Surface Mine Design and Practiceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

SURFACE MINE DESIGN
AND PRACTICE
Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani
Department of Mining Engineering,

Mehran University of Engineering & Technology
Jamshoro, Sindh
SURFACE MINE DESIGN AND PRACTICE
GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS
INTRODUCTION TO OPEN PIT MINING
The ore deposits being mined by open pit techniques today vary considerably in size,
shape, orientation and depth below surface. The initial surface topographies can vary
from mountain tops to valley floor. In spite of this there are a number of geometry based
design and planning considerations fundamental to them all.
The ore body is mined from top to the down in the series of horizontal layers of uniform
thickness called benches and after a sufficient floor area has been exposed, mining to the
next layer can begin. The process continues until the bottom bench elevation is reached
and the final pit outline achieved. To access different bench a road or ramp must be
created. The width and steepness of this road or ramp depends upon the type of
equipment to be accommodated. Stable slopes must be created and maintained during the
creation and operation of the pit.
Slope angle is an important geometrical parameter which has a significant economic

impact. Open pit mining is very highly mechanized. Each piece of mining machinery has
an associated geometry both related to its own physical size, but also with the space it
requires to operate efficiently. There is a complementary set of drilling, loading and
hauling equipment which requires a certain amount of working space. This space
requirement is taken into account when dimensioning the so called working benches.
From both operating and economic view points certain volumes must or should at least be
removed before others. These volumes have a certain minimum size and an optimum size.
Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 2

BASIC BENCH GEOMETRY

The basic extraction component is an open pit mine is the “bench”. Bench – nomenclature
is shown in Figure 1.
Fig.1: Bench Nomenclature
FACE: It is an exposed area from where the overburden or mineral/ore is extracted.
CREST: highest point of the face.
TOE: lowest point the face.
BENCH: the step or floor accommodating the mine machinery.
BENCH HEIGHT: each bench has an upper and lower surface separated by a distance
“H” equal to the bench height. The bench height is determined by the size of mining
equipment and formation of the area.
 The loose/soft rocks allows, bench height up to shovel reach.
 In hard and very strong rock, bench height is usually 10-40 meters.
BENCH SLOPE: the bench slope or the bench face angle is the inclined plane of the
bench made an angle with the horizontal. Or the average angle that a face makes with the
horizontal. The exposed sub-vertical surfaces are known as bench faces. The bench faces
are described by the toe. The crest and he bench face angle ‘ ’. The bench face angle
can vary considerably with rock characteristics, face orientation and the blasting
practices. In most hard rock pits it varies from about 55 O to 80O. A typical initial design

value might be 65O. This should be used with care as the bench face angle can have a
major effect on the overall slope angle.
BENCH FLOOR: The exposed bench lower surface is called as the bench floor.
BENCH WIDTH: The bench width is the distance between the crest and toe measured
along the upper surface.
BANK WIDTH: It is the horizontal projection of the bench face.

There are several types of benches; a working bench is that one which is in process of
being mined. The width being extracted from the working bench is called the cut. The
width of working bench WB is defined as the distance from the crest of the bench floor to
the new toe position after the cut has been extracted as shown in figure 2. After the cut
has been removed, a safety bench or catch bench of width SB remains.
The purpose of leaving safety benches is to:
a) collect the material which slides down from the benches above; and to
b) stop the downward progress of the boulders.
During primary extraction, a safety bench is generally left on every level. The width of
safety bench SB varies with bench height “H”. Generally the width of the safety bench is
of the order 2
3 of the bench height. At the end of mine life, the safety benches are
sometimes reduced to a width of about 1

3 of the bench height.
In addition to leaving the safety benches berms (piles) of broken materials are often
constructed along the crest. These serve the function of forming a ditch between the berm
and the toe of the slope to catch falling rocks.
A safety berm is also left along the outer edge of the bench to prevent trucks and other
machines from backing over. It serves much the same function as a guard rail on bridges
and elevated highways. Normally the pile has a height greater than or equal to the tire
radius. The berm slope is taken to be about 35O, i.e. also called the angle of repose.
The steps which are followed when considering bench geometry are:
i) Deposit characteristics (total tonnage, grade distribution, value etc) dictate a

certain geometrical approach and production strategy.

