Historic American Timber Joinery: A Graphic Guide - 2004-08
Historic American Timber Joinery: A Graphic Guide - 2004-08
Historic American Timber Joinery: A Graphic Guide - 2004-08
By Jack A. Sobon
ISBN 0-9706643-2-X
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Tying Joints: Tie below Plate 2
II. Tying Joints: Tie at Plate 8
III. Sill and Floor Joints 20
IV. Wall and Brace Joints 28
V. Roof Joinery Excluding Trusses 34
VI. Scarf Joints 46
Photos and drawings by the author unless otherwise indicated. Bibliography, page 54.
O
F ALL the joints that make up a traditional timbered
frame, the most important are the tying joints. Tie
beams, also referred to as crossbeams, anchorbeams, ties
and lower chords (in trusses), are transverse horizontal
members that span from wall to wall or eave to eave, resisting the
outward thrust of the roof planes. Where the tie beam joins the wall
framing, we have the tying joint. Tying joints are usually the only
connections in a frame that must resist tension. When a tie beam
joins the feet of principal rafters, the result is a triangle, a rigid struc-
tural shape. In wide structures, rafters are often supported by purlin Fig.1. In the typical New York State timber-framed Dutch house, the
plates somewhere in midspan, and their effective span is thus short- plate is 3 to 4 ft. above the second floor. The closely spaced H-bents,
ened (see Fig. 2). Support by purlin plates normally reduces outward typically 3 to 5 ft. on center, illustrate the tie-below-plate condition.
thrust of the rafter at the plate and consequently the load on the
tying joint. But wind loads can cause bracing to exert tension loads
on the tying joint. In aisled structures, the tie beams may not be
continuous across the entire width, but may span only from aisle The Through Mortise and Tenon (Figs. 3-5). Probably the most preva-
post to aisle post. Of all the joints in a timber frame, the tying joints lent tying joint in America, the through mortise and tenon was the
especially must be of good structural design and each one well crafted standard joint in the carpenter’s repertory where a joint was subject
(there is no redundancy). to tension loads. The mortise is cut completely through the post to
Because of their complexity and variety, tying joints may conve- maximize the tenon length. Because the connection relies entirely
niently be divided into two groups: tie below plate and tie at plate. on the pins to resist withdrawal, pin size and location are critical.
This article will focus on the former group. Failure of this joint can occur in five ways:
The tie below plate, or dropped tie as it is often called, joins the 1. The pin can shear off (pin too small or decayed), and the joint
wall posts below the plate. Its connections are generally simpler than withdraws.
those of the tie at plate and probably its configuration is the more 2. The wood in the tenon between the pin hole and the end of the
widespread. Since it lies below the plate, occasionally several feet, tenon, called the relish, can split out (tenon too short or pin hole too
and the rafters join to the plate, it doesn’t create the nice triangle close to end of tenon), and the joint withdraws.
with the rafters that engineers like to see. The rafters carry roof thrust 3. The mortise face can split out (pins too close to face), and the
to the plate. The plate transfers the load to the posts. The posts are joint withdraws.
joined by the tie beams. Each joint must be sufficient to carry the 4. The post can split in a line from the pin hole up to the post’s
load, and the post must not break. top tenon (joint too near the post top), and the top portion of the
If the load path is convoluted, why did the arrangement arise? In post breaks away.
traditional timber framing it is often simpler and stronger to stagger 5. The post can break off at the tying joint (too much cut out of
joints. When a joint is cut in a timber, wood is removed and the the post).
timber’s strength is diminished. Joining multiple members at the same Generally, through tenons are used to maximize the relish in the
location often creates complex joinery and can weaken members ex- tenon beyond the pin hole, but a few blind (not through) tenons
cessively. Raising the plate a foot or two above the tie avoids this have been found. The use of two or more pins is common, often not
problem, and raising the plate several feet above the tie also makes in line to avoid mortise face splitout. Some typical pin placements
the space under the roof more usable. are illustrated in Fig. 5.
2
and assembly is necessary only once, at the
raising. Scribe rule frames, on the other hand,
are built according to an older system that
custom-fits each timber to an adjoining one,
a process that requires arranging the indi-
vidual pieces on a framing floor and assem-
bling and disassembling large parts of the
frame before raising the whole.) Because the
diminished housing retains more wood on
the post and allows more relish in the tenon
behind the upper pin hole, it makes a mar-
ginally stronger connection. The depth of
housing in a scribe rule joint is typically con-
sistent within a frame and is commonly 1
in. In square rule framing, many joints ap-
pear to be housed to some depth simply as a
consequence of the system, but load-bear-
ing tying joints will have noticeably deeper
housings.
In most buildings, this joint is housed because the tie beam often
carries floor loads. Instead of the tenon alone, the full width of the
beam bears on the post; a substantial increase in bearing as well as
shear strength is accomplished. A diminished housing is typical in
scribe rule frames, a parallel housing in square rule frames. (Square
rule frames are marked and cut according to a system in which a
smaller, straight and square timber is envisioned within each real,
Fig. 4. The two basic types of housed through mortise and tenon joints.
irregular timber; all joints are cut to the surfaces of the imagined
The diminished housing (on the left) was primarily used in scribe rule
inner timber, such that standardization is possible for similar pieces,
frames. The parallel housing (on the right) is found in both scribe rule
and square rule frames.
Fig. 3. The through mortise and
tenon. In its most basic form, it
handles moderate loads. This
simple tying joint occurs in
countless buildings of every
period and nationality.
Fig. 5. Pin number and placement varied with the size of the member
and the preferences of the builder. Members 6 in. deep or smaller (not
shown) usually have one pin; 7 to 10 in., two pins; and above 10 in.,
three pins. The distance shown as “x” is often either 1½ in. or 2 in.,
based on the tongue or blade of the framing square used by the builder.
3
Blind-Housed Through Mortise and Tenon (Figs. 6 and 7). When Paired Through Mortise and Tenon (Fig. 8). In frames with larger
the post face is wider than the tie beam, the tie beam is often housed members, paired or twin tenons were occasionally used. Such a con-
into the post. It may be set flush with the layout face of the post (for figuration will likely outperform a simple mortise and tenon, with
example, the outside face of an outside post) or centered. A wide reduced tendency for pin shear and mortise face splitout. However,
post can minimize breakage at the joint. Occasionally a tie beam is the advantage must be judged against the substantial additional work
reduced in width at its end to allow for a blind housing. This extra in the cutting of the joint. Paired tenons are sometimes found in mill
wood retained on the post adds considerable strength compared with structures, barns and large wooden machines like cider presses.
a post whose face has been cut right across to form an open housing.
Fig. 6. In a blind-housed through mortise and tenon, the tie beam Fig. 8. Paired or twinned through mortise and tenon as found in a
may be flush with one side or centered as shown. The uninterrupted ca.-1840 barn in Middleburg, New York. The joint is housed flush
long grain flanking the joint on the post resists mortise face splitout with one side. As is typical of square rule structures, the tie beams are
and breaking at the joint . reduced to a consistent depth (here 12½ in.) at the joint. This rugged
connection has well resisted the forces in the 50-ft.-wide barn.
4
The Through Mortise and Tenon with Dovetailed Shoulder (Figs. 11
and 12). A local (Columbia County, New York) variation of the
wedged dovetail joint has the dovetail on the tenon continue into
the housing which, because of the flare of the post, is about 3 in.
deep. Only two buildings have been found with this joint. Judging
by their location and similarities, they are likely the work of the same
builder. The drawback to this joint would be the potential for the tie
beam to fail in shear where it is notched to fit the housing. Appar-
ently the load on the joint in this 28-ft.-wide barn is matched by the
heavy oak tie beam, for nothing has failed in over 200 years.
