Best Practices and Applications of 3D Printing in the

Construction Industry
Jake Kidwell
California Polytechnic State University
San Luis Obispo, California

Abstract
The construction industry is constantly looking for new ways to improve project efficiency and
profitability. Many new technologies such as Business Information Modeling (BIM) programs,
and project management software have been introduced to aid in preconstruction and on site
coordination. However, traditional building methods have remained relatively unchanged for
decades. 3D printing (3DP) is a promising new technology that has the potential to not only be
an effective means of increasing project efficiency and profitability in the field, but also have
positive environmental impacts. However, as it exists today, this technology is highly limited
by size, material, skilled labor, and industry reluctance. This paper analyzes progressive 3DP
companies that have been able to effectively employ this technology on a large scale. The
purpose of this paper is to examine the current uses 3DP in construction and create an outline
for the best practices and applications given the technology’s existing limitations.

Key Words: 3D Printing, Best Practices, Limitations

Introduction

Three Dimensional Printing (3DP) refers to an automated additive manufacturing process in which three
dimensional objects are created by laying down successive layers of material. The process starts with the creation of
a 3D model using Computer Aided Design (CAD) software. The model is then sent to the 3D printer as a
Stereolithography Language (STL) file. From there, the model is broken down into layers that can be successively
applied on top of each other to form the object (Chen and Yossef, 2015). This technology has been utilized for a
wide array of applications. For example, the medical industry uses 3DP technology to produce high quality bone and
joint transplants, as well as anatomical models for research and analysis purposes (Murray et al., 2015). Architects
use 3DP to create complex 3D models for their clients, 3DP is even used in the aerospace industry to print airfoils
(Thomas et al., 1996). In recent years, 3DP technology has gotten a lot of attention from the construction industry as
a promising building method. However, the current state of 3DP technology possesses many limiting factors that
effect its integration into the construction industry.

History of 3DP

In 1981 Dr. Hideo Kadoma of the Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute developed a system of printing
solid layers of quick-drying photopolymers that corresponded with a cross-sectional slice of a CAD model, he called
it Rapid Prototyping (RP). Three years later, Charles Hull patented Stereolithography which is a technique that
utilizes the reaction between a liquid photopolymer and a UV laser beam. When exposed to the UV light, the liquid
photopolymer will instantly turn each layer into a solid plastic mold consistent with the shape specified by the 3D
CAD model. In 1992, Hull’s company, 3D Systems, produced the SLA-1 which was the worlds first commercial
Sereolithography Apparatus (SLA). That same year, Carl Deckard patented the Selective Laser Sintering machine
(SLS) which is a similar technology that utilizes a powder photopolymer reaction rather than liquid (Goldberg,
2014). Throughout the 90’s and into the early 2000’s, SLA and SLS was used primarily in the industrial
manufacturing setting for casting small parts and components for a variety of plastic products. In 2005, ASTM
recognized Additive Manufacturing (AM) as the standard term for all of these processes. ASTM defines additive
manufacturing as “a process of joining materials to make objects from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer”
(ASTM Standard, 2012.). 3DP is based on the AM methods.  

Figure 1 – Summary of AM Processes

Source: (Buswell et al., 2007)

Current Uses of 3DP in Construction

Although 3DP is new to construction, the technology is being utilized in many ways by contractors and architects
across the world. One of the major uses of 3DP in the construction industry is for creating scale mockups for
building components. In an interview with Justin Porter, a Project Manager from Truebeck Construction, I learned
that they have been utilizing 3D printers to create scale mockups for their project. These mockups are all created in
house by their Virtual Design and Construction team which not only helps facilitate quick and easy communication
between the contractor, architect, and owner, but also saves them time and money by eliminating long lead time
from third-party mockups.

Other areas in which 3DP is being utilized on a larger scale is for the prefabrication of full scale building
components such as interior walls and partitions. Branch Technology, a Tennessee based company, is a leading
innovator in the field of 3DP using their patented “Cellular Fabrication” (C-Fab) method to prefabricate interior
walls and partitions. This AM method involves 12’6” robot arm that moves along a 33’ long track capable of
producing complex and exotic components with a building volume of 25’ wide by 58’ long. They have created an
algorithm that generates a strong, yet lightweight geometric matrix made of ABS plastic and carbon fiber. This
plastic matrix is reported to be three times as strong as traditional wood stud framing and can subsequently be
insulted and finished with drywall as shown in Figure 2a (Simon, 2015).