ii) The production strategy yields daily ore-waste production rates, selective
mining and blending requirements, numbers of working places.
iii) The production requirements leads to a certain equipment set (fleet type and
size).
iv) Each equipment set has a certain optimum associated geometry.
v) Each piece of equipment in the set has an associated operating geometry.
vi) A range of suitable bench geometries results.
vii) Consequences regarding stripping ratios, operating v/s capital costs, slope
stability aspects etc are evaluated.
viii) The best of the various alternatives is selected.
In the past, when the rail bound equipments were being extensively used, great attention
was paid to bench geometry. Today highly mobile rubber tired/crawler mounted
equipments has reduced the detailed evaluation requirements some-what.
Fig. 2: Working Bench

Fig. 2a: Functions of a catch bench

DEVELOPMENT OF ACCESS ROAD: (ORE ACCESS;)

In mining literature, going the initial knowledge about the physical access to the Ore body
is of great importance. For this, the question arises that: “How does one actually begin the
process of Mining?” Obliviously the approach depends upon the topography of the
surrounding ground. To introduce the topic, it is assumed that the ground surface is flat.
The overlying vegetation has been removed as has the soil/sand/gravel overburden. In this
case it will be assumed that the ore body is 700 feet in diameter, 40feet thick, flat dipping
and is exposed by removing the soil overburden. The ore is hard so that drilling and
blasting is required. The bench mining situation is shown in figure: 3.
Figure 3: Geometry of the ore body
A vertical digging face must be established in the ore body before major production can
begin. Further more a “ramp” must be created to allow truck and loader access. A drop
cut is used to create the vertical breaking face and the ramp access at the same time.
To access the Ore body, the “ramp” shown in figure: 4 will be driven it has an 8% grade
and a width of 65 feet.
Although not generally the case, the walls will be assumed vertical. To reach the 40ft
desired depth, the ramp in horizontal projection will be 500ft in length.
Figure 4: Ramp access for example ore body

The volume of access road or ramp volume is the volume of the waste rock mined in
excavating the ramp.
:. Ramp volume = Ramp width (Rw) × Area of ∆abc.
1 
Rw    horizontal  H 
2 
1  H  
Ramp volume (V) = Rw      100   H 
2  g  
1
Rw   H  100  H
2 g
:. Volume of Ramp = V= 50 H2/g × Rw; (ft3)
Example # 01:-
Determine the volume of Ore body by waste rock to develop access road at the
slope of 8%. Depth of cylindrical Ore body is 30 feet and diameter 500 ft, width of ramp
is 65 feet.
Data:
Slope = g = 8%
Depth = H = 30 feet
Diameter = d= 500 feet
Width of ramp = Rw = 65 feet
Solution:
as V = Volume of ramp
H2
and V = 50 × × Rw
g
(30) 2 x 65 2925000
V = 50 × =
8 8
V = 365625 ft3 Ans

.
Example # 02:-
Repeat example # 01 for Depth (H) = 40 ft and Ramp width (Rw) = 60 ft.
H2
Solution: - V = 50 × × Rw
g
(40) 2 x 60
V = 50 ×
8
V = 600000 ft3 Ans

DEVELOPMENT OF ACCESS ROAD: (ramps)
i) In waste rock (Fig. 5a)
.
ii) Ramp in ore body (Fig. 5b)
.
iii) Ramp starting in waste and ending in ore (Fig. 5c)


THE PIT EXPANSION PROCESS
When the drop cut has reached the desired grade, the cut is expanded laterally. Figure: 6
shows the steps. Initially Fig: 6.A; the operating space is very low/limited; therefore the
trucks must turn and stop at the top of the ramp and then back down the ramp towards the
loader. When the pit bottom has been expanded sufficiently as shown in fig: 6.B; the
truck can turn around on the pit bottom. Latter, as the working area becomes quite larger
as shown in fig. 6.C; several loaders can be used at the same time. The optimum face
length assigned to a machine varies with the size and type. It is of the range 200-500 feet.
Once access has been established the cut is winded until the entire bench/level has been
extended to the bench limits. There are three approaches which will be discussed here;
they are as follows:
1. Frontal Cuts
2. Parallel Cuts – Drive by
3. Parallel Cuts – Turn & Back
The first two apply where there is a great deal of working area available, for example “at
the pit bottom”. The mining of the more narrow benches on the sides of the pit is covered
under the third approach.
Figure: 6 A
Step I

