The Basics of

Corrosion

Technical paper
Contents Introduction

3. Introduction

4. Corrosion

6.
Prepainted steel and aluminium sheets are used for The main aims of this publication are:
a wide variety of applications in the construction, - to describe the mechanisms of the corro-
Galvanic corrosion domestic appliance, general engineering and transpor- sion reactions that occur at metallic surfaces.
tation industries. The durability, high-quality surface - to explain the most common forms of corro-

10.
finish, formability, and relatively low cost are the major sion for prepainted metals.
reasons for the widespread use of these prepainted - to present the technologies that are used
Corrosion of prepainted metal metals. However, one of the disadvantages of all metals to prevent the corrosion of prepainted metals.
is that they are prone to corrosion which can cause aes-

16.
thetic defects and the gradual deterioration of mecha-
nical properties. Coating the metal with an appropriate
paint system will prevent corrosion and so preserve the
Corrosion protection for pre- appearance and physical properties of the product.
painted metal

18.
Corrosion resistance is essential for the long-term
performance of building cladding and for other applica-
Corrosion testing tions of prepainted metals. The selection of the correct
corrosion protection technology for prepainted metal
products is crucial to avoid premature in-service failure.
The successful development of corrosion resistant
products is demonstrated by the extended perfor-
mance guarantees (up to 40 years) that are available
for prepainted metals construction applications. This
long-term durability performance is achieved by using
chrome-free pretreatment and primer technologies;
the use of hazardous chromium-containing chemicals
has been largely eliminated from the industry. Ongoing
R&D within the industry ensures that the prepainted
products will meet future market and regulatory requi-
rements.

2. Contents 3. Introduction
Corrosion Nature of
corrosion
Electrochemical nature of corrosion

Corrosion of any metal is an electrochemical reaction The corrosion reaction is a closed loop and for the
between the metal and its surroundings. A corro- corrosion cell to work, all the four elements need to
sion reaction involves the flow of electrons and ions be present. If one of them is eliminated, the corrosion
between two metallic electrodes – the anode and reaction is inhibited. For example, prepainted steel is
cathode. There are four necessary elements needed to not likely to corrode in a completely dry environment
form a corrosion cell: an anode, a cathode, an electro- because there is no water to function as an electrolyte.
lyte, and a return path. The electrolyte is normally an The metal will also remain intact if either the anodic
aqueous solution, such as rain water, and the return or the cathodic reaction is prohibited as the overall
path is a metallic pathway connecting the anode and corrosion reaction is prevented.
cathode to each other which facilitates the electron
What is corrosion?
transfer between the two electrodes. Prepainted aluminium will not corrode in most envi-
The corrosion of a material leads to a gradual deterio- ronments nor under exposure to a wide variety of che-
ration of its properties until it fails to fulfil its original The anode is the part of the metal where the oxida- mical agents. This is because the metal, although very
purpose and needs to be replaced. Corrosion also tion reaction and corrosion take place. In an oxidation reactive with a high affinity for oxygen, is protected by
causes aesthetic problems and can lead to significant reaction, electrons are freed from the anode into the a natural and/or converted oxide layer which is inert.
costs of reparation and replacement. In order to suc- metallic pathway and are consumed at the cathode in a Atmospheric moisture and rain water are not able to
cessfully prevent corrosion, it is important to unders- reduction reaction. In the case of iron, the result of this migrate through the protective coating film, as long as
tand the fundamental mechanisms of corrosion and reaction is commonly called rust. it remains intact.
how they can be prevented.
The electrochemical potential difference between the
Metals usually exist as oxides in their natural form anode and cathode drives the electrons towards the
e.g. bauxite (aluminium), magnetite (iron); extensive cathode creating the corrosion current. The electrolyte
processing is, therefore, required to convert the metal is needed for the transfer of the metallic ions that are
oxides to pure metals. The corrosion of a material can, released in the corrosion reaction.
therefore, be simply defined as a driving force that
returns the metal to its natural, lowest energy state. The oxidation reaction at the anode and reduction
reaction at the cathode always occur together.
If not protected properly, any metal will oxidise resul-
ting in rust formation. One of the most effective ways
to protect metals from corrosion is to apply an organic
coating onto its surface. Prepainted metals contain a
multi-layer system of pretreatment, primer and topcoat
to prevent corrosion and to meet the market require-
ments for long-term durability and appearance. For
indoor applications, one coat systems may be used; for
more demanding construction applications, 3 and 4
coat systems are available.