5
The Kerf-Wedged Dovetail Through Mortise and Tenon (Fig. 13). A Necked Tying Joint (Fig. 17). Referred to in The Netherlands as a
variation allows a basic tenon to become a full dovetail. Kerfs are Kopbalkgebint, this joint also extends beyond the post for great
sawn near the edges of the tenon, and wedges are driven in to expand strength. It may be used in non-aisled structures and still be pro-
the tenon to fit a dovetail-shaped mortise. The kerfs are not parallel tected from the weather as it can be tucked under an overhanging
to the tenon edges, but angled away from the edge to avoid creating roof. The tie beam end resembles a head and neck. The tenon or
a splitting plane in the tie beam tenon when the edges of the tenon neck fits in a slot cut in the top of the post to make a form of bridle
are bent away to follow the splay of the mortise ends. The advantage joint. The post has paired tenons into the plate. This ingenious joint
of this type over the wedged half-dovetail is that the tenon is not could hardly be improved upon. Its only disadvantage is that its loca-
reduced in cross-section to create the dovetail. The disadvantage is tion is fixed at just below the plate. It also requires posts wider than
that the angle of the dovetail must be shallow, and thus it will be normal to accommodate the extra joinery. Only three American ex-
affected relatively more by shrinkage of the tenon. In the illustrated amples have been documented, two in Dutch barns in Blenheim
example, the tenon flares only ¼ in. on the top and bottom. After and Schoharie, New York, the third in a three-bay “English” barn in
seasoning and shrinking of the members, the two pins may be carry- Warren, Vermont.
ing the entire load. It would seem that seasoned timber is necessary
to use with such a subtle dovetail flare. I have found only two timber
examples, though the joint is common in furniture.
6
Fig. 15. The New World Dutch barn is an aisled building. The structural core is
the H-shaped bent, each composed of aisle posts and an anchorbeam with heavy
braces. Because the tying joint is interior, the tenon can be extended without
being exposed to the weather.
7
cally 1 to 2 in. deep, resists additional thrust put on the plate by
intermediate common rafters and wind loading. To keep the lap
joint together under wind loading and possible twisting action from
drying, the tie beam is secured to a tenon (the teazle tenon, Fig.
3) in the top of the post jowl. The required extra width for the
II. jowl at the post top was obtained by hewing from the natural
swell of butt logs. The swelled end with its stronger fibers was
placed up. In 17th-century houses, these jowls were often deco-
rated with carved moldings. In later houses where the framing is
Tying Joints: encased by boards, the post tapers evenly from sill to tie.
The plate typically pro-
jected in length beyond the
end wall of the building to
T
HE tie-at-plate category encompasses the most com- gable wall above the attic
plex and varied of timber joints, including not only floor to conceal the joint. A
wall, roof and cornice work, but also attic floor fram- different way to provide
ing. Builders often used components to double advan- plate relish was to narrow
tage. Floor joists, for example, could become additional tie beams. Boarding lapped at tie beam. the dovetail width toward
Some tying joints could be considered “secret” joints since their the inside edge of the tie
configuration and method of assembly are a mystery until they beam, as far as practical (Fig. 6-4, overleaf). Or, instead of a
are disassembled. In houses they are often difficult to document dovetail, a cog was used that didn’t require plate relish at all (Fig. 4).
in situ because of their dusty, cluttered location in the attic. The cog also avoided another intrinsic problem of dovetails, namely
Many of the examples included here were wonderfully revealed shrinkage. In England, with its higher equilibrium humidity,
during dismantling or restoration of old structures. shrinkage is likely less of a problem. But high initial shrinkage of
If plate-level tying joints were so complex, why did builders the dovetail, exacerbated by American temperatures and humid-
cut them? There were compelling reasons for carpenters to make ity swings, allows the plate to move outward under pressure,
the tying joint at the plate. Structurally, for resisting the outward especially from any common rafters placed between the trusses.
thrust of the roof, it’s hard to improve upon the rigid triangle The result can be to split posts down the jowl, since the plate
formed when the rafters tenon directly into the tie beam. A rigid pushes on the back of the post and the teazle tenon in the front is
triangle at each cross-frame maintains the integrity of the roof restrained by the mortise in the underside of the tie beam. Many
marvelously. Second, during the scribing process (and most plate- jowled posts are reinforced with iron today.
level tying joints are from the period when frames were laid out
on the ground and scribe-fitted), it was a procedural advantage to
have the ties and plates at the same height and joined to each
other. Finally, in early American barns the tie was often put at
plate level for aesthetic reasons. In vertically boarded barns, the
gable end boarding was usually lapped at the tie beam, forming a
shadow line on the exterior (Fig. 4 and photo at right). Architec-
turally, it was more pleasing to have the shadow line at the eave
height than a couple of feet lower as in the dropped-tie barns
typical of a later period. In fact, even in many dropped-tie barns,
the end ties were framed at eave height to create the preferred
exterior look.
8
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Figs. 2 and 3. English tying joint with half-dovetail at the gable end,
assembled (Fig. 2) and exploded (Fig. 3) views. The plate, originally
longer, now extends only 2 in. past the tie beam. A groove in the
underside of the tie (Fig. 3) accepts the boarding.
Fig. 4. Full-width cog (1½ in. square section) found on the corner joints Fig. 5. Corner tying joint from a 30x42 barn (1715) in Uxbridge,
in a 1773 three-bay 28x36 barn in Adams, Massachusetts. This barn Massachusetts, with cog instead of dovetail to address the plate relish
has dropped tie beams on interior bents. Note lapped end-boarding. problem. Both plate and tie are grooved for vertical boarding.
9
To reduce stress on the posts, some builders added more tie
beams, one for each rafter pair. Thus each rafter pair makes a
rigid triangle and there is no longer any thrust on the plate. Each
tie functions as an attic floor joist, sometimes spanning the width
of the house. In wider houses, the intermediate ties framed to a
summer or spine beam, shortening the span. The principal tie
beams were the full width of the house and often in conjunction
with jowled posts. Extending all these tie beams over the plate
could support a boxed-in cornice. The ties could be dovetailed,
notched or cogged over the plate.
Other variations of these joints where ties and joists lap over
the plate can be found in Tidewater Virginia. Here, the attic
floor level is a few inches above the plate. The tie beams are lap
dovetailed, and the joists simply notched to go over the plate. A
raising plate, originally a timber but later a plank (Fig. 8), is
nailed across the tie and joist ends for the rafters to bear on as in
three of the flush lap examples described later. (See “The Eigh-
teenth-Century Frame Houses of Tidewater Virginia,” by Paul
E. Buchanan, in Building Early America, ed. Charles E. Peterson,
1976. For additional New England variations, see Isham and
Brown’s Early Connecticut Houses, Cummings’ Framed Houses of
Massachusetts Bay, 1625-1725 and Kelly’s Early Domestic Archi-
tecture of Connecticut.)
10
Figs. 9 and 10. This tying joint is found in a 28x38 three-bay, pre-
1812 English barn in Goshen, Massachusetts. All of the tying joints
are of this type. Instead of the rafter tenoning into the tie (as is more
common), it is step-lapped, as are the intermediate common rafters to
the plate. The post is scribed to meet the waney edge of the tie beam.
(The corner joints are the same, without relish past the dovetail, but
with rafter pins extending through the dovetail into the plate.)
Figs. 11 and 12. In the 1791 Cheshire house (photo page 19), a 30x40 Cape, non-jowled posts
terminated in a single top tenon. Tie beams and floor joists extended 11 in. at the front eave to
support a boxed-in cornice. At the front corners (above left), a combination of lap, tenon and over-
hanging tie avoided the plate relish problem. The two intermediate tying joints on the front wall
(above right) were lap dovetails. Curiously, one had the dovetail reversed: a mistake?
All the floor joists notched through the plate for additional tying. At the rear wall (not
shown), there was no overhang. The intermediate tie beams joined the plate with a
straightforward, 4-in.-deep horizontal mortise and tenon instead of lap dovetails;
at the corners the joint was the same as the front but without the 11-in. projection.
11
Figs. 13 and 14. Two-way cog, 2x2½x3, in a lap joint in a pre-1810 house, 26x27, in North
Adams, Massachusetts. The tie beam end was notched on the bottom and the side to engage the
plate. Joists and ties extended about 7 in. to frame a cornice. At right, the end condition.
A simple mortise and tenon is substituted for the lap. Rafters were butted and nailed.
12
Figs. 16 and 17. Adams, Massachusetts, house (1785), 26x32, where the cog was used
on the corner joints, unlike the North Adams house. An oversize pin was used to keep
it in position. Hewn beech timbers were 7 in. square. At the intermediate tying joints,
a single-pin cog was cut. This frame also had through notched joists and a plank
raising plate with common rafters nailed to it.
Figs. 18 and 19. The front plate lapped over the dovetailed end of the tie beam in a
Charlemont, Massachusetts, house, now dismantled. A single vertical pin also resisted
movement. The front plate, together with the tie beam dovetail, projected 6 in. to
become a solid cornice base. Rear plate (not shown) did not overhang, and the rear
tying joints on the intermediate tie beams relied on through mortises and two pins.