Figure: 6 B
Step II
Figure: 6 C
Step III
Figure 6: Detailed steps in the development of a new production level
FRONTAL CUTS:
The frontal cut is shown diagrammatically in figure – 7.
The shovel faces the bench face and begins digging forward straight ahead and to the
side. A niche is cut in the bank wall. For the case shown, double spotting of the trucks is
used. The shovel first loads to the left and when the truck is full he proceeds to the other
truck on the right. The swing angle varies from 1100 (maximum) to an angle of 100
(minimum). The average swing angle is about 600; hence the loading operation is quite
effective. There must be room for trucks to position them around the shovel. The shovel

penetrates to the point that the face. It then moves parallel to itself and takes another
frontal cut as shown in fig: 7.1;
With a long face and sufficient bench width, more than one shovel can work the same
face, as shown in fig. 7.2.
1. DRIVE BY CUTS :- (parallel cuts-drive by)
Another possibility when the mine geometry allows is the parallel cut with drive by. This
is diagrammatically shown in figure 8. The shovel moves across and parallel to the
digging face. For this case bench access for the haul units must be available from both the
directions. It is highly efficient for both the trucks and the loader. Although the average
swing angle is greater than for the frontal cut, the trucks do not have to back up to the
shovel and the spotting is simplified.
2. TURN AND BACK:- (Parallel cuts-turn and back)
The expansion of the pit at the upper levels is generally accomplished by using parallel
cuts. Due to space limitations there is only access to the ramp from one side of the shovel.
This means that the trucks approach the shovel from the rear. Then, they stop, turn, and
back into the load position.
Sometimes there is a room for double spotting of the trucks (fig: 9.1) but sometimes for
only single spotting as shown in figure 9.2.

DETERMINATION OF THE MINIMUM OPERATING ROOM

REQUIRED FOR PARALLEL CUTS
In determing the width of operating room required for the parallel cut operations; to
accommodate the large trucks and shovels involved in loading, the dimension being
sought is “the width of working bench WB”. The working bench is that bench mined. The
width of working bench “WB” is synonymous with the term “operating room” and is
defined as the distance from the crest of the bench providing the floor for the loading
operations to the bench toe being created as the parallel cut is being advanced. The
minimum amount of operating room varies depending upon whether single or double
spotting of trucks is used with the latter obviously requiring some what more. The
minimum width of the working bench (wb) is equal to the width of the minimum required
safety bench plus the width of the cut.
This is expressed as; “WB = SB + WC”
The easiest way of demonstrating the principles involved is by way of an example: For
this, the following assumptions will be made:
 Beach height = 40 feet

 A safety beam is required.
 The minimum clearance b/w the outer truck tire and safety berm = 5 feat.
 Single spotting is used.
 Bench face angle = 700
 Loading is done with a 9yd3 Shovel.
 Haulage is done by 85 ton capacity Trucks.
 Truck width = 16 feet
 Tire Rolling radius = 4 feat.
The general arrangement of working bench (in x-sectional view) is shown in figure 10.

Figure 10:
.
Figure 10.1: Simplified representation of berm.
kl
The design shows that:-
 Working bench width = 102 feet

 Cut width = 60 feet
 Safety bench width = 42 feet.
The basic calculations (justifications) behind these calculations are presented as follows.

 Step # 01:- Highest of the berm should be at least same as the radius of the
truck tire, i.e.; = 4 feet.
 Step # 02:- The distance b/w the crept and centre line of the truck = Tc = 21:
Width of Berm = 8 feet.
Clearance distance b/w safety berm and the wheels of truck = 5 feet
and; the total width of truck = 16 feet.
 Step # 03:- The distance b/w the centre line of the Shovel and centre line of the
truck is also called as “Dumping radius” denoted by B; B = 45.5
feet.
 Step # 03b:- The Maximum duping height (A) is more than sufficient to clear
the truck;
A = 28 feet.
 Step # 03c:- Distance b/w the centre line of Shovel and toe = G ;
G= 35.5 feet
 Step # 04:- The desired working bench dimensions become ;