4. Corrosion | What is it? 5. Corrosion | Electrochemical nature

 Galvanic Galvanic
corrosion
corrosion
Galvanised steel

Galvanised steel is the classic example of a metallic sys-

tem where galvanic corrosion is utilised for the benefit
and protection of the product. Galvanised steel consists
of a steel substrate coated with a layer of metallic zinc
or zinc alloy. Zinc is less resistant to corrosion (more
electronegative) than steel and will sacrificially corrode
for the benefit of the steel substrate. The steel will re-
As explained earlier, when two dissimilar metals are main intact as long as the zinc coating is present; once
in contact and immersed in an electrolyte, a poten- it is consumed, the steel itself will start to corrode. It
tial difference usually exists between them and an should be noted, that when zinc is coupled to steel it
electrolytic (or corrosion) cell is formed. The metal will corrode faster than it would without the connec-
that is less corrosion resistant becomes anodic and tion to steel.
starts to corrode for the benefit of the more corrosion The rate and speed of the galvanic corrosion of steel is
resistant metal. This type of corrosion is called galvanic dependent on the atmospheric conditions surrounding
corrosion. The corrosion resistance of metals can be ex- the paint-metal system. In coastal and highly industria-
lised areas, atmospheric moisture contains dissolved
plained by the Galvanic series of metals and alloys. The
salts which makes it more conductive and, therefore, Aluminum
more electronegative a material, the more prone it is to
corrosion. The order of some metals in the Galvanic se- more corrosive. The rate of galvanic corrosion is also
dependent on the surface area of the two metals in Aluminium is widely used in the construction market because it has a very long service life if used correctly. This
ries is shown in the table below. Metals are listed from is despite the fact that in most combinations with other metals, aluminium is the least noble metal. Therefore,
the most active (most electronegative) metals down to contact. A small anode next to a large cathode will
increase the corrosion rate whereas a large anode aluminium presents in theory a higher risk of galvanic corrosion.
the most inert ones.
in contact with a small cathode will have the reverse
effect. Galvanic corrosion of aluminium occurs only outdoors, or in environments with high chloride levels such as areas
Galvanic corrosion is usually observed at the cut edges bordering the sea. In a salty, wet atmosphere the humidity is acting as the electrolyte. Galvanic corrosion of alu-
of prepainted steel where the bare steel is exposed to minium does not occur in dry indoor atmospheres.
the environment. The corrosion protection of the cut
edge can be increased by increasing the thickness of Galvanic corrosion between aluminium and more noble metals (e.g. stainless steel, copper) should also be
the zinc coating as this extends the period of sacrificial avoided by using proper insulation to avoid direct metal-metal contact.
protection by the zinc.
Tin-plated steel is an example of the unfavourable For better understanding of material compatibility, the ‘Anodic Index’ is a good guide to follow:
effects of galvanic corrosion. Tin is electropositive - Harsh environments, such as outdoors, high humidity, and salt environments: typically recom-
compared to steel, meaning that any defect in the tin mended anodic index difference should not be more than 0.15 V
coating will eventually lead to the sacrificial corrosion - Normal environments, such as warehouses, humidity-controlled environments, requires a
of the steel substrate under the tin coating. typical difference of max. 0.25 V in the anodic index.
- Controlled (temperature and humidity) environments can tolerate a difference of 0.50 V in the
anodic index.