Another leader in the world of 3D printing for construction components is a French company called XtreeE. They
specialize in concrete printing and have utilized the technology to print 7’ x 7’ x 8’ storm water drains that are
prefabricated in a warehouse and then dropped in place on site. These drains are printed and finished in only 9 hours
(xtreee.eu, 2017)

Other companies, such as World Advanced Savings Project (WASP), are taking a more eco-friendly, and
philanthropic approach. This Italian company has been experimenting with mixtures consisting of locally sourced
clay, straw, lime, and sand to produce simple cylindrical shelters. Their goal is to provide inexpensive and
environmentally friendly housing for low-income developing nations. These shelters could also serve as emergency
shelters for areas affected by natural disaster (wasproject.it, 2017).
(a)C-Fab Wall Partitions (b)3D concrete printed storm drain (B)WASP 3D Shelter

Figure 2 – Prefabricated Building Components

Methodology

The primary methodology I used in this paper was qualitative research taken from two large scale projects that
employed 3D printing as their main means of construction. I also conducted quantitative research through an
interview with a project manager from Truebeck Construction in order to gain insight to the thoughts and opinions
of the use of 3DP in the industry today. My analysis includes a detailed case study of the two projects, identification
of the advantages and limitations of the technology, and an evaluation of the best practices for the use of 3DP in
construction today.

The objectives of this case study are as follows:

•   To describe the various 3DP means and methods used for each project
•   To highlight the time, cost, and materials savings associated with using 3DP
•   To highlight the limitations associated with using 3DP
•   To provide an analysis of the best practices and applications of 3DP in construction

Case Study

Winsun: 3D Printed House (2013) – 3D Printed Office (2016)

In 2013 a Shanghai based company called Winsun produced 10 small full-size prefabricated homes in just one day.
Each home measured 215 square feet, and cost $4,800 to build. The printer used to fabricate the walls stands 20 feet
tall and 40 feet wide and moves along a 120-foot long track. The material that is extruded from the printer’s nozzle
is a trademarked mixture consisting of concrete, cement, glass fiber reinforced gypsum, and fiber reinforced plastics
bonded together with a proprietary additive that enables the concrete to fully cure within a couple of days
(depending on compressive strength). 50% of this material is sourced from recycled construction waste (Millsaps,
2016). The key to this mixture is finding a balance between flow-ability and build-ability so that the concrete can
support itself without the need for formwork, while also maintaining a sufficient compressive strength. Although
Winsun does not release their specific design, an optimal mix design for such a material has a fine aggregate to
cement ratio of 1.28, a fine aggregate to sand ratio of 2, and a water to cement ratio of .48 (Hachem et al.,16). This
 mix design is capable of reaching compressive strengths of up to 8,000 psi which is well above the International
Building Code’s 2,500 psi minimum strength for structural concrete (IBC Concrete Manual, 2017).

It must be noted that these homes are not entirely printed on site, but rather prefabricated in a factory and shipped on
site where the walls are placed onto pre poured slab foundations and reinforced with traditional steel reinforcement.
Additionally, the roof, doors, and windows are not printed using 3DP technology. Each wall is printed in a hollow
fashion with an internal diagonal zig-zagging reinforcement system (see Figure 3a). This allows for the architects to
implement calculated paths for insulation, plumbing, and electrical within their computer aided designs (Alter, 2016)
treehuger.

Three years later, Winsun used the same printer and material to produce the worlds’ first 3DP office building for the
United Arab Emirates National Committee as their headquarters for the Dubai Future Foundation (DFF). This 2,700
square foot building was also printed offsite in a factory, cut in half for shipping purposes, and assembled onsite.
The entire crew consisted of 18 laborers, including one printer operator, seven laborers for assembly, and ten
laborers for mechanical and electrical (Alter, 2016). The total project duration from beginning of printing to finished
assembly took only 17 days for a total of $140,000 in construction and labor costs (Dalton, 2016).

Time, Cost, and Materials Savings

1.)   Time Savings: Winsun’s 3DP technique for the construction of both the 10 houses and office building in
Dubai were reported to have, on average, a 30% schedule reduction than that of similar buildings using
traditional construction methods (futureofconstruction.org, 2016).
2.)   Cost Savings: Compared to traditional on-site construction methods, Winsun was able to save about 80%
on construction and labor costs (futureofconstruction.org, 2016).
3.)   Materials Savings: The accuracy and precision of Winsun’s 3D concrete printer results in 30-60% less
material waste as compared to traditional concrete placing (depending on size of printed components). This
reduction in waste accounts for absence of formwork since Winsun’s fast-curing concrete mixture is able to
support itself while being extruded layer upon layer. Additionally, 50% of the concrete material used has
been sourced from construction waste (futureofconstruction.org, 2016).

 
(a)Internal Reinforcement (b)3DP House (a)3DP Office
   
Figure 3 – 3DP Components and Final Products
 Advantages of 3DP

3DP technology offers many advantages to the construction industry. The four main areas where 3DP can have the
most significant effects are in labor efficiency, time and cost savings, environmental/economic impacts, and design
complexity.

1.)   Labor Efficiency: In recent years the construction industry has experienced a high demand for construction
projects across all sectors of the industry. This upturn in work has resulted in an increased demand for
skilled and unskilled labor. According to a 2017 Workforce Survey conducted by the Associated General
Contractors of America, 70% of construction firms are having a hard time filling hourly craft positions.
51% of those firms also claim that they are having a hard time filling concrete worker positions (AGC,
2017). Concrete 3DP has the potential to effectively combat this shortage. As shown in the above case
study, the fabrication of all concrete walls for an entire 2,700 square foot office building was completely
automated, with the assistance of one printer operator. This demonstrates how 3DP can eliminate the need
for large crews to produce components such as concrete walls.