Total minimum width of working bench = WB = TC +B+G;
:. WB = 21 feet + 45.5 feet + 35.5 feet.
WB = 102 feet
Note: All the parameters and /or dimensions used above, depends upon the size of the
machinery which is used.
WIDTH OF CUT :- (Wc)

The corresponding width of cut is:-
WC = 0.90 × 2 × G = 0.90 × 2 × 35.5 feet
WC = 63.9 feet

Note: This is applied to the width of the pile of broken material. Therefore, to allow for
swell and throw of the material during blasting. The design cut width should be less than
this value. Thus a value of 60 feet has been assumed.
WIDTH OF SAFETY BENCH :- (SB)

Knowing the width of working bench, and width of cut, the resulting safety bench has a
width of; SB = WB – WC ;
:. SB = 102-60 = 42 feet.
SB = 42 feet.
Note: This is of the order of the bench height (40ft) which is a rule of thumb, sometimes
employed.

CUT SEQUENCINGS:
Let us consider a pit consisting of four benches as shown in fig: 11
Fig. 11: Initial Geometry of the pit:
After the initial geometry of the bench is completed; the mining of first bench is started as
shown in figure: 12.
Fig. 12: Mining of bench # 01
The above figure shows that while performing the cut mining operation of bench # 01, the
overall slope angle was “θ01”.
After the mining of bench # 01, the next bench (i.e.: Bench # 02) is mined, as shown in
fig. 13:

Fig: 13:- Cut mining from bench # 02
Where
θ = individual slope angle.
and θ01 = overall slope angle (while mining Bench # 01) of pit.
θ02 = overall slope angle of pit (while mining bench # 02)
It is observed that; the overall slope angle “θ0” always keep varying as we will advance
the mining from the upper to the lower benches.
i.e.:- θ01 ≠ θ02
It is essential to consider (know) the value of “θ0” for slope stability designs.

PIT SLOPE GEOMETRY

There are a number of “slopes” which enter into “pit design”. Care is taken so that there is
no confusion as to how they are calculated and what they mean. One slope has already
been introduced. That is the ‘bench face angle” (shown in figure). It is defined as the
angle made with the horizontal of the line connecting the Toe to the crest “this def:” will
be maintained through this piece of literature.
Now consider the slope consisting of “5” such benches (shown in figure). The angle made
with the horizontal of the line connecting the lowest most toes to the upper most crests is
defined as the overall pit slope.
 
 5x50  (Y) 
θ overall  tan 
1
  50.4O
 4x35  5x50 
 
 tan75O 
 Height of each bench = y = 50 feet.

 Horizontal distance = x = 35 feet
 Distance under slope = x’ =?
 Bench face angle = 750 = θ
:. tan   y 
 x' 
y 50 50
x'     13.4 '
tanθ tan75 3.732
Since we have 5 benches,
i.e.: - 5 slopes, X= (4*x) + (5*x’).
X = (4 x 35) + (5 x 13.4) = 140 + 67  X = 207’
Y = 5 x 50  Y = 250’
:. Overall pit slope angle = θ overall
 y  250 
θ overall  tan 1    tan 1  
x  207 
θ overall  50.4O

INTRODUCING RAMP IN PIT SLOPE GEOMETRY

An access ramp with a width of 100 feet; introduced at the half way up bench 3, the
overall pit slope becomes;
y
θ overall  tan 1  
x
where, Y = 250’
 5x50 
and X   4x35   O 
 100'
 tan75 
:. X = 307 feet.
 250 
θ overall  tan 1    39.18
O
 307 
θ overall  39.2 O
It can be seen that the presence of the ramp n a give section has an enormous impact on
the overall slope angle.
Fig. 15: Overall slope angle with ramp included.

INTER-RAMP SLOPE ANGLES AFTER RAMP INCLUDED

The ramp breaks the overall slope angles “ θ overall” into 2 portions as shown in following
figure; each of these 2 portions can be described by slope angles. These angles are called
as “the Inter ramp (Between the ramps)” angles.
θIR1  θIR 2  tan 1  y 

 x
Y  50  50  24  Y  124feet
 50   25 
X   2x35  2 O 
 O 
 tan75   tan75 
X  70  26.8  6.7  103.5
 125 
θIR1  θIR 2  tan 1    50.38
O
 103.5 
θIR1  θIR 2  50.4O
Figure 16: Inter ramp slope angles after ramp included
The inter-ramp wall height is 125 ft for each segment. Generally the inter ramp wall
heights and angles for different slope segments would not be the same. From a slope
stability view point each inter-ramp segment would be examined separately.