The common rafters step-lapped into the plate, except at the front corners, as shown
(note hewn rafter tenon).
13
M ORTISE AND TENON. The mortise and tenon joint
performs better than a lap dovetail when shrinkage is a
factor. Because the pin hole in the tenon is bored a little closer to
the shoulder than in the mortise, or draw-bored, the pin pulls the
joint together very tightly. The joint remains tight under normal
shrinkage and loads. At the connection between tie and plate,
the mortise and tenon gradually replaced the lap dovetail.
In its most basic form, the tie beam tenons into the side of the
plate and is secured by one or more pins. There are countless
examples of this joint. Many of these simple joints have not fared
well over time, and spreading plates are restrained by cables. If
the tie beam occurs over the post, much wood is removed from
the plate.
It is prudent to stagger joints whenever possible. There are
several ways to accomplish this. First, the plate can project from
the face of the building, creating a cornice. Thus the post is
tenoned into the tie beam, not the plate (Fig. 22). The drawback
here is that diagonal braces can’t be framed from the post up to
the plate, only down to the floor beams or sill. In some houses
framed plank-on-timber, there were no braces. The wide planks,
well fastened to sill and plate, braced the walls.
Second, the tie beams can be offset from the posts. But end
wall tie beams are outside of the plank wall, and the plates cantilever Fig. 21. Simple joint found at the corners of a square
out to support them. Again, braces can’t be framed to them. On rule barn in Huntington, Massachusetts.
intermediate tying joints, a through tenon with two or more pins
can be used or, better yet, a wedged through half-dovetail (Fig.
23). Third, the plate can be raised and the tie beam deepened so
that the post tenons into the tie beam instead of the plate. This
tie-to-plate joint is an improvement over the normal mortise and
tenon. Instead of the tie beam pins having two shear planes, they
have three (Figs. 25-27). These mortise and tenon tying joints
require a different raising technique. The plates must be slid
horizontally onto their respective tenons, and plate bracing is
tricky to insert. A fourth method is to raise the tie beam above
the plate (Fig. 24).
Fig. 20. A cross between a cog and a mortise and tenon, this Fig. 22. In this Canaan, Connecticut, example (after 1810),
joint occurs (as far as is known) only at the corners of a 1785 now dismantled, the cantilevered plate projected enough to
three-bay 30x40 barn in Adams, Massachusetts. Intermediate allow the wall planking to nail to the inside surface. The 6-
tying joints are the dropped type. Common rafters with collars in.-long tie beam tenons into the plate were secured by one pin
are step-lapped into the plate except at the corners where they at the corners and two pins on intermediate joints. Posts were
are butted and nailed. tapered.
14
Fig 23. This rugged offset tying joint, a wedged through half-
dovetail mortise and tenon, is only used at intermediate
locations.
Fig. 25.
Fig. 27.
Fig. 26.
Figs. 25-27. Intermediate (Figs. 25 and 26) and end (Fig. 27) tying
joints in a two-story 28x36 post-1810 square rule house in Windsor,
Massachusetts. The plate is 2 in. above the tie, allowing the post to
tenon into it. The braces from the post up to the plate fit elongated
mortises and were apparently inserted after the plate was slid on, and
the extra space in the mortise was then filled with a wedge. The end
tying joint is similar but with 2 in. of plate relish and only one pin.
15
T RIPLE BYPASS. This connection is arguably the most per-
plexing of tying joints located thus far. It is found along the
border of New York and New England in four states. Some refer
to it as secret joinery because it can mystify the casual observer. Its
name, coined by Don Carpentier of Eastfield Village in East
Nassau (Rensselaer County), New York, is apt. The connection
has three mortise and tenon joints, not counting the rafter joint
(Figs. 28-30). In Buskirk, New York, a barn with all of its tying
joints of this type shows evidence of having been dismantled
previously. All the tie beam tenons are inserts (free tenons).
Undoubtedly the dismantler was perplexed at how to take the
barn apart. He cut the tenons off (a hanging offense in my book)
and then spent considerable time putting tenons back on.
How was such a joint assembled? Different bent configura-
tions would call for variations, but all would involve blocking up
either the plate or the tie to allow the other to slide on over the
post tenon. In a Shaushan, New York, barn, the post tenon into
the tie beam is a couple of inches longer than the one into the
plate. The tie beam could be blocked up high enough to allow
the plate to slide on but still be engaged on its tenon. This particular Fig. 30. One of eight triple bypass tying joints in a 26x38
builder, I would say, had raised more than one of these barns. three-bay side-entrance barn in Richmond, Massachusetts,
all of this type. End joints are of course provided with plate
relish. The tying pins have an extra shear plane. This early
scribe rule barn was framed before 1810.
Figs. 28 and 29. This triple bypass corner tying joint was found in an
early scribe rule (late 1700s) four-bay, side-entrance barn in Hoosac,
New York. The 36x49 barn appeared to be Germanic in origin, with
purlin plates and a ridge beam. Intermediate ties were the dropped
type. Long braces extended German-fashion from the sill up to the
corner posts. These undoubtedly helped stabilize the structure during
the setting of the plates. Boarding grooves were worked in both plate
and tie. This barn was carefully dismantled but unfortunately
burned while in storage.
16
I NTERRUPTED PLATE. In the mid-
19th century, a new barn type emerged
in New England, a gable-entry, aisled barn
that could vary in length from two to 10
bays (or more). Bays were typically 12 ft.
Such barns were often built into side hills
to allow access on more than one level.
Figuring prominently in their design was
a frame with interrupted plates. These
shorter plates, tenoned between tie beams
or posts, allowed standardized joints and
components. A builder could vary the size
without changing the design. Bents were
raised and connected by plates and braces.
As soon as two bents were connected, the
frame was braced and stable. There were
variations in this joint depending on cor-
nice design. Some barns had two plates.
One was in the normal position to receive
the tops of the wall boards. The second
tenoned between the projecting tie beam
ends to support the fascia and soffit.
The interrupted plate was not an im-
provement over the continuous plate. Wind
loads cause the plate braces to exert tension
on the short plate tenons, typically 3 to 4 Figs. 34 and 35. Sectional drawing of a ca.-1850 barn, now rebuilt elsewhere,
in. long, which can handle only small ten- that once stood in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts. Measuring 37x50, it has canted
sion loads. But roof boarding, flooring and purlin posts, continuous purlins and interrupted plates. All principal timbers
cornice work often provided enough conti- are 7x7. To support a substantial Greek Revival cornice, the builder has
nuity to make up for what the continuous inserted outriggers into the plates and secured them with nails (Fig. 35
plate had provided, and some barns had below). A 2x11 raising plate is nailed to the outriggers, and the projecting tie
continuous purlin plates with a scarf where beam ends stiffen the assembly and support the rafters. Braces in three planes
necessary. Some houses as well were built reinforce the structure.
with interrupted plates, but by this period
balloon framing was becoming popular
for houses, and timber framing was in
decline.
17
At right, interior view of the Howland
House, a 17th-century dwelling in
Plymouth, Massachusetts, showing the
awkward bit of roof visible above the plate
in the normal configuration of the English
tying joint (see Figs. 2 and 3). Here the
summer beam bears on the plate; it was
more common in such houses for the
summer to span between the ties, and thus
for common joists to bear on the plates.
18
Above, flush tying joints, with top of tie beam and top of plate coplanar, yield neat box
frames, as seen in this partly dismantled 1791 house in Cheshire, Massachusetts (see Figs.
11 and 12 of this chapter). Below, mid-18th-century aisled barn in Kensington, New
Hampshire, with English tying joint and rare extended tie beams that cross the main,
continuous plate and carry the members of an interrupted flying plate tenoned between
them. The flying plate, seen to the right of the peg, supports a Greek Revival cornice.
19
though most American frames are covered by siding, wind-driven
rain can penetrate. This joint has its origins in Europe where timber
frames are often exposed to the elements. Usually one pin secures
the two sills while the post bottom has a stub tenon. If the post has
a longer tenon of, say, 3 in. (still without a pin), the sill mortise and
tenon will be framed lower to avoid a conflict.
Through Mortise and Tenon. Much less common is this through
mortise and tenon variety (Fig. 2). It occurs typically where sills are
square in cross-section, or rectangular and set on edge, as the
through joint increases tensile capacity for a narrow sill. Unfortu-
nately, weather resistance is diminished compared with the blind
joint, and the mortises are more likely to split open and the relish to
fail.