2.)   Time and Cost Savings: 3DP has the potential to produce significant reductions in on-site construction
schedules, and large savings in construction hard costs. With 3DP prefabricated structural components,
such as walls, floor panels, and roofing systems, a crew of 18 laborers were able to assemble a fully
functioning office building in less than three weeks. Cost of material and labor alone can be reduced up to
80% using 3DP techniques (futureofconstruction.org, 2016). Figure 4, taken from a 2016 International
Construction Cost Survey, shows the average cost savings of labor and raw materials using conventional
construction methods compared to 3DP.

3.)   Environmental/Economical Impacts: Many 3DP companies, like Winsun and WASP, are using inexpensive
and sustainable materials that utilize construction waste and/or locally sourced clay and straw. This not
only appeals to sustainable design but also to developing nations as a method for producing affordable
housing. Additionally, by saving between 30-60% on raw materials used, 3DP also has appeal to advanced
nations where labor costs and environmental standards are high.

4.)   Design Complexity: 3D printers are able to move along a tri-axial plane (x,y and z direction) allowing them
to be programmed to create irregular and exotic contours that are difficult and expensive to achieve using
traditional forms or molds. This allows architects to design complex components without additional cost.

Figure 4 – Material and Cost Savings

Source: 2016 International Construction Cost Survey
 Limitations of 3DP

Although the potential advantages of 3DP seem promising, the existing state of the technology possesses many
limiting factors that impair its growth in the construction industry.

1.)   The first and most obvious limitation is the sheer size of the printers. The largest printer in existence is
Winsun’s 20’ tall, by 40’ wide, by 120’ long concrete printer which may seem significant but is only
capable of producing building components rather than full systems. This hinders the technology’s ability to
create a truly 3D printed building because there will always be the need for traditional built foundations,
reinforcement, and MEPF retrofitting.

2.)   Material is next largest limiting factor. As it exists today, construction grade 3DP technology is only
compatible with various concrete mixtures, and plastics. Such concrete mixtures range from lightweight
air-entrained concrete, to eco-friendly concrete mixtures that utilize construction waste, to structural
concrete. Plastics are typically used in construction for modeling and mockup purposes with the exception
of Branch Technology’s carbon fiber ABS plastic core wall components. While these materials are
effective for the prefabrication of certain building components, they will never be able to replace traditional
building methods like wood or steel frame construction. It is also important to note that 3D printers are only
capable of printing one material at a time. This means that there are long turnover times associated with
reprogramming, cleanout, and reinsertion of a new material before a new design can be printed.

3.)   There is also high reluctance from general contracting companies to invest in 3DP technology. Although
time and cost savings could be obtained in the future, there is a high upfront cost associated with
purchasing the equipment. General contractors must also consider the time and cost associated with
management and operation of the 3D printers. This involves an entirely new set of skilled labor and
supervision.

4.)   Building codes and regulations also pose as a large barrier for 3D printing in construction. Most building
codes and procurement standards make no mention of 3DP technology therefore making it difficult to
legally implement 3DP components onto large scale projects.

Best Practice and Conclusions

Given the existing advantages and limitations of 3DP within the construction industry, there are two main practices
where the technology can be most effectively applied today. The first is in the prefabrication of uniform concrete
and plastic wall components. Because the technology is so new, general contractors should not invest in the
equipment themselves, but rather use experienced specialty subcontractors such as Winsun, or Branch Technology
to preform the prefabrication. It can be seen from the above case study that the use of prefabricated concrete printed
walls is an effective and inexpensive means of quickly assembling a building’s superstructure. However, it is
important for contractors to consider the size limitations when using 3DP on a project. The most ideal situation to
employ 3DP concrete walls would be on a project no more than two stories high, with a uniform wall layout.
Uniformity of the design is crucial in order to avoid long turnover times associated with the use of new material and
reprograming the printer with different CAD files. 3DP plastic walls are another viable application that can save
time, money, and labor on a project. Specifically, for interior partitions that have particularly exotic designs,
eliminating the need for complicated and costly formwork or molding.

The second most realistic application for 3DP is for use by general contractors to produce in-house scale mockups
for building components. According to my interview with Justin Porter, a project manager from Truebeck
Construction, in-house 3DP was used on his project to print a full scale mockup of a complex handrail system.
Because of the complexity of the handrail, it did not meet the general building code, however the project team was
able to use the mockup to prove that it was structurally sufficient to the city. Using 3DP for in-house mockups helps
general contractors save time and money by not having to rely on a third party for their mockups, streamlines
submittal processes, and enhances the communication between owner, architect and contractor.
The full potential of 3DP technology in the construction industry is yet to be seen, however if properly utilized for
prefabricated wall components and in-house mockups, construction companies can start saving time and money on
their projects today.

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