down to the level of the roadway so that
Figure 23. Rock Loss water is not trapped in the travelled way. Gross
must be kept in good condition.
23. Bleeding/Fat Spots: Excess binder occurring on the  Shoulders protected by bituminous blankets or
surface treated pavements. May create a shiny, glass-like, surface treatments same as for roadway surface.
reflective appearance. Fat spots are localized bleeding.  Gravel and earth shoulders that leaves a drop off
at the pavement edges creates a serious
accidental hazard, hence, should be corrected by
reconstruction, resurfacing or other appropriate
means.
 Due to continuous wetting and drying of
shoulder, edge joints result between lane and
shoulder which may cause settlement of
pavement due to entrance of water in sub grade
soil. It can Repaired by filling the joint with sand
and asphalt concrete.

5.2.2 Snow and ice control: Ice forming on the roadway

reduces coefficient of friction between tires and surface,
which makes vehicle control almost impossible. In
Figure 24. Bleeding on road highway maintenance we can apply abrasive to heavily
travelled roadway and street. Suitable materials that can
5. HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE be used are clean and sharp sand, cinders and washed
stone screening.
Preserving and keeping each type of roadway, roadside,
structures as nearly as possible in its original condition

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5.2.3 Bridge maintenance: Bridges maintenance is a  To provide temporary cover in case of delayed
major part of highway maintenance. Bridges can be incomplete pavement.
maintained in good condition by following the below
guidelines: In Highway Maintenance, for good surface treatment it
is necessary to following the below rules.
 Exposed steel work must be cleaned by sand
blasting flame or other means followed by  Base course is well prepared to its profile and is
repainting. made freer from pot holes and ruts.
 Deck joint may extrude or become filled with  Excellence of surface dressing depends upon the
dirt so that cleaning and resealing is necessary correct proportion of binder aggregate.
 Out of control vehicle, causing damage to guard  Before laying that first surface dressing coat, the
rail, must be Repaired and strengthened. base should be made free from all dust loose soil
 If bridge deck become rough resurfacing is etc.
required  In all bituminous construction it is necessary
 Remedial measures to correct serious scour that the newly surface possess a bond with the
around and under piers and abutments. existing base at the interface. It is also necessary
that the base is nearly impervious.
5.2.4 Traffic services: Include stripping, sign repair
and maintenance (particularly needed for repair after 5.4 Mowing
stormy weather.
Vegetation along the right-of-way will be mowed for the
5.3 Surface treatment of highways: following reasons:

Although the best type of surface course is pre-mix  Eliminate obstructions to sight distance on
carpet for highway maintenance; curves.
 Control weed and brush growth.
1. Intensity of traffic is not very high.  Reduce snow drifting on the roadway.
2. The pro-mix mixers are not easily available due  Provide for unobstructed drainage.
to long transportation or technical reasons.  Reduce the fire hazard in some areas.
3. When the cost is high. The surface treatment  Improve road aesthetics.
methods are employed. The surface treatment  Eliminate obstruction to signs.
may be single or multiple.  Increase the visibility of large animals on the
right-of-way.
5.3.1 Single Surface Treatment: Is wearing course in
which the bituminous material is sprayed and the All high traffic volume highways will receive one
aggregate is placed uniformly over the applied bitumen shoulder cut in the late spring and an additional full
mineral. The thickness of such layer approximate the right-of-way cut. All other provincial highways in Alberta
nominal size of aggregate used. will receive up to 2 shoulder cuts per year (as required)
and a full right-of-way cut once every 3 years or as
5.3.2 Multiple Surface Treatments :( Double or Triple)
warranted for brush control purposes. The first shoulder
is a wearing surface in which a course aggregate is
cut will be 4.5 metres in width and should be completed
placed on bitumen coat (prime coat) already applied,
during the early summer months. The second shoulder
followed by spraying of bitumen and then by subsequent
cut or full cut may be warranted in the late fall,
application of finer aggregate over a second bitumen
depending on re-growth. Where required, trimming
coat. Generally the minimum size of the smallest
around all appurtenances located adjacent to the
aggregate is one of the aggregate used in the preceding
highway will be carried out during the second cut. In
application usually thickness of single layer
urban Areas the mowing of boulevards and raised
approximately maximum size of aggregate.
medians will be the responsibility of the municipality.
5.3.3 Function of surface treatment: The department will discuss their area’s mowing plans
and arrangements with local municipal officials. Where
 To provide long lasting economical surface for possible, the department will try to coordinate their
granular base road having light and medium operations with that of the municipalities.
traffic volume.
 To prevent entry of surface water into old 5.5 Drainage systems:
pavement that has been weathered or cracked.
As flowing water can be one of the greatest natural
 It improves the skid resistance of bitumen destructive forces affecting a road, it is very important
surface where the surface has polished under that all structures and other features of the drainage
traffic. system are well designed and properly maintained. In