6. Galvanic corrosion | Galvanised steel 7. Galvanic corrosion | Aluminum

 Galvanic Environment
corrosion classification

Environmental classification for prepainted metals

The rate of corrosion reaction of any metal is highly dependent on the environment in which it is placed. The
environments where prepainted metals are used are classified according to the reduction of mass (or thickness) of Industrial atmosphere C3-C5
certain metals and metal alloys when present in that atmosphere. The classification according to the standards EN
ISO 12944-2.2017 is shown in the table below. Note that another corrosion class of higher corrosiveness exists, as - High pollution
mentioned in ISO 9223: 2012. It is called CX (Extreme) but is not relevant for European locations. - Long wet time
- High humidity
- Corrosion rate of zinc often > 1.5 μm/year

Corrosion ALUMI- STEEL STEEL ZINC ZINC

class ac- NIUM Mass re- Thickness Mass re- Thickness
cording Mass re- duction reduction duction reduction
to the EN duction [g/m²/yr] [μm/yr] [g/m²/yr] [μm/yr] Marine atmosphere C3-C5
ISO 12944- [g/m²/yr]
- High content of salt in the atmosphere
2:2017. - Corrosion speed varies with temperature,
wet time, and relative humidity
- Corrosion rate of zinc often > 4.0 μm/year
C1 negligible ≤10 ≤1.3 ≤0.7 ≤0.1

C2 ≤0.6 >10 to 200 >1.3 to 25 >0.7 to 5 >0.1 to 0.7

C3 >0.6 to 2 >200 to 400 >25 to 50 >5 to 15 >0.7 to 2.1

C4 >2 to 5 >400 to 650 >50 to 80 >15 to 30 >2.1 to 4.2 Country atmosphere C3-C5

- Hardly any pollution

- Low contents of salts in the atmosphere
C5-I and - Low wet time
>5 >650 to 1500 >80 to 200 >30 to 60 >4.2 to 8.4
C5-M - Corrosion rate of zinc often < 0.4 μm/year

8. Galvanic corrosion | Environmental classification 9. Galvanic corrosion | Environmental classification

 Corrosion of Edge
corrosion
prepainted
metal

Edge corrosion

Corrosion products on the cut-edge of a prepainted

hot-dip zinc-coated steel product following accelerated
corrosion testing in the laboratory.
Edge corrosion
Cut edge corrosion is generally not a significant issue
for prepainted aluminium, due to the inert oxide
Edge corrosion is one example of galvanic corrosion.
layer which is generated immediately after the cutting
It occurs at the cut edge of galvanised steel where the
process.
cross section of the paint coated metal is exposed to
the environment. In the cross section, the surface area
of zinc is significantly smaller than that of the steel
substrate. The zinc layer provides sacrificial protection
for the bare steel but once this protection is exhausted,
the corrosion reaction starts. The corrosion protection
can be increased by increasing the thickness of the
zinc coating or by using a zinc alloy coating (see later).
Selection of the appropriate pretreatment/primer
technology is essential in protecting the product from
cut edge corrosion. An effective, but expensive, way to
prevent edge corrosion is to cover the cut edge e.g. by
applying a paint layer after cutting.

10. Corrosion of prepainted metal | Edge corrosion 11. Corrosion of prepainted metal | Edge corrosion
 Crevice Filiform
corrosion corrosion

Filiform corrosion

Filiform corrosion occurs under the protective paint

film and can be seen as thin filaments randomly
distributed on the surface. Filiform corrosion is mainly
an aesthetic effect and does not usually weaken the
material or significantly reduce its functionality. The
Crevice corrosion filaments start from an edge or a defect in the surface
coating. They have an active head and a corrosion pro-
Intensive, localized corrosion that often occurs within duct tail; the corrosion occurs only in the active head of
the shielded areas on a painted surface is called crevice the filaments, never in the inactive tails. The filaments
corrosion. Crevice corrosion can be caused by surface tend to move in straight lines and do not cross each
defects, holes, or deposits of dirt allowing a stagnant other.
solution to be formed on the surface. The hole of the
defect on the surface must, therefore, be wide enough The relative humidity of the atmosphere is the single
to allow the liquid to enter, but small enough to assure most important factor for initiating filiform corrosion.
a stagnant solution. The most favourable humidity for filiform corrosion is
65-90%. The type of the coating on the surface is less
important and thus filiform corrosion can be seen even
under metallic coatings. Coatings with very low mois-
ture permeability inhibit filiform corrosion.

Filiform corrosion is most often seen on aluminium

substrates, zinc-coated steel is less prone to this type of
corrosion defect.

Corrosion filaments on a painted

aluminium surface initiated from a
scratch on the surface.