INTRODUCING WORKING BENCHES IN PIT SLOPE

GEOMETRY
While active mining is underway, some working benches are included in the overall
slope. The fig. ; shows a working bench 125ft in width included as bench 2.
The overall slope angle “ θ overall” now becomes;
θ overall  tan 1  y 
 x
 50 
As; Y  250' , X   4x35 '  5 O 
'125'
 tan75 
X  140'  67'  125'  X  332 feet
 250 
 θ overall  tan 1    36.98
O
 332 
Fig. 17: Overall slope angle with working bench included

INTER-RAMP SLOPE ANGLES AFTER WORKING BENCH

INCLUDED
The working bench is treated in the same way as a ramp in terms of interrupting the slope.
Therefore from following figure, two inter-ramp angles are shown:-
θIR 2  tan 1  y ; As; Y = 250 – 50 = 200 feet and

 x
 50 
θIR 2  tan 1 
 200  X   3 x 35  4  O 
  tan75 
 158.6' 
X  105  53.6  158.6'
θIR 2  51.58O or 51.6 O
As; for the above inter ramp angles, the inter ramp heights are,
H1= 50’ and H2 = 2’
Fig. 18: Inter-ramp slope angles after working bench included

PLANNAR FAILURE
Fig. 19: Perspective
view of plannar
failure.
Fig. 20: Dimensions and forces in a rock slope with a potential failure plane.
As figure 20 shows the dimensions and forces in a rock slope with potential failure plane.
The Mohr-coulomb failure criterion has been used.
The following definitions apply:
 i= average slope angle from horizontal in degrees,

 ß = the angle of discontinuity from the horizontal (degrees),
 W =block weight;

 R = resisting force;
 C = cohesion,
 φ =friction angle.
 Wcosß= normal force

 Wsinß= driving force
 A= Area of the failure plane.
The factor of safety ‘F’ is defined by the following equation:

Total force available to resist sliding
F
Force tending to induce sliding
For the case shown in Fig:”20”
cA  Wcos β tanφ
F
Wsin β
If there is water present then;
cA   Wcos β - U  tanφt
F
Wsin β  V
where,
U= water pressure along potential failure surface,
φ a = friction angle (affected by water),
V= force along potential sliding plane.

Example # 01:-
The average planned slope angle i = 700, the orientation of the potential failure plane ß =
500 and the friction angle φ = 300. The thickness of he plane is 1ft; the cohesion is 1600
lb/ft3. The unit weight of the rock is 160 lb/ft3, and height of the wall is 100ft.
Sol:-
frictional force
S.F 
Sliding force
Frictional force  cA  Wcosβ tanφ
Fig. 21 (a)
 i  70, β  50
A  70 0  50 0  A  20 0
C  50 0
B  180 0   A  C   180 0  70 0
B  110 0
Fig. 21 (b)
1 2 sin A sin C
 b 
2 sin B (a)
1 2 sin B sin C
 a 
2 sin A (b)
1 2 sin A sin C
 c 
2 sin C (c)
H 100
sin B  
as, b b

100 100
b 0
  130.54feet
or sin50 0.766
Putting the above value in eqn (a).
130.54 2  sin 20  sin0 50

0 0
1

2 sin 110
1 0.262
   17040.692 
2 0.9396
 0.279
  2375.62 ft 2
(V) Volume of (triangle ABC) sliding block =   thickness of sliding block

 2375.62  1ft
V  2375.62 1ft 3
(W) Weight of sliding block is = volume × unit weight
W  V  γ  2375.62  160lb/ft 3
W  380099.2lbs
As
cA  Wcosβcosβ
F
Wsinβ
A= Area of the failure plane, and
A= length of failure plane × thickness
A= b × 1ft= 130.54ft × 1ft
A= 130.54ft2
Wcosβ  380099.2  cos50 0  244323.05lb
Wsinβ  380099.2  sin50  291172.88lb
c  1600lb/ft 2
Tanφ  Tan30 0  0.577
F 
1600  130.54   244323.05  0.577
291172.88
349838.4
F
291172.88
F  1.2