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order to maintain a roadway in optimum condition, problems or builds to a height that it renders the guard
water must be kept from saturating the subgrade and ineffective. Repairs to guard and associated fencing are
also from eroding the roadway. Drainage systems done as required.
include the following components:
6. CONCLUSIONS
 Ditches
 Culverts Engineers have been always with open mind to adopt
 Ditch Blocks any material available to them for its use for the
 Curbs/Gutters construction purposes. It is logical to see that the
 Down Drains purpose of highway construction is to provide a firm and
even surface for the carriageway or the pavement which
 Subsurface Drains
could stand the stress caused due to number of load
 Bridges
applications.
Each spring, the department will update and prioritize
Following conclusions have been drawn based on the
the culvert maintenance program. This program will
present study:
describe any drainage system deficiencies and identify
what corrective action needs to be taken. Proper design, regular inspection and maintenance
of drainage system is of utmost importance in
5.6 Traffic control devices
preserving the investment made on highway system
5.6.1 Signing: Signs are used to inform motorists of and in providing comfort and safety to the road user.
traffic regulations, warn of changes in the roadway
The classifications of all types of distresses have
characteristics or hazards, and to provide
been identified. The cause and treatment is different
directional/distance information that is necessary to
for different severity levels of each distress.
motorists.
The defects in existing highway system and in
All highways should be checked on a regular basis to
maintenance practices must be clearly understood
ensure that all signs are properly in place, functional and
and eradicated.
conform to established standards. In addition to daytime
inspections, night inspections should be carried out The influencing parameters considered in this study
regularly to ensure that signs are reflective and legible are cracks and cracking pattern, roughness, pot
during hours of darkness. Lighting which has been holes and deflections. The above parameters have
installed on overhead sign structures should be been classified according to their severity levels.
inspected regularly to ensure that all fixtures are
operational. Signs larger than 3m2 should be placed on Maintenance decision can be taken based on the
breakaway bases to minimize the potential for injury and criteria of reaching any one or all of the influencing
vehicle damage if struck by vehicles leaving the roadway. parameters to their maximum acceptable limits.
Shear bolts should be checked periodically for proper
torque so that the breakaway feature will function as The small distress (cracking, potholes, shoving,
intended. rutting, etc.) must be repaired before any major
maintenance (overlay, renewal coat) is done. Even
5.6.2 Traffic signals: The function of a traffic control reduced thickness of overlay will show better results
signal is to safely assign the right-of-way between the if minor defects are repaired before overlays are
conflicting flows of traffic at an intersection. Standards done.
related to the installations and operation of traffic
control signals can be found in the Manual of Uniform 7. REFERENCES
Traffic Control Devices for Canada.
 Abd El Halim, A.O (1985) 'Influence of Relative
5.6.3 Livestock guards: Livestock guards are used to Rigidity on the Problem on Reflection
prevent domestic and wild animals from entering the  Cracking' .TRR 1007, pp: 53-58 USA
roadway. Most livestock guards are installed on
approaches to highways; however, there are a small  Abdulkareem Y.A and K.A Adeoti (2004) 'Road
number located on the main highway. The department Maintenance and National Development'.
will maintain and inspect all livestock guards located on National Engineering
the Provincial Highway System. The department shall
inspect the guards to ensure that the guard is carrying  Conference, Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara
out its intended function of preventing domestic and State Nigeria.
wild animals from entering roadway. Accumulated
debris must be removed before it causes water drainage

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 Ankit Gupta (2004) 'Failure of Bituminous

Pavements'. A report submitted to PWD Aligarh.
pp:1-14

 Dalia Said, Abd El Halim A.O and Jorge C.Pais

(2008) 'Study of the Causes and Remedies
Premature Surface Cracking of Asphalt
Pavements'. EPAM3-3rd European Pavement
and Asset Management Conference, Coimbra,
Portugal. 7-9 July,2008.

 Study on Failures and Maintenance of Flexible

Pavement”, International Journal of Scientific
Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR),
Volume 3, Issue 4, PP. 2984 – 2990.

 Mr. EtikalaNagaraju 2015. “Pavement

Rehabilitation and Maintenance”, International
Journal of Civil Engineering (SSRJ – IJCE),
Volume 21, Issue 6, PP. 38 – 40. Magdi M.E.
Zumravi 2015. “Survey and Evaluation of
Flexible Pavement Failures”, International
Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), Volume
4, Issue 1, PP. 1602 – 1607.

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