12. Corrosion of prepainted metal | Crevice corrosion 13. Corrosion of prepainted metal | Filiform corrosion
 Paint Delamination
blistering

Paint blistering
One of the main purposes of a paint film is to function
as a barrier between the metallic substrate and the en-
vironment. However, no paint film is perfect; paints are
semipermeable materials which allow some water and
air to pass through. There may also be small holes and
imperfections that allow water and impurities to reach
the surface of the metal substrate. This can lead to the
formation of corrosion cells on the metallic surface and
to blisters on the painted surface.

Paint blistering starts with a defect, such as salt

residues, metal oxides, scratches or solvents on the
metallic surface at the interface of the metal and
coating. Due to the permeability of the paint film an
osmotic pressure drives water through the paint film Cathodic delamination
to the paint-substrate interface. Eventually the amount
of moisture in the interface reaches the point where Cathodic delamination can be observed in both un-
it breaks the adhesive bonds between the metal and coated and galvanised steel. This form of paint failure
the paint. The paint starts to lift from the surface to also starts by surface defects and is driven by the
form the blisters. Quite often the centre of the blister cathodic reactions of an electrolytic cell. The defect
becomes an anode and starts to corrode. The resulting area on the metal surface becomes the anode and the
corrosion products can eventually break through the cathodic reactions take place at the edge of the delami-
paint film and become even more visible on the paint nated area, where the corrosion reaction is advancing.
surface. Due to the semi-permeability of the paint film, water
and oxygen are transmitted to the metallic surface to
Blistering will also occur at cut edges and scribes (cuts) function as the electrolyte. Electrons are freed in the
through the surface. In both cases, the bare metal is anodic reaction in the centre of the defect and transfer
exposed to the atmosphere and galvanic corrosion will through the metal to the advancing interface.
start under the pain film once the sacrificial protection
of the zinc is exhausted.

Anodic delamination
Anodic delamination is a common paint failure when
aluminium is used as the substrate. The main mecha-
nism is similar to cathodic delamination and usually
starts on a defect on the metallic surface. The advan-
cing interface in this reaction is, however, the anode,
and the protecting oxide layer on the aluminium
surface is consumed in this reaction.

