INTRODUCTION TO

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

JAMES JOY
 Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

 Methods of NDT

Visual

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When are NDT Methods Used?
There are NDT application at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a component.
• To assist in product development
• To screen or sort incoming materials
• To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes
• To verify proper processing such as heat treating
• To verify proper assembly
• To inspect for in-service damage

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Six Most Common NDT Methods
• Visual
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic
• Ultrasonic
• Eddy Current
• X-ray

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Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.

– illuminate the test

specimen with light
– examine the specimen
with the eye

Tools include
fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.
Portable video inspection
Robotic crawlers permit unit with zoom allows
observation in hazardous or inspection of large tanks
tight areas, such as air and vessels, railroad tank
ducts, reactors, pipelines. cars, sewer lines.
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VISUAL INSPECTION EQUIPMENT:

VISUAL INSPECTION EQUIPMENT:

• Magnifying Glass
• Magnifying Mirror
• Microscope
• Borescope
– endoscopes or endoprobes
• Flexible Fiber Optic Borescope
– working lengths are normally 60 to 365 cm with
diameters from 3 to 12.5 mm
• Video Image scope

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APPLICATIONS OF VISUAL INSPECTION
• Visual examination are carried out before welding, during welding and after
welding.
• Before Welding:
For detecting dents, burrs, scales, seams or laps and also dirt grease rust
and mill scale on the fusion faces and edge preparation.
• During Welding:
For checking the geometry of the edge and joint preparation i.e. root face,
bevel and included angles etc.
• After Welding:
For cleaning the weld and to remove spatter, scale and slag

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Welding Defect To Be Inspected
By Visual Inspection
By visual inspection finished welds are inspected for following external
defects:
1.Appearance of ripples on the weld
2.Lack of fusion at the root of the butt weld
3.Overlaps
4.Undercuts
5.Unfilled craters
6.External cracks
7.Improper size and shape of beads
8.Misalignment
9.Surface porosity
10.Excessive reinforcement and spatter
11.Arc strikes

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Advantages And Disadvantages of Visual
Inspection
Advantages:
1.Economical
2.Expedient
3.Requires relatively little training
4.Relatively little and less costly equipment
5.Versatile
6.Most widely used of all the nondestructive tests.
7. Simple, easy to apply, quickly carried out and usually low in cost.
Disadvantages:
1.Limited to external defects or surface conditions only
2.Limited to the visual acuity of the inspector

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LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is
applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to
seep into surface breaking defects.
• The excess liquid is removed from the surface of
the part.
• A developer (powder) is applied to pull the
trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on
the surface where it can be seen.
• Visual inspection is the final step in the process.
The penetrant used is often loaded with a
fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under
UV light to increase test sensitivity.

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Introduction of liquid penetrant testing
• LPT is based on the ability of a penetrating liquid to wet the surface
opening of a weld defect and to be drawn into it.
• LPT is used to detect the surface opening likes cracks, surface porosity etc
in stainless steel, Al, magnesium, brass and other non porous metals.
LPT is of two types:
1.Dye penetrant testing ( Uses red colour liquid penetrant such as Dy check,
Met L check)

2.Fluorescent penetrant testing( Uses Fluorescent liquid such as Zyglo

penetrex)

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 Steps In Liquid Penetrant Inspection

• Liquid penetrant testing involves the following basic steps:

1. Surface preparation
2. Penetrant application
3. Dwell time ( 3-20 min and 30 to 60 min)
4. Removal of excess penetrant
5. Application of developer
6. Surface inspection
7. Post cleaning

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 Penetrant Application Application of Developer

Fine chalk like silicate developer is

Penetrant is applied by brushing , applied after the removal of excess
flooding, spraying penetrant to soak up the liquid
It is good to heat the specimen to penetrant in order to make the
widen the surface opening slightly cracks visible by blotting paper
action

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Surface Inspection
There are two types of indications: True and False indications.
True indications are caused by penetrant bleeding out from actual surface
as shown below

Large crack: A line of some width

Fatigue crack: A line of dots
Porosity : Dots
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Actual result of liquid penetrant testing

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ADVANTAGES OF LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

1.May be used on all non porous materials.