By using “graphical simplification” of the S.F;
X  2  i  β  β  φ   2  70  50  50  30 
X  Slope angle function  2 400
or X  40
Y  slope height function  γγH/
Y  160  100 /1600
Y  10
Now by using slope design chart for plane

failure the safety factor for X= 40 and Y= 10
is;
S.F = 1.6

Example 02:
Determine the limiting pit slope angle (i) using the following data:
Inclination of failure plane  β50

0
i.
Angle of internal friction  φ35

0
ii.
Cohesion = C  7800 kg m
3
iii.
iv. γ  2.5 tons m 3
v. Height of slope = 150m
Solution:
γH 2.5  150 375
Y  
c 7800 7.8
Y  48.07
From the slope design chart, at Y=48 and S.F = 1.0, X=18
:.
 
We know that X  2 i     

18  2  i  50 50  35  2 13i  750
Now, squaring both sides
18 2   2 2  15i  750

324  4  15i  750
324  60i  3000
60i  324  3000  3324
3324
i  55.4 0
60
i  55.4 0

Slope design chart for plane failure including various

safety factors (Hoek, 1970a)

Example 03:
Determine the height of slope using the following data.
Slope angle  i  65
0
i.
Inclination of failure plane  β50

0
ii.
Angle of internal friction    35

0
iii.
Cohesion  c  7800 kg m
2
iv.
Unit wt: of rock  γ  2.5t m ;

3
v.
vi. Safety factor = S.F = 1.4;
Sol:
X  2  i  β  β  φ   2  65  50 50  35
2
15  15  2  255  2  15
X  30 0
By using the graph of “slope design chart for plane failure including various safety
factors”
At X  30 and S.F  1.4

0
The value of Y=16

H
Y ,
:. As c
Y  c 16  7800
H    49.92m
γ 2.5
H  49.92m

CIRCULAR FAILURE
Fig. 22 (a):
Plane failure in rock with highly
ordered structure, such as state
Fig. 22 (b): Free body diagram
As we know that;
ΣM  0
 Mw  Mc  0.; Mw  w  d

length of Arc ‘AB’ in fig:22(b);  Rθ

Area of Arc ‘AB’= length × thickness
[For simplicity, here we have considered the value of thickness of Arc as Unit]
Area of Arc ‘AB’ =  Rθ  1
Mc = (Area of Arc) × (cohesion) × (R)
 Rθ  C  R
Mc  CR 2 θ
as, Mw+Mc= 0
wd  CR 2 θ  0
wd  CR 2 θ
CR 2 θ
or S.F 
wd
If the portion is in equilibrium state,
it is stable, and will not slip down.

Example:
A cutting in saturated clay inclined at a slope of 1 vertical and 1.5 horizontal and has a
vertical height of 10.0 m. the bulk unit weight of soil is 18.5 KN/m3 and its un-drained
cohesion is 40 KN/m2. Determine the safety factor against immediate shear failure along
the slip circle as shown in figure.
Soln:
1 vertical Slope
1.5 horizontal Slope
λ  18.5 KN m 3
C  40 KN m 2
From fig: 23, consider “ Δ afo ” to find out ‘ θ 1 ’
Figure 23
5m
 θ 1  Tan 1
16.7m
θ 1  16.7 0
According to Pythagoras theorem,

2 2 2
Hyp  perp  Base
R 2   5  16.7   25  278.9  303.0
2 2
 R  303.9
R  17.43m
φ 1  ?; since given slope of cutting plane “ad” is 1 vertical and 1.5 horizontal;
 1 
φ 1  Tan 1  
 1.5 
Thus, φ 1  33,7
0
from figure 23; it is clear that:

φ  90 0   φ 1  θ 1 

 90 0  33.7 0  16.7 0  39.6 0 
φ  39.6 0
Now we consider right angled “oec”
6.7
cosθ 2 
17.43
θ 2  cos 1  0.384 
θ 2  67.4 0