14. Corrosion of prepainted metal | Paint blistering 15. Corrosion of prepainted metal | Delamination
 Corrosion Primer
coat
protection for
prepainted metal
Metallic coatings
Aluminium Zinc
It is commonly believed that aluminium doesn’t
Hot-dip galvanised (HDG) steel is the predominant
corrode like other metals. In fact, it does, but in the
substrate type for prepainted steel. The zinc coating is
case of aluminium, an oxide layer forms a uniform and
dense barrier between the metal and the environment
applied on a galvanising line by dipping the steel strip Precleaning and Pretreatment Primers
into a hot bath of molten zinc after which the thickness
resulting in very good corrosion protection. This oxide
of the zinc layer is adjusted by air knives which wipe In order to ensure good adhesion of the primer coat The primer coat in a prepainted metal product is
layer is usually 2-20nm thick and repairs itself rapidly if
the excess zinc off the surface. The zinc layer is usually and enhanced corrosion protection in the prepainted to provide adhesion for the topcoat to the metallic
the bare metal is damaged. In most environments the
applied at 275 g/m² (both sides) which gives a zinc metal product, the metallic substrate is cleaned and substrate. The primer is formulated to be compatible
aluminium oxide layer is stable and protects the metal
coating thickness of approximately 20μm on each pretreated with a carefully formulated chemical system with the pretreatment coating applied on the metallic
from further corrosion. However, even aluminium can
side. The zinc layer may vary from 100 g/m² up to 350 prior to application of the paint coating layers. The surface. It must also be compatible with the topcoat
corrode if the conditions are unfavourable, or if it is not
g/m² depending the application and the in-service metallic surface is thoroughly cleaned of rolling oil, technology.
maintained properly. The oxide layer cannot protect
environment; the more zinc, the longer the corrosion impurities and metal oxides to provide the optimum
the metal in very acid (pH < 4) or very alkaline (pH > 9)
protection. surface for application of the pretreatment layer (or The primer also plays a key role in optimising the
environments. Impurities, such as other metal particles
or halide ions, on the surface can also lead to corro- conversion coating). The role of the pretreatment corrosion resistance of the product. The primer for-
Pure zinc will corrode in preference to the steel subs- layer is to ensure satisfactory adhesion of the applied mulation will contain suitable anti-corrosion pigments
sion.
trate and reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide and coatings and to provide corrosion protection even if the that provide a barrier to moisture ingress and some
then with carbon dioxide to form zinc carbonate. The paint layer gets damaged. form of chemical protection at the cut edge or areas
zinc carbonate forms a dense, fairly strong layer on
Steel of surface damage. The pigments can migrate through
the surface thus protecting the steel substrate from Cleaning the surface (degreasing) and pretreatment are the coating to the exposed edge where they can inhibit
Steel oxidises rapidly in most environments forming corrosion. distinct processes and both are required to ensure the the main corrosion reaction.
an oxide layer (“rust”) on the surface of the metal. proper corrosion protection and paint adhesion to the
However, the oxide layer on steel is not as stable as the substrate. Primer formulations in the coil coating industry are
aluminium oxide layer and does not protect the metal Zinc/Aluminium/Magnesium (ZM)
now chromate-free; a wide range of inorganic pigments
from corrosion. Protection of the steel surface is essen- There are many different types of conversion coatings and compounds are used in the different coatings.
tial in coil coating and is usually achieved by applying Zinc magnesium coated steel sheets (ZM) were first in- that are used in the coil coating industry. They are
a coating of zinc or zinc alloy onto the surface. These troduced in Europe in 2007 and, with a growing market typically zirconium or titanium-based systems; these
metallic coatings protect the steel substrate in two share, have become an important substrate especially have been developed to replace the traditional chro-
ways: by acting as a physical barrier which prevents im- for the architectural market. ZM coatings consist of a mate systems which are now regulated under REACH
purities and water from reaching the steel surface and zinc alloy with 1.5 to 8% by mass of magnesium and legislation. These chromate-free systems are more
by providing galvanic protection (see above: Galvanic aluminium with a minimum content of magnesium of environmentally friendly and offer equivalent or better
corrosion). 0.2% by mass. Compared to conventional zinc coatings, performance than the chromate systems.
the corrosion resistance of ZM coatings in high chloride
environments is enhanced which permits a reduction of
coating thickness in the product. This helps to conserve
resources and protect the environment. The typical
weight of ZM coatings is 120 -140 g/m².

Galfan

Galfan is a patented zinc-aluminium alloy coating. It

contains nearly 5% aluminium and specific quantities
of some rare metals which give an improved corrosion
protection of the steel substrate compared to a pure
zinc layer, especially at the cut edges.

16. Corrosion protection for prepainted metal 17. Corrosion protection for prepainted metal | Primer coat
 Corrosion ECCA
methods
testing EN 13523-8 Coil Coated metals - Test Methods - Part 8: RESISTANCE TO SALT SPRAY (fog)
(2017)