Sloped Tabled Corner Lap. Only one example of this joint has so
far been found (Fig. 3, facing page), in a barn in St. Johnsville, New
York. It appears to be of Germanic design. The dovetail-like lap
prevents lateral displacement, but, unlike the mortise and tenon
type, it must be sandwiched between the post and foundation to be
effective. Otherwise, twisting from seasoning or subsiding of the
foundation can render it ineffective.
III.
Sill and Floor
Joints
J
UST as the plates and tie beams hold together the upper part of Figs. 1 and 2. Blind (above) and through (below) mortise and tenon
the timber frame, the sills tie the posts at the foundation level. joints, both sized according to square rule layout.
Though not subjected to the same stresses as tie beams above,
sills keep the bottom of the building from spreading. Many old
structures whose sills are decayed are noticeably wider at the bottom.
Sills distribute column loads over the foundation and act as bond
beams to hold together the top of the stonework. They also stiffen
and support the walls and the first floor. Sill timbers are typically
rectangular in cross-section and laid flat.
20
Fig. 4. Blind tenoned girder joint.
Fig. 3. Unique sloped and tabled corner lap, St. Johnsville, N.Y.
21
Plank Sill. This unusual sill system has been seen on at least two Butt Cog Joint. The simplest joint to craft and insert, and
scribe-rule-framed 18th-century New York Dutch houses, one stand- consequently the most common, is the simple drop-in pocket or
ing in Stuyvesant (Fig. 7) and the other (now dismantled) formerly butt cog (Fig. 9). The full depth of the joist may be notched into
in Cohoes. Both houses, built with unfired brick infill between the the girder, or, more commonly, the joist is reduced in depth at the
posts, measure about 18 ft. wide, with full-span floor joists. Because joint so as not to cut too much out of the girder. When the joist end
of their long span and wide spacing (4-5 ft.), the joists are 12 in. is reduced in this way, the stiffness or bending strength of the joist
deep. But a corresponding 12-in. sill is both impractical and unnec- is not affected, but its shear strength is diminished at the joint.
essary. With the plank sill system, the joists are set into the stone or
brick foundation and a 1½x6 plank is notched in flush to their tops
and nailed to secure them. The plank is through-mortised for the
posts, and the mortise extends an inch into the joist as well. This
design saved on material and joinery, and was probably also a time-
saver during the scribe layout process. It has proved itself over time.
22
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Figs. 13-15. At top right (Fig. 13), butt-cogged tying floor joists with
cogged pin, Cheshire, Mass., 1791. At middle right (Fig. 14), lapped
half-dovetail on side-aisle loft joist in a 1680s Dutch barn moved Fig. 15.
from Saratoga, N.Y., to Hancock, Mass., and since lost to fire. The
opposite ends of these joists were vertically tenoned to wall posts. At
bottom right (Fig. 15), through laps in side-aisle loft joists of a Dutch
barn in Westerlo, N.Y. (also lost to fire). The through lap, simple as it
may be, is quite effective as a tying joint.
23
Strengthened Halving. This variation of the half-lap joint (Fig.
16) is configured to increase capacity for both members by adding
bearing surfaces. The lower supporting beam has less material
removed compared to a half-lap. The side housings provide better
support for the upper girder and lessen shear problems. Examples
are found in the attic floor of houses where a central spine beam
runs the length of the house, lapping over the tie beams and
carrying joists from both sides.
Fig. 17. Simple tenoned joists supported the second floor of a 1791
Cape-style house in Cheshire, Massachusetts.
Fig. 16. Strengthened halving found in the attic floor of the 1783
Quaker Meetinghouse, Adams, Massachusetts. The 8x9 girder ran
longitudinally and carried floor joists on both sides.
24
Strengthened Tenons. The ultimate tenoned joist has a sloped
shoulder above the tenon (Fig. 20) that brings into bearing the
entire depth of the joist while keeping intact the vital compression
wood of the carrying beam. In 18th- and 19th-century builder’s
books it is the floor joint of choice. In ideal form, the underside of
the tenon is continuous with the joist (and thus properly termed a
soffit tenon, Fig. 20) and the mortise in the carrying timber is
centered in the side of the beam.
Fig. 22. Equal-depth summer beam and girt in the 1637 Fairbanks
Historically, some authorities (e.g., Joseph Moxon in Mechanick House, Dedham, Massachusetts. The summer is raised and lapped 2
Exercises, 1703) called the upper sloping shoulder a tusk; others in. over the girt to gain needed support at the bottom of the joint.
(James Newlands, The Carpenter’s Assistant, ca. 1854) reserved that Lack of congruency between housing and tenon shoulders is
term for an additional bearing shoulder cut beneath the tenon
unexplained.
when the joists are too deep for soffit tenoning. In our day, Cecil
Hewett (English Historic Carpentry, 1980) referred to the upper
sloped shoulder as a diminished haunch and the lower square one as
a housed soffit shoulder.
Occasionally the lower shoulder too was angled (Figs. 21 and
22) to form what Hewett called a spurred shoulder.
Other tenon forms. Any joist tenon can become a through mor-
tise and tenon with wedges to increase tensile capacity (Fig. 23).
Especially deep members could have paired tenons (Fig. 24, overleaf).
Fig. 21. Summer beam to girt connection in the 1665 Gedney House, Fig. 23. Through tenon with outside wedges (pins flattened on a
Salem, Massachusetts. Both members have molded chamfers. taper) in the attic floor of the Presbytère (1847), New Orleans.
25
mortises substantially reduce the section of the tie beam. The depth
of these mortises must be kept to a minimum.
The Horizontal Chase Mortise. In this variation, also called a
pulley mortise, a continuous slot connects two or three joist mor-
tises (Fig. 28). Thus multiple joists are maneuvered into place in
the same slot.
With all these post-raising insertion types, the spacing of the tie
beams, which are long and somewhat flexible, would be secured by
at least one tying member near midspan to prevent spreading of the
beams and collapse of the ceiling. The lath would secure the spac-
ing of the joists. Since the horizontal chase mortise does not remove
wood from the bottom surface of the tie beam, it is the best
solution structurally. However, it is more time consuming to craft
than the first three.
Fig. 24. Paired tenons, one strengthened, carry the ends of beams Fig. 25. L-mortises in the 1829 Newbury, Vermont, Methodist
supporting cupola posts in the roof frame of the Cabildo, the original Church. Building measures 45x60 with the ceiling joists spanning
Spanish city hall in New Orleans (1796, 1849, 1992). A forged iron about 12 ft. and spaced 30 in. on center.
strap prevents spreading.
26
Fig. 27 (right). Board ceiling joists tenoned at one end and
notched at the other drop into vertical chase mortises on the
tie beams of the 1815 Methodist Church at Chenango
Forks, N.Y. (now dismantled and reassembled in Burbank,
Ohio). The bearing for the joist in the tie beam is only an
inch deep. Close truss spacing of about 8 ft. permits the use
of light boards. Similar joinery is found on an 1840 church
in Brimfield, Massachusetts.
Fig. 28 (left). Long pulley (chase) mortises were cut in the tie beams
for every three ceiling joists in the Hatfield (Massachusetts) Meeting-
house (1750). The opposite side of the ties had simple 2x3 mortises.
This building was destroyed while being rolled to a new site in 1979.
The typical blind sill corner joints on this house frame in Charlemont, Massachusetts, give little clue to
their inner mortise and tenon configuration. The first joist to the rear, hewn flat only where necessary,
joins the sill in a butt cog. Timber sills and girders, historically a natural part of the timber frame, have
virtually disappeared from modern American work.
27
Sheathing direction determines the orientation of wall framing. This
early-1800s barn (now dismantled) from Middleburg, N.Y., has studs to
support wide clapboards. Note how braces take precedence over the studs.
IV.
Wall and Brace Scribe rule barn in Chatham, N.Y., with packing or distance
Joints piece driven to take up space neeeded to fit brace into made-
up assembly of post and beam. Brace, post and packing piece
are all marked for reassembly after scribing.
W
ALL JOINERY: HORIZONTAL SHEATHING.