φ 3  180 0  90 0  67.4 
φ 3  22.6
From Δ obe we get  2 , as follows,

 6.7 
φ 2  sin 1    φ 2  22.6
0
 17.43 
φ 3  180   φ 1  φ 2   180 0  33.7 0  22.6 0
0
 
0

φ 3  180  56.3  φ 3  123.71
0
 0
as φ  90   φ 1  θ 1   90 0  33.7 0  16.7 0
0
 
φ  84.10
Ψ  180 0   θ  φ   180 0  84.10  39.6  
Ψ  180 0  123.7 0
Ψ  56.30
1 sinθ  sinφ
Δaod  Δ 1  R2 
Area of 2 sinΨ
Δ1 
1
 17.43 
2 
sin 84.10  sin 39.6 0   
2 sin 56.3 0  
Δ 1  115.85m 2
In order to find the area of bcd , we must know any one side of bcd . Let’s find “DB”
for sake of ease.
OD R
 DB  R  OD and 
sinφ sinΨ

OD 
Rsinφ 17.43  sin 39.6 0


 13.36m

sinΨ sin 56.30  
 DB  17.43  13.36  DB  4.07m
1 sinφ 2  sinφ 3
Δ 2    4.07 
2
2 sinφ 1
Δ 2  4.77m 2
Now area of polygon oabc=Ap

Ap  120.62m 2
1   
aoc   R 2   0 
(as) Area of sector 2  180 
As 
1
2
  π 
 17.43  84.10   0 

 180 
As  222.86m 2
Now, Area of slip mass (A)= As-Ap

A  222.86  120.62
A  102.24m 2
Volume of slip mass= V  A  t  102.24  1
V  102.24m 3
Weight of slip mass= W  V  γ

W  102.24  18.5
W  1891.44KN
CR 2 θ
S.F 
Wd
S.F 

40  17.43  80.10  π
2
  180 
0
1891.44  6.54
S.F  1.44

STRIPPING RATIO
Figure 24 (a)
Vm = Vol. of mining
Vc = Vol. of cone
VT = Vol. of truncated portion
:. Vm = Vc- VT
Fig. 24 (b)

As we know that;
1 2
πr h
Vol: of cone= 3
2
And Vol: of cylinder = πr h
:. Volume of circular ore body; Vo
2
Vo= πr h ……… (1)
Volume of (small) truncated tip of cone; VT
1
VT  πr 2 Δh
3 …… (2) (:.) Height of small cone is ∆h). and Δh  γtanθ
as height of big cone, is Hc;
and Hc  h  Δh
Hc  h  γtanθ
or
:. Vol: of bigger cone, Vc

1 1
Vc  πR 2 Hc  πr 2  h  Δh 
3 3
1
or Vc  πR 2  h  γtanθ  (3)
3
 
:. Mined Vol: Vm  VC  VT
1 1
Vm  πr 2 H c  πr 2 Δh (4)
3 3
 
Vol: of waste: Vw  Vm  V0
  2
Where, Vol: of Ore V0 πr h
 
:. Vol: of waste Vw  Vm  V0 (5)
 SR    
Vol : of waste m 3
:. Stripping Ratio  
Vol : of ore. m 3
Vw Ww
SR  (6) SR 
V0 or W0

Example:
A cylindrical ore body with radius of 50m and Depth of 250m is to be excavated by
developing a cone. Slopes of the sides of the cone with the horizontal are 550. Unit
weight of the ore is 3.1 tons/m3 and that of the waste rock is 2.6 tons/m3.determine the
stripping ratio (SR).
Data: Δh  γtanθ
γ  50m Δh  50tan55
h  250m Δh  71.4m
γ ore  3.1 tons m 3 H C  h  Δh  250  71.4
H C  321.4m
γ wast  2.6tons/m 3
H C  RTan θ
Solution
HC
R 
1 Tan55 0
VC  πR 2 H c
3 R  321.4
Tan55 0
VC  17044879.24m 3
R  225.04m
1
VT  πγ 2 Δh
3
VT  186924.76m 3
Vm  VC  VT  17044879.24  186924.76
Vm  16857954.48m 3
 
Vore  πγ 2 h  π 50 2  250  VO  1963495.4m 3
VW  Vm  VO  16857954.48  1963495.4
VW  14894459.08m 3
W waste Vw  γ w 14894459.08  2.6