EN 13523-9 Coil Coated metals – Test Methods – Part 9: RESISTANCE TO WATER IMMERSION
Before any product can be supplied to the market cyclic tests are being developed. The aim of these new (2014) This part of EN 13523 describes the procedure for determining the resistance to water
its properties must be thoroughly evaluated. The tests is to better replicate the corrosion mechanisms
immersion of an organic coating on a metallic substrate
most reliable way to test the corrosion protection of that occur during the external weathering of a building.
a product is to expose it in a similar environment to ECCA is currently developing, in conjunction with the
its intended purpose for the duration of its expected French Corrosion Institute, new cyclic tests for both
lifetime. For this purpose, there are outdoor exposure prepainted steel and aluminium. These new tests will
sites in Europe where prepainted products can be help the industry to further develop its product offering EN 13523-10 Coil Coated metals – Test Methods – Part 10: RESISTANCE TO FLUORESCENT UV LIGHT
tested in environments classified according to EN ISO and to maintain compliance with the product standards (2017) AND WATER CONDENSATION.
12944-2:2017 (C1- C5). However, most external testing defined in EN 1396: 2015 for prepainted aluminium, This part of EN 13523 describes the basic principles and procedure for determining the
usually requires at least one year’s exposure before any and EN10169: 2012 for prepainted steel. resistance of an organic coating on a metallic substrate (coil coating) to a combination of
results can be seen. For longer-lasting products, four fluorescent UV light, and water condensation and temperature under controlled condi-
year’s weathering data is now required before any final tions.
decision can be made on performance guarantees. The-
refore, a range of accelerated corrosion tests are under EN13523-19 Coil Coated metals – Test Methods – Part 19: ECCA RECOMMENDATION FOR PANEL
development to help predict the prepainted product’s (2011) DESIGN AND METHOD FOR ATMOSPHERIC EXPOSURE TESTING.
durability in its in-service environment. This part of EN 13523 covers all aspects of panel design, panel preparation, exposure
orientation and a possible rack design which would be suitable for outdoor exposure and
The primary requirement for any accelerated corrosion ECCA methods testing of coil coated material and simulate building application.
test is that the results correlate with the performance
of the product in outdoor conditions. The salt spray ECCA has developed a comprehensive a series of Test EN 13523-21 Coil Coated metals – Test Methods – Part 21: EVALUATION OF OUTDOOR EXPOSED
test is widely used in the coil coating industry as an ini- Methods, a very helpful tool for those wanting to test (2017) PANELS
tial screening test for prepainted products. The test pa- and use prepainted metal. These methods are defined This part of EN 13523 specifies the procedure for evaluating the behaviour of an organic
nels are exposed to a continuous salt spray solution for within EN 13523, a European standard with over 25
a defined length of time, usually 1000h. The amount of
coating on a metallic substrate during and after outdoor exposure.
parts. The test methods that are of particular rele-
corrosion on the surface of the panel is evaluated after vance to corrosion testing are as follows:
the test and this gives an indication of the corrosion
resistance of the product. The widespread use of this EN 13523-23 Coil Coated metals – Test Methods – Part 23: COLOUR STABILITY IN HUMID ATMOS-
test, despite its poor correlation to field test results, (2015) PHERES CONTAINING SULPHUR DIOXIDE
is because it has been used for a very long time and This part of EN 13523 defines terms of the procedure for determining the colour stabi-
many product specifications demand a certain level of lity of an organic coating (coil coated) on a metallic substrate when exposed to humid
performance in the salt spray test. atmospheres containing sulphur dioxide.
The main criticism of the salt spray test is that the test EN13523-25 Coil Coated metals – Test Methods – Part 25: RESISTANCE TO HUMIDITY
panels are exposed to a continuous salt spray solution (2014) This part of EN 13523 specifies a procedure for evaluating the humidity resistance of an
without any dry time in between. This is hardly ever
organic coating (coil coated) on a metallic substrate, by means of exposure in a humidity
the case in real outdoor conditions, and it has been
shown that the dry periods are vital for the corrosion cabinet under controlled conditions.
preventive actions to take place in the substrate/paint
system. For example, the protective oxide/carbonate
layer of a galvanised coating cannot form if the surface EN13523-26 Coil Coated metals – Test Methods – Part 26: RESISTANCE TO CONDENSATION OF WATER
is constantly wet; it needs a dry cycle to become (2014) This part of EN 13523 describes a procedure for evaluating the condensation resistance
effective. of coil coated materials. Changes of the coating film such as blistering, colour and gloss
differences can be evaluated.
In order to improve the correlation of the accelerated
corrosion tests to real outdoor conditions, different
The full list of test methods can be found on www.prepaintedmetal.eu

18. Corrosion testing 19. Corrosion testing | ECCA methods

Ecca
objectives
- Increasing the awareness of prepainted metal through targeted marketing programmes

- Promoting the benefits of prepainted metal through the provision of innovative solutions and with
particular emphasis on environmental, cost, quality and design benefits

- Stimulating market, application, product and process development

- Setting quality performance standards and developing test methods

- Granting of Quality and Sustainability Labels for prepainted metal on the basis of the technical and
sustainability requirements defined in the ECCA Premium® Label manual and based on independent
third party control

- Creating an industry network and forum for the development and exchange of ideas

- Representation of the Industry in its contacts with Public Officials, Public Authorities, other Trade Asso-
ciations and Professional Bodies.

*Source : Akzo Nobel Hilden GmbH

Avenue de Tervuren, 273 Tel.: +32 2 515 00 20 [email protected]

1150 Bruxelles - Belgique Fax.: +32 2 511 43 61 www.prepaintedmetal.eu