2.Versatile and portable
3.Relatively inexpensive
4.Expedient inspection results
5.Result are easily interpreted
6.Requires no electrical energy except for light source
7.Indications may be further examined visually

James Joy
APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

1. Used to detect weld discontinuities open to surface i.e. Cracks, porosity ,seams
2. Used on nonporous materials
3. Can be applied to welds, tubing, brazing, castings, billets, forgings, aluminium parts,
turbine blades and disks, gears

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LIMITATIONS LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

1. Surface film such as coatings, scale hide rejectable defects

2. Bleed out from porous surface can also mask indications
3. Part must be cleaned before and after inspection
4. Defects must be surface breaking
5. Decontamination & precleaning of test surface may be
needed
6. Vapour hazard
7. It is difficult to find very tight and shallow defects
8. Depth of flaw not indicated

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
• MPT is used to detect surface or near surface defects in magnetic
materials.
• MPT is based on the principle that magnetic lines of force, when present
in a ferromagnetic material, will be distorted by an interruption in
material continuity .
• If a magnet is bent and the two poles are joined so as to form a closed
ring, no external poles exist and hence it will have no attraction for
magnetic material.
• Thus as long as part to be inspected is free of cracks, magnetic particle
will not be attracted.
• When a crack or other discontinuity is present , north and south magnetic
are set up at edges of the discontinuity
• The magnetic particles will be attracted to the poles which are the edges
of the crack and will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity

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 Magnetic Particle Inspection
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment
are then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux
leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting
conditions.
Methods of operation
To achieve best results in MPT magnetic flux lines should be oriented in a
direction perpendicular to the discontinuity or defect
Circular Magnetization Longitudinal Magnetization

It is used to detect longitudinal It is used to detect circumferential

defects in the conductor defects in the conductor
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The Apparatus
Prod method is used to magnetized localized area by passing current
Through the components by means of hand held contact ort prod

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 Applications of MPT
• MPT is used to detect following defects:
1. Surface and sub surface cracks
2. Incomplete fusion
3. Slag inclusion
4. Porosity
5. Inadequate joint penetration
6. Lamination
7. Seams undercut
• In magnetic steels, cast irons, nickel and cobalt alloys

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Magnetic Particle Crack Indications
Advantages & Disadvantages of MPT

Advantages:
1. Inexpensive and portable apparatus
2. Reliable results
3. Can detect subsurface defects
• Disadvantages:
1. limited to only ferromagnetic materials
2. Parts must be cleaned before and after
inspection
3. Need to demagnetize parts after inspection

James Joy
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting
surface cracks but can also be used to make electrical
conductivity and coating thickness measurements. Here a small
surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to
detect a crack.

James Joy
 Eddy Current Principle
•When an energized coil is brought near to the surface of a metal or
conducting component, eddy currents are induced into the specimen by
electromagnetic induction.
•These currents set-up magnetic field that tend to oppose the original
magnetic field.
•The impedance of coil in close proximity to the specimen is affected by
the presence of the induced eddy currents in the specimen.
•When the eddy currents in the specimen are distorted by the presence of
the flaws or material variations, the impedance in the coil is altered.
•This change is measured and displayed in a manner that indicates
the type of flaw or material condition.
Eddy Current Testing

Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material
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Advantages & Disadvantages of ECT
Advantages:
1.Relatively expedient Disadvantages:
2.Low cost
3.Automation is possible for symmetrical parts 1.Limited to conductive
4.No couplant is required materials
5.Probe does not have to be in intimate contact
with the test piece.
2.Shallow depth of
penetration
3.Some indications may be
masked by part geometry
due to sensitivity variation
4.Reference standard are
required
l
 Applications of ECT
Following are the main applications of ECT:
1.Weld discontinuities open to the surface i.e. cracks,
porosity etc
2.Sub surface defects
3.Alloy content
4.Heat treatment variation
5.Wall thickness
6.Range from crack detection, to the rapid sorting of
small components for either flaws, size variations, or
material variation.
7.Commonly used in aerospace, automotive, marine, and
manufacturing industries.
ECT eddy current coils & Inspection probes

James Joy
 Radiography
The radiation used in radiography
testing is a higher energy (shorter
High Electrical Potential
wavelength) version of the
electromagnetic waves that we
see as visible light. The radiation can Electrons
come from an X-ray generator or a + -
radioactive source.
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

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 Principle of Radiography
• When a test piece or a welded joint is exposed to a penetrating radiation
like X rays or γ rays variations in amount of radiation transmitted through it
depends upon:

• The relative densities of the metal and any inclusion

• Thru thickness variation

Non metallic inclusions, pores, aligned cracks and other defects results in less
or more radiation reaching the recording film.
The variations in transmitted radiation produce optically contrasting areas on
the recording film

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 X RAY TUBE

The source of electrons for Coolidge X ray tube is a heated tungsten

wire filament, operating in the range of 6 to 15 V with a current of 3 to
5 amp.
The power requirement for the x ray machine range from 50 to 24000
KV.
A 24000KV X ray machine is capable of photographing
approximately 500 mm thick steel plate

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Film Radiography
The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.