When a timber-framed building was sheathed hori- The barefaced mortise and tenon joint typically secures studs to
zontally, typically with clapboards, the supporting sill, girt, tie beam and plate. Since a barefaced tenon has only a
framework provided vertical nailers called studs, spaced single shoulder, it is very quick to cut. In a scribe rule building, these
according to the type of sheathing applied. We may find studs cen- studs are not usually housed into the mortised piece. In a square
tered as closely as 16 in. for ½-in. clapboards or as far apart as 5 ft. rule building, they are typically housed at one or both ends (Fig. 1).
on Dutch barns, where the clapboards might be 1x14 lapped boards. If pinned, tenons are typically twice as long as they are thick (for
example, a 1½-in. tenon would be 3 in. long). Unpinned joints are
common, as are stub tenons. Stub tenons are the same length as
their thickness. Square rule buildings typically have stub tenons at
the bottom of studs and pinned tenons at the top, to keep the studs
from falling out during the rearing of assemblies but to allow easy
insertion of the many studs into the sill mortises as a bent or wall
approaches vertical.
The most common stud sizes were 3x4 and 4x4. The 3x4 could
be framed flat to the wall with a 1½-in. shoulder and a 1½-in.
tenon, or turned on edge for a 2-in. shoulder and a 2-in. tenon.
Four by fours were typically framed with a 2-in. shoulder and a 2-
in. tenon. In some larger public buildings where the framing was
concealed, the studs were as wide as the principal posts so that the
interior walls had no protrusions (facing page, Fig. 2). Studs were
commonly 6, 7, or 8 in. wide and from 2 to 4 in. thick in such
structures. Obviously the barefaced tenon wouldn’t work here.
Fig. 1. Typical barefaced tenon wall studs in a square rule building. The top surface of the
girt here is a “face” (a reference surface) and thus has no housings. The lower surface is
reduced at the housings to the size of the ideal-timber-within. It is common for studs to have
pinned tenons at the top end and stub tenons at the bottom.
28
Fig. 2. In churches where the framing was concealed by plaster,
studding was commonly as wide as the main timbers, to present a flush
appearance on the interior. Here, 2x8 studs are framed by the square
rule. Two-in. studs are rarely pinned and occasionally nailed. Tenons on
2-in. stock are quickly sawn out. The mortises require just a single bore.
Where a stud met a brace or rafter, it was rarely mortised in. The
stud would be fitted after the frame was reared. Typically it was This partially withdrawn stud in a barn in Shaftsbury,
butted and nailed (Fig. 3). A less common but stronger solution Vermont, was relieved at its end to make its tenon barefaced.
was to use a beveled lap joint (Fig. 4). It too was secured with nails. The relief cut was not angled as usual, and gives the
appearance of a second cheek and shoulder.
29
W ALL JOINERY: VERTICAL SHEATHING. When buildings
are sheathed vertically, horizontal girts are framed in for support.
In barns, where girts are mostly found, these are spaced from 2 to 6 ft.
apart. In plank houses where the walls are sheathed in thicker planks,
the girts occur only at the floor levels.
Girt joinery closely resembles stud joinery. The barefaced tenon
is common, as are the sizes 3x4 and 4x4 (Fig. 5). Many barns built
before the advent of the circular sawmill used girts hewn on only
one face and squared up to a consistent size only at the joints (Fig.
6). For girts with longer spans or with floor loads to support as well,
a standard mortise and tenon replaced the barefaced tenon (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Wall girts at floor level in a scribe rule building. These load-
bearing girts rely on standard mortise and tenon joints with diminished
bearing shoulders.
30
to meet the specified dimension of the ideal-timber-within (Fig. 9,
below left). The brace itself might or might not have a bearing
shoulder (typically undiminished or parallel), as the carpenter saw
fit (Fig. 9). Again, the better choice was to provide the additional
bearing at the nose of the brace. In square rule structures, a gap is
usual at the unloaded end of the brace mortise, to allow for varia-
tions in width of the brace stock, or reflecting cross-grain shrinkage
of the brace.
Pinned braces have tenons twice as long as they are thick. As
with studs, braces occasionally have stub tenons without pins.
In some scribe rule framing, the mortise at one end of a brace is
elongated and filled with a carefully made block (Fig. 10 left). This
packing piece may be pinned and have an identification mark. Its
purpose was to speed the scribing process by allowing a brace to be
cut and inserted without taking apart the assembly. This technique
was also used to insert a tenoned brace into a frame after erection.
Where heavy loading was anticipated, carpenters used the stan-
dard mortise and tenon with either the diminished or parallel
bearing shoulder (Fig. 11 below). In some Dutch barns, massive
braces as large as 9x12 support the anchorbeams.
Fig. 10. Brace with packing piece. After the opposite end of this brace
was inserted into its mortise, this end was swung into place. A carefully
fitted block, here secured with a pin, filled the extra mortise length.
Fig. 11. Square rule brace variations. At top, left to right, barefaced,
Fig. 9. Housed square rule braces with and without bearing shoulders. half-housed and full-housed mortises. Above, full and barefaced tenons.
The brace on the left would be unhoused if meeting a “face.” The full tenon joint would be chosen for expected heavy loads.
31
Fig. 12. This simple lap
is notched in its full
thickness and secured
with a squarish pin.
Fig. 13. Lapped half-dovetail with pin. The squared-off end of the
mortise was a way to increase the compressive strength of the brace
and, more important, to avoid chopping out an acutely angled
housing. The width of this facet of the housing usually matches or
exceeds the width of the chisel used.
Lapped Braces. Primarily found in early scribe rule frames, lapped more cutting time. There was less sawing and more chopping.
braces display three variations: simple, dovetailed and notched. The Interestingly, this joint is found on one of the oldest surviving
simple lapped brace may be half lapped (let in half its depth) or full timber-framed barns in England, the Barley Barn at Cressing Temple
lapped (let in full depth), as shown in Fig.12. A squarish pin secures ca. 1200. The joint persisted in America (though in limited use)
the brace from popping out and gives it some modest tensile until the end of the scribe rule era.
capacity. The advantage of these simple lapped braces was in the Special bracing types. Other devices were used than the standard
labor they saved during scribing and cutting. Time has proved their diagonal brace to stiffen a structure. Early Dutch houses occasion-
effectiveness. ally have “corbels” that function both as brace and (like the ma-
The half-dovetail lap improved tensile performance with only sonry counterpart) as support. In some German, French, Swiss,
slightly more labor (Fig. 13). As the brace is pulled, the dovetail Polish and Danish structures, the walls include distinctly leaning
jams on the nonparallel edges of its housing. But shrinkage after studs (streben in German, écharpes in French). These serve both as
cutting diminishes the effectiveness of the dovetail, whereupon the post and brace, thus saving framing time and often carrying bracing
pin must again handle tensile load. Full-dovetail laps (both sides loads directly from plate to sill. Finally, in coastal communities
angled) were rare. with a shipbuilding tradition, carpenters sometimes resorted to
The notched lap (Fig. 14) worked differently from the half- naturally crooked ship’s knees for bracing, which gained headroom
dovetail, and it was less affected by shrinkage. However, it entailed and shortened effective beam spans.
32
Dutch barns often had extremely long braces. In this upstate New York
example, they are half-lapped where they cross.
In Dutch houses with closely spaced wall posts, builders might use pass-
ing braces to achieve a long (and so more effective) brace length. In this
house undergoing renovations in Alford, Massachusetts, the brace passes
one post where it is lapped its full thickness and secured with a pin.
Below, in lieu of normal braces, some German carpenters would angle a
stud to serve as both brace and stud, as in this structure in Ephrata, Pa.
Fig. 15. Some early Dutch houses used short, solid braces called corbels,
which protrude less into the interior space than standard braces and
form a decorative feature. This example is from an 18th-century house
(now dismantled) in Muitzenkill, N.Y., on the upper Hudson River.
33
C OMMON RAFTERS. The simplest roof system comprises
only rafters spanning from plate to peak. When all rafters carry
a similar share of the roof load, they are referred to as common
rafters. Common rafters occur frequently on gable-roofed buildings
up to about 30 ft. wide. Beyond that width, the rafters become
excessively long and heavy, and the outward thrust on the plates
becomes unmanageable. Many common-rafter roofs have collars
connecting every rafter couple. Contrary to popular belief, these
collars aren’t ties to prevent spreading; they function as struts to
stiffen a long rafter span.
On wider gable roofs, the span of the common rafters was
shortened by introducing a pair of purlin plates, usually at the mid-
span of the rafter. These purlin plates also reduced the outward
thrust at the plates considerably. We will look at the joints where
common rafters meet the plate, peak and purlin plate.