The film darkness

(density) will vary with
the amount of radiation
X-ray film reaching the film
through the test object.
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
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Radiographic Images

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Radiography

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1.Permanent record enables 1.Radiation is a safety &requires special
review by parties at later dates facilities, monitoring of exposure levels
2.Gamma source may be and dosage to personnel
positioned inside of the 2.Source decay over their half lives and
accessible object must be periodically replaced
3.Energy efficient 3.Gamma source have constant
wavelength and cannot be adjusted
4.It requires highly skilled operating and
interpretive personnel
5.High initial cost of x ray equipment

James Joy
 Applications of Radiography
It is used to detect most of the sub surface weld defects such as
1.cracks,
2.porosity,
3. lack of fusion,
4.incomplete penetration,
5.Slag and corrosion entrapment
6. wall thickness
7. dimensional evaluations

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 Radioscopy
Radioscopy or real time radiography is the x ray radiography in which the
component are inspected for subsurface defects and the image is obtained on
the screen and on the recorder while at the it is analyzed with the of computers

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Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)
High frequency (20000 Hz) sound waves are introduced
into a material and they are reflected back from surfaces
or flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and
inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen
f
showing the depth of features that reflect sound.

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack

0 2 4 6 8 10 plate

Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen James Joy
Types of wave form

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Operating system

Ultrasonic testing uses

following OS:

Pulse echo system

Through Transmission
system

Resonance system

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Through Transmission system

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 Ultrasonic Imaging
High resolution images can be produced by plotting
signal strength or time-of-flight using a computer-
controlled scanning system.

Gray scale image produced using Gray scale image produced using the
the sound reflected from the front sound reflected from the back surface
surface of the coin of the coin (inspected from “heads” side)
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Common Application of NDT

• Inspection of Raw Products

• Inspection Following Secondary Processing
• In-Services Damage Inspection

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Inspection of Raw Products

• Forgings,
• Castings,
• Extrusions,
• etc.
Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding
• Heat treating
• Plating
• etc.
Inspection For
In-Service Damage

• Cracking
• Corrosion
• Erosion/Wear
• Heat Damage
• etc.
Power Plant Inspection
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current
probes into heat exchanger
tubes to check for corrosion
damage.

Pipe with damage Probe

Signals produced
by various
amounts of
corrosion
thinning.

James Joy
Wire Rope Inspection
Electromagnetic devices and
visual inspections are used to
find broken wires and other
damage to the wire rope that
is used in chairlifts, cranes and
other lifting devices.
 Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect
the walls of large
above ground tanks
for signs of thinning
due to corrosion.

Cameras on
long
articulating
arms are used
to inspect
underground
storage tanks
for damage.
James Joy
 Aircraft Inspection

• Nondestructive testing is
used extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
• NDT is also used to find
cracks and corrosion
damage during operation of
the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started
at the site of a lightning
strike is shown below.
 Jet Engine Inspection
• Aircraft engines are overhauled
after being in service for a period
of time.
• They are completely disassembled,
cleaned, inspected and then
reassembled.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection
is used to check many of the parts
for cracking.

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Crash of United Flight 232

A defect that went

undetected in an
engine disk was
responsible for
the crash of
United Flight 232.

James Joy
Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release of
a large amount of energy. To
protect against this dangerous
event, the tanks are inspected
using radiography and
ultrasonic testing.

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Rail Inspection

Special cars are used to

inspect thousands of miles
of rail to find cracks that
could lead to a derailment.

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 Bridge Inspection
• The US has 578,000
highway bridges.
• Corrosion, cracking and
other damage can all
affect a bridge’s
performance.
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in
loss of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
• Some bridges are fitted
with acoustic emission
sensors that “listen” for
sounds of cracks growing.

James Joy
Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines
to prevent leaks that could
damage the environment. Visual
inspection, radiography and
electromagnetic testing are some
of the NDT methods used.

Remote visual inspection using

a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection.

This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as it
is pushed along by whatever is being
transported.
Radiography of weld joints.
 Special Measurements
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of evaluating
the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy current methods
were used to measure the electrical conductivity of the Bell's bronze
casing at various points to evaluate its uniformity.

James Joy
T H A N K S

James Joy