Rafter-plate Joints. The simplest joint between rafter and plate is
a level cut on the rafter and no cutting on the plate, a butt joint.
Nails, pins or both are used to secure the joint. Though hardly to be
classified as joinery, it could be effective and economical if well
secured. Examples of this connection survive from all periods.
A better solution was to cut a birdsmouth in the rafter to bear
against the inside edge of the plate (Fig. 1). This simple joint,
Greg Huber
Overhead view of a reused rafter supporting battens and shingles in a named after its similarity to the open beak of a bird, could handle
ca.-1825 barn in Somerset County, N.J. In its original location, the the thrust without loading the nails or pins. Unfortunately, the roof
unusual purlin seat in the underside consumed about two-thirds of the
rafter depth (see Fig. 22). Because of short grain in the tenon, such a
connection would be restricted to roofs steeper than 12-pitch.
V.
Roof Joinery
Excluding
Trusses
Fig. 1. With a birdsmouth cut to fit the inside of the plate, roof thrust
I
N the design of timber-framed buildings, the roof is the domi- is adequately resisted. Here the joint is secured with nails.
nant element. The structural system necessary to support its
expanse greatly influences the total building design. In ma-
sonry buildings, the roof structure may be the only timber- thrust in tandem with the natural checking tendency of a boxed-
framed element. The carpenters who timber framed America hailed heart rafter causes a split to develop at the mouth that can be its
from European countries where roofs were predominantly thatch, ruin. The situation is further exacerbated by shrinkage. Acute angles
tile and stone. In America, the abundance of excellent timber and on the ends of timbers become more acute as they season and
the economy of working it led to a preponderance of board and shrink; thus the load is borne by the feathered extremes of the
wood-shingle roofs. The timber quality also affected the framing birdsmouth. The same weakness can be worsened by a waney or
choices. In Europe, efficient use of timber was essential. Timber- out-of-square plate.
framed buildings included members of all sizes, shapes and lengths, To counter these concerns, some builders used a housed birdsmouth
making the best use of the forest. Here, time and labor constraints joint (Fig. 2, facing page). The lower edge of the rafter is supported
dictated timber selection. In general, using longer, straighter tim- in a pocket, increasing its shear strength substantially. Occasionally,
ber required less joinery work. Thus it made sense to use the best, the top of the plate had a gain to receive the rafter. This may have
burning the rest in the fireplace. One can easily see how the been done to get a good bearing on a roughly hewn plate or to
abundance of wood here changed roof carpentry. increase the overhang slightly.
34
Rafters from a Great Barrington, Massachusetts, carriage shed
showing a housed birdsmouth. This joint could be completely sawn.
Fig. 2. The housed birdsmouth supports the lower side of the rafter
and eliminates the tendency of the rafter to split up the mouth. This
example is also housed into the top of the plate.
35
Rafter with housed birdsmouth and through tail from an 18th-century
Dutch house in Muitzenkill, New York. Three of the five cuts could be
sawn; the other two had to be chiseled.
36
11.
12.
Fig. 9. The step-lap rafter can be shaped with an adze. Here the tail
has a plumb and a level cut to support a cornice. A squarish pin
through the tail secures it.
Fig. 10. Variation of the step-lap with plumb abutment. The roof plane
is also elevated above the edge of the plate to increase the tail strength
in this mid-19th-century carriage barn in Adams, Massachusetts.
37
View down the ridge beam of a mid-19th-century 40x50 barn in
Hinsdale, Massachusetts. The 3x4 rafters have barefaced tenons.
Fig. 14. Above, from left, three forms of joint for common rafters at
the peak: open mortise and tenon, half-lap, butt.
Fig. 16. The typical ridge beam, here a square rule example, is sized
After drawings by Lawrence A. Sorli in
The Framed Houses of Massachusetts Bay, 1625-1725 to accommodate the rafters. Pin holes for rafter tenons are offset to
avoid pins intersecting below the mortises. The ends of the tenons are
Fig. 15. On deeper section rafters, there may be some economy to these cut plumb (mitered) to provide maximum relish beyond the pin holes.
variations of the mortise and tenon. At left above, principal rafters in
the ca.-1665 Gedney house, Salem, Massachusetts; at right, principal identical except the gable ones. They have narrower tenons to
rafters in the Fairbanks house (1637), Dedham. accommodate relish in the ridge mortises. In a few structures, the
ridge ran uninterrupted below the rafters. Then the rafters joined
Rafter-to-Peak Joints. Where common rafters reach the roof each other above. A less satisfactory but still effective ridge was a
peak, they may be joined to each other or to a ridge beam or a ridge ridge board. Here, the rafters butted a board or plank and were
board. When joined to each other, they are butted and secured with nailed (Fig. 17, facing page). This arrangement became common in
nails, half lapped with a pin, or mortised (open or blind) and the late 19th century and early 20th century, and is typical of stick
pinned (Figs. 14 and 15). Of these, the mortised joints perform the framing today. A variation has shallow gains cut into a plank ridge
best but require the most time to execute. to set the spacing and resist twisting of the rafters.
Ridge beams often appear in common-rafter roofs. They are Rafter-to-Purlin Plate Joints. On wide buildings with purlin
continuous members, occasionally scarfed, and typically cut out to plates, if the purlin plate is set level, connections similar to the
permit a center chimney in houses. Though it requires more joints rafter-to-plate joints may be used. Because support from the purlin
to be cut, the use of a ridge evens out any slight variations in rafter plate reduces the outward thrust of the roof, the joinery here may
length to create a straight ridgeline and makes possible wind brac- be quite simple. A simple notch to fit around the purlin plate (a
ing down to the rafters. modern birdsmouth) with a substantial pin is common in Dutch
The sides of the ridge are perpendicular to the roof slope and, barns (Fig. 18). Also common is a through notch where the rafter
unless the roof pitch is 12/12, the cross-section usually ends up five may pass through undiminished or be reduced to a consistent size
sided (Fig. 16). Pin holes are offset toward one edge of the joint so (Fig. 19). In some Dutch barns, this through notch is not sawn but
they don’t intersect the opposing ones. As a result, all rafters are shaped with an adze as a sort of chamfer a couple of feet long.
38
Fig. 17. A ridge board
could be used with both
round or squared
rafters.
Fig. 20. The step-lap works equally well on purlin plates, but the
rafter cross-section at the through point is deeper than the tail at the
plate. Note how the rafter stands above the corner of the purlin plate.
18.
In buildings with the step-lap rafter seat at the plate, the purlin
plate will often have the same seat (Fig. 20). The rafter, however, is
elevated above the corner of the purlin plate to maintain sufficient
rafter thickness.
Figs. 18 and 19. Above (18), a simple birdsmouth cut on the outside
of the purlin plate is quite common in Dutch barns. A pin or spike is
used to secure it. Below (19), rafters are reduced to a consistent, smaller
size where they pass over the purlin plate. Only the pin resists thrust.
19.
Fig. 21. This purlin plate joint was found in a 45-ft.-square barn in
Middleburg, New York. It is simple and effective.
39
Mid-19th-century Hinsdale, Massachusetts, barn before dismantling.
The continuous purlin plate assembly is canted perpendicular to the
roof, and the purlin plate is flush with the roof. The rafters tenon
Fig. 23. Canted purlin plates eliminate considerable cutting since
into both upper and lower faces of the purlin plate.
rafters (here sized and butted) can pass over the purlin plate.
24.
Fig. 22. A reused rafter in a ca.-1825 Somerset County, N.J., barn Figs. 24 and 25. Above (24), a flush principal rafter-principal purlin-
implies this unusual purlin joint in its original location. Because of common rafter roof, with rafters tenoned into the purlin, itself tenoned
short grain in the tenon, its application would be best for roofs steeper to the principal rafter. Below (25), purlin framed below principal rafter
than 45 degrees. The rafter section is reduced to one-third at the joint. and through rafters notched where they cross the purlin.
In the mid-19th century, when purlin plates and their canted posts
were framed perpendicular to the roof slope, as shown at top, the
rafter joints were simplified. In many barns, rafters continued
across the purlin plate undiminished and secured with nails. Often
they were sized down to a consistent section, where a shallow
square abutment increased thrust resistance (Fig. 23). Or, they
could be two short rafters simply butted over the purlin plate.
If the purlin plate was flush with the roof plane, the rafters could 25.
join with a simple mortise and tenon (Fig. 24).
40
stiffen the roof. (Since many 17th-century roofs were not sheathed
completely with boards, the roof framing required bracing.)
The principal rafters were typically tenoned at their feet into tie
beams, creating a rigid triangle at each cross frame. (See Chapter 2
and the discussion of the English tying joint.)
The joinery that accompanies this roof type varies depending on
whether all or some of the members are flush with the roof plane, as
seen in Figs. 24-27. Common rafter joints at plate and peak are
unchanged from those already addressed.
Fig. 26. Rare purlin-to-principal rafter joint used in the 1668 Turner
house (the House of the Seven Gables) and the 1665 Gedney house,
both in Salem, Massachusetts. Its advantage lies in the way a fairly
narrow principal rafter could accommodate two purlin tenons with
sufficient pin hole relish to be effective.
41
Common purlins usually run continuously across the rafters and
often extend at the gable to support the rake overhang. In two-bay
houses and smaller barns, the purlins typically run the full length of
the building and are often hewn from slender trees. Common
purlins up to 40 ft. long are not unusual, but in larger structures
they more often are made up of two or more lengths, hewn or
sawn. Where purlins meet, they may be staggered or scarfed. Be-
cause the chimney normally runs through the peak, the ridge
purlin in houses can be in two lengths and doesn’t require a scarf.
The typical common purlin-to-principal rafter joint is a through
trench in the rafter with a pin to secure it. The purlins may pass at
full size or be reduced or halved in the trench (Figs. 30-34). Fig. 35
on the back cover shows the special case of a hip roof. Common
purlins are often small (1½ in. x 2½ in. up to 3x5) and are usually
laid flat.
Fig. 32. The mortised rafter receives the notch for the ridge purlin.
33.
Fig. 30. Common purlins are typically trenched across the rafters and
secured with a squarish pin. Here they are reduced to a consistent
width with an adze. Figs. 33 and 34. Above (33), many buildings have the purlins
staggered to avoid scarfing. Here, purlin relish beyond the halving
augments the pinned connection and ties the roof longitudinally.
Below (34), purlins may be skived (scarfed) in line and secured
with a pin.
34.
42
O THER ROOF JOINERY. Lean-to additions are common on
old structures, some built simultaneously with the main frame.
By lessening the pitch of the lean-to roof, to produce a broken back
roof, the rafter connections are simplified. The lean-to rafter can
bear on the plate or on top of the main roof rafters (Figs. 36-38).
The Dutch and Germanic barns built in New York and New
Jersey often had pentice roofs over the main doors at each end and
occasionally over the smaller side-aisle doors. Various techniques
were used to support such a roof. In the simplest design, triangular
blocks 1½ to 2 in. thick were nailed onto the sides of the studs over
the doorway and supported board sheathing (tenoned variant, Fig.
39). In other designs, joists spanning the end bays cantilevered over
or through the gable anchorbeam to support a plate and rafters (Fig.
40). These 2-ft. to 3-ft. pentice roofs protected the doors and sills
below from the weather.
39.
Fig. 36. Dutch houses often had “broken back” lean-tos, where the
lean-to pitch was lower than the main roof pitch. A simple, effective
solution was to bear the lean-to rafter on the back of the main rafter
and secure the connection with a pin or nails.
Figs. 39 and 40. Above (39), many end anchorbeams have telltale mor-
tises, but only one example of this type has been found with all pentice
parts intact, on a 44x45 barn that originally stood in Berne, N.Y.
Though the 3x3 tenon 5 in. long would seem undersized, it worked
for over 200 years. Below (40), many Dutch barns had cantilevered
pentice arms (or outriggers) mortised full-size through the gable
anchorbeam. Four or five of these supported the pentice plate and
rafters.
40.
43
Cantilevered pentice arms run over the end anchorbeam Special-case configuration of common
of this Dutch barn formerly in Middleburgh, New York, purlins in an 18th-century hipped-roof
and support the pentice plate with blind tenons. Rafters meetinghouse, Pownal, Vermont.
are butted and nailed as in Fig. 40.
Unusual European-style
rafter foot found in a stone
barn in Oley (Berks County),
Pennsylvania. Rafters are
seated in short beams notched
over the plate, and forged
straps secure the connection.
Greg Huber
44
Principal rafter-common purlin roof frame over the ell of an 1840s house in Windsor, Massachusetts, now dismantled.
Purlins are continuous over two bays at each end; central bay purlins are staggered on rafters for sufficient bearing at the
connections. (Something went awry at the second rafter from the far end.) Instead of ridge purlins or a continuous ridge
beam, purlin-runs closely flank the ridge, leaving rafter joints undisturbed at the peak.
45
Paul Oatman
Bladed scarf with stub tenons in Becket, Massachusetts, after 1860. Some Simple halved and bolted scarf ca. 1900 near Pullman, Washington.
tensile capacity is provided by the small key.
force develops when one side of a scarf, for example the lower part
of a simple half-lap, supports the other side. Shear forces cause
splitting at the notches. Splayed scarfs, which taper to produce
VI.
greater depth of material under the notches, generally handle shear
forces better than halved ones.
Torsion (Twisting). Scarf joints are typically subjected to only
minor torsion loads. Spiral grain in an unseasoned member causes
Scarf Joints
twisting as it dries. A scarf joint that is not capable of resisting
twisting will open up as the timbers season. As its abutments
disengage, its ability to resist other forces will be diminished.
Bending. This is the most difficult force for a scarf to resist.
Members subject to bending would include plates, tie beams and
W
E are often amazed at the lengths of timbers found spanning beams supporting floor or roof loads. Sometimes a mem-
in old American structures. Plates 40 ft. long are ber must resist bending from two directions. A plate, for instance, is
common. Fifty-footers are encountered occasion- subjected to bending in the horizontal plane from wind loads and
ally, and timbers 60 and 70 ft. long are not unheard bending in the vertical plane from the roof load. The conscientious
of. In the great old-growth forests that once stood on this conti- builder locates the scarf where bending forces are low.
nent, trees of sufficient straightness and height were in abundance.
The older structures in a given area reflect the original forest. Unbro-
ken straight timbers run the length of the structure. For example, in
a typical 18th-century New York State Dutch barn measuring
50x50, there would be 13 timbers 50 ft. long. Such timbers were
obviously not difficult to procure from the original forest.
However, as the original forest was replaced by second-growth
forest, and sawmills, especially those with the new, faster circular
saws, replaced hewers and the relatively slow up-and-down mills, it
became more economical to join or scarf timbers together to make
the necessary long sills, plates and purlin plates. Scarfing had been
common practice in Europe for several hundred years, where the
original forest was long gone.
S
TRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS. Two timbers joined
end to end cannot match the strength and stiffness of a single
member of the same dimensions. Some ingenious scarfs have
been devised that aim to do so, but the majority of joints are fairly
simple, and they are limited in the forces they can resist. Scarf joints
can be subjected to a number of forces.
Axial Compression. This force, acting parallel to the grain of the
member and along its axis, is perhaps the easiest to resist. A simple
butt joint will work. A scarfed post would sustain axial compression.
Axial Tension. Plates and tie beams must resist moderate ten-
sion. Some truss components, such as lower chords, are subject to
heavy tension loading. Tension-resisting scarfs are typically longer
and more complex than others. Fig. 1. Elevation of a plate continuous over five posts, showing a
Shear. Rarely a concern in solid members, this force becomes a typical scarf location. Diagrams show resultant shear and moment
consideration when timbers are notched, as in scarf joinery. A shear values, both positive and negative, with horizontal line at zero force.
46
A member such as a plate or purlin plate that continues over bending strength. It is often found where it receives continuous
multiple supports is much stiffer and stronger than one spanning support, as in a sill, or where the carpentry is of the quickly
between only two supports. The locations of the maximum and executed variety, and many such joints open up over time. The
minimum moment (bending) forces are different in the continuous half-lap is also commonly used in repairs made to buildings in situ.
member. In a simple spanning member, the greatest moment oc- Halved and Undersquinted. To improve bending strength and
curs in the center of the span. In a continuous member, it occurs resistance to seasoning twist, the ends of a scarf can be undersquinted
over the posts (Fig. 1, facing page). (Fig. 3, below left). The angle most often encountered for the
Since it is difficult to create a scarf that handles bending forces as squint is 1 in 2. Shallower angles are more time consuming to cut
well as a solid timber, it makes sense to locate the scarf at a point and increase the likelihood of splitting at the notch. This joint is
where moment is the lowest. That is precisely where the majority of only slightly more work than the unsquinted version, but a consid-
scarfs are located in old buildings. As in the illustration, the joint, erable improvement. Pins are essential to the joint’s effectiveness.
additionally supported by the brace, is located where both shear Halved and Bladed. This common scarf is found in all periods
and moment are low. Locating the scarf over the post, where and locales. Though most often used as depicted in Fig. 4, in early
stresses are at their maximum, would cause the plate to act like Massachusetts Bay frames it is frequently found on edge. The
simple spanning members. Thus the plate would require a larger barefaced tenons or blades prevent twisting and improve bending
cross-section. Scarf location is also affected by available timber and tensile strength. Some builders added extra pins in the central
lengths and by the raising sequence of a building. lapped portion. Overall length is commonly four times the depth of
the timber. Variations of this scarf may present stub tenons without
S
CARF TYPES. In simplest terms, there are three classes of pins or a shortened lapped portion. In one variation, the topmost
scarf: halved, splayed, and bridled. A halved scarf is a lap and bottommost cuts are aligned vertically and the tenons length-
whose surfaces are parallel with the timber’s. A splayed scarf ened (see Cummings, Fig. 86 and Hewett, Fig. 271). Tenons are
has the lapped surfaces sloping. (A bladed scarf adds tenons.) A typically 1½ in. or 2 in. thick, and 4 in. or 6 in. long.
bridled scarf takes the form of a tongue and fork or open mortise
and tenon. Counting variations and combinations, I have found 23
different scarfs. Period builder’s guides illustrate at least another ten
that are likely to be found in a structure somewhere. Examples
illustrated here show the common orientation found in old struc-
tures. Some examples are also turned on edge. These will be noted.
Halved Scarf. A basic halved scarf or half-lap (Fig. 2) is probably
the simplest to fashion and thus the most abundant. It performs
well in axial compression but depends solely on pins or bolts to
resist tension and torsion. It has moderate shear strength but little
2.
Fig. 4. Halved and bladed scarf with pinned tenons. Pins are often
fitted additionally or alternatively in the central lapped portion.
Halved, Bladed and Cogged. In this unusual scarf (only one
historic example found, though modern ones exist), a cog is pro-
vided in the T-shaped stub tenon (Fig. 5). This helps align the scarf
and increases its bending strength against horizontal loads (such as
rafter thrust), while adding some cutting time.
3.
Figs. 2 and 3. At top (2), halved scarf with four pins. Above (3),
halved and undersquinted scarf found in an early-19th-century barn
in Monterey, Massachusetts. The barn’s only scarf, perhaps necessi-
tated by an oversight in timber procurement, it has held up well Fig. 5. Halved, bladed and cogged scarf found in a barn along the
despite its center-of-span location. Note 1-in-2 angle of squint. Mohawk River in New York State. Drawn from memory.
47
Halved and Tabled. With its center “table,” this joint (Fig. 6) Stop-Splayed and Undersquinted. Again by undersquinting the
adds tensile capacity to the basic half-lap. An iron bolt prevents butts, the stop-splayed scarf (Fig. 8) is made more resistant to
separation and displacement. twisting. This scarf performs well, considering its ease of cutting.
Stop-Splayed Scissors. While based on the stop-splayed and
undersquinted scarf, this variation is much stronger (Fig. 9). How-
ever, it is disproportionately more time consuming to fabricate,
which accounts for its rarity.
Fig. 7. Stop-splayed
scarf with square butts
and four pins.
48
Stop-Splayed, Undersquinted and Tabled with Wedges and Pins. Stop-Splayed and Bladed. By combining the bladed form with
A very strong scarf results when tabling and wedges are added (Fig. the splayed, the capacity of each is improved (Fig. 13). The tenons
11). The tensile capacity, torsion, and bending strength in both can be stub or long enough to be pinned. Compare Fig. 4.
directions are greatly increased. The pins position the halves while
the opposing wedges are driven and increase the joint’s overall
performance. The wedge thickness and the depth at the butts are
usually the same, typically 1½ or 2 in. The butts need not be
undersquinted. An example found at Jack’s Valley, Nevada, has
square butts, and bolts hold the scarf together.
Fig. 12. Examples of the stop-splayed scarf with wedges and multiple
tables, both taken from lower chords of trusses. The 4-ft. scarf was
found on a late-19th-century building 40 ft. wide in Clayton, N. Y.
The 6-ft. scarf was used in a ca.-1882 locomotive shop in Jamaica,
N.Y., 64 ft. wide and 520 ft. long, and cut from 7½ x 9½ hard pine
timber. Both scarfs use 1-in. bolts to keep the multiple bearing surfaces Fig. 15. Bridled and squinted scarf used (or reused) in the tie beams
engaged. Both are designed for high tension loads. of the Harlow Old Fort House, Plymouth, Mass., ca. 1677.
49
joint is also found where the abutment slopes the opposite way (see Stop-Bridled Halving. Only one example of this type (Fig. 18)
Cummings, Fig. 87), and in that form occurs in one of the oldest has been located. Though it works moderately well in most condi-
timber-framed buildings in England, as a sill scarf in the Barley tions, weakness in bending limits its applications.
Barn at Cressing Temple, ca. 1200 (see Hewett, Fig. 273). The use
of this particular joint in the roof of Harlow Old Fort House in
Plymouth, Mass., is odd: the scarfs, which do not perform well in
bending, are located about 4 ft. from the ends of 27-ft. tie beams.
But tradition says the house was framed of timbers taken from the
original fort in the settlement, hence the scarfs.
Tapered Bridle. This bridled scarf (Fig. 16), set flatwise, im-
proves the shear capacity of the scarf. While it resists compression,
moderate tension, and torsion, it is limited to locations where
bending forces are minimal.
Halved and Bridled. This not uncommon form (Fig. 19) works
moderately well in all ways and yet is straightforward to fabricate
and assemble. Undoubtedly there are splayed varieties of this scarf
as well.
Fig. 19. A typical halved and bridled scarf. Additional pins may
secure the lap.
M
ETHODS FOR JOINING STRUCTURES. Often
enough, early builders added to existing structures or
moved an existing structure and attached it to another.
The frames needed to be anchored to each other to prevent dis-
placement at the roof, walls and floors.
Fig. 17. Tabled and bridled scarf with key, 5-bay barn 62x81, If both frames could stand independently of each other, then a
Genoa, Nevada, ca. 1858. simple free tenon was used to join adjacent posts (Fig. 21). The
50
20.
21.
A free tenon in the bottom of a post in this house in Windsor, Mass., may
be a repair or a fix for a mistake. Shadows are cast by joists above.
22.
51
If the plates and sills of the addition could be attached to the
existing frame, then the builder saved the major expense of cutting
an additional cross-frame. However, scarfing onto the end of an
existing plate or sill was cumbersome and might compromise the
original frame. The best solution was to utilize jowled members to
offset the connection to an adjacent member (Figs. 23-25). The
flared butt of the tree was retained during hewing or sawing. These
jowled sills, plates and purlin plates required only simple mortises
in the existing timbers, easily cut in place. Ten buildings employing
such jowled members have been found in Massachusetts, New York
and Vermont, dating from the early 18th century to the middle of
the 19th.
Fig. 24. In the same barn, the sill was similarly jowled but also pinned.
52
Paul Oatman
53
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brunskill, R.W. Timber Building in Britain, Victor Gollancz Ltd., London, 1985.
Charles, F.W.B. Conservation of Timber Buildings, Hutchinson, London, 1984.
Cummings, Abbott Lowell. The Framed Houses of Massachusetts Bay, 1625-1725,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1979.
Glassie, Henry. “Barn Building in Otsego County, New York,”
published in Geoscience and Man, Vol. 5, June 1974.
Graubner, Wolfram. Encyclopedia of Wood Joints, Taunton Press,
Newtown, Conn., 1992.
Hewett, Cecil A. English Historic Carpentry, Phillimore & Co., London, 1980.
Kelly, J. Frederick. Early Domestic Architecture of Connecticut, Yale University
Press, New Haven, 1924. Reprinted by Dover Publications, New York, 1964.
Newlands, James. The Carpenter’s Assistant, Crescent Books, New York, 1990
(reprint of work originally published in the 1850s).
Sobon, Jack A. Build a Classic Timber-Framed House, Storey Communications,
North Adams, Mass., 1994.
54