S.R   
W ore Vo  γ o 1963495.4  3.1
38725593.61
S.R 
6086835.74
S.R  6.36

DETERMINATION OF “SR” BY AREA METHOD
Ao =Area of sections (i), (ii) and (iii)

1
 50  50  1250ft 2
Area of Sec: (i) = 2
Area of Sec: (ii) = 100  50  5000ft 2
Area of Sec: (iii) = 100  150  15000ft 2
A O  21250  2 5000  15000

A O  27500ft 2
1
Aw 1   100  100  5000ft 2
2
since Aw 1  Aw 2
 Aw  Aw 1  Aw 2  5000  5000
Aw  10000ft 2
Aw 10000
 S.R    0.36
Ao 275000
S.R  0.36
Now consider the bench of 25ft thickness.

Ao1  100  25  2500ft 2

Ao 2   
50 2  50 2  25  70.71  25
Ao 2  1767.75ft 2
 Ao  Ao1  2Ao 2  2500  21767.75 
Ao  6035.5ft 2
Aw  2Aw 1  2Aw 2
Aw 1   100 2

 100 2  25.10000  25  150000ft
1
Aw 2   25  25  312.5ft 2
2
 Aw   2  250000    2  312.5
 500000  625
Aw  500625ft 2
A = ½(b1 + b1) × h = b1h

PIT LIMITS
The minable material becomes that lying

within the pit boundaries. A vertical section
taken through such a pit is shown in figure
A:
The size and shape of the pit depends upon

economic factors and design/production
constraints.
With an increase in price, the pit would expand in size assuming all other factors
remained constant.
The “pit” existing at the end of mining is called the “final pit” or the ultimate pit. In b/w
the birth and death of an open pit mine, there are a series of intermediate pits. This
includes a series of procedures based upon:
 Hand Methods,
 Computer Methods, and
 Computer assisted hand methods
The above mentioned methods are used for developing the pit limits. Within the pit
materials of differing values are found. Economics criteria are applied to assign
destination for these materials based on their value (i.e. mill, waste dump, loach dump,
stock pile etc). Once the pit limits have been determined and rules established for
classifying the in pit materials, then the ore reserves (tonnage and grade) can be
calculated.
The Net Value Calculation:-

The term cut-off grade refers to the “grades” for which the destination of pit material
changes. It should be noted that “grades” were used rather than “grade” since there may
be several possible – destinations. The simplest case is that in which there are two
destinations: the mill or the waste dump. One cut of grade is needed for many operations
today; there are many possible destinations: the mill or leach dump and the waste dump.

Each of the decisions:-

 Mill or leach?
 Leach or waste?
requires a cut-off grade.
Cut-off Grade:-
The grade at which the mineral resources can’t longer be processed at a profit.
Break-even cut-off grade:-

The grade at which the net value is zero; is called Break-even cut-off grade.
Determination of pit limits, on the basis of net value:
Example:
Determine the pit limits of an open pit mine as shown in figure: setting price of 1m3 of
Ore is US$ 1.9 and mining cost of 1m3 of waste is US$ 1.0.
Sol:
For Strip # 01:-
 Vo 1  5 1.25 1
Vol: of ore (Strip 1)  Vo 1  6.25m

3
1 
 Vw 1   6.364  1.25  1    1.25  1.25 
2 
Vol: of waste (Strip 1)  Vw 1  8.74m
3

Vw 1
Ins (S.R) 
Vo 1
 S.R  1.4
Ins
Value of ore = Vo1* Selling price of 1/m3 of ore

6.25  1.9
= Value of ore  11.875US dollars
Cost of mining of waste =
 Vw 1  Mining cost of 1m 3 waste
 8.74  1.0
Cost of mining of waste = 8.74 US dollars
Net value = value – cost
= 11.875 – 8.74
N.V = 3.14 US $. → for strip # 01
Calculate for strip, 2, 3 and 4.
For Strip #02:-

Vol. of ore, Vo 2  5  1.25  1
Vo 2  6.25m 3

Vol. of waste, Vw 2   6.614  1.25  1  1  1.25 2
2

Vw 2  10.3m 3
Vol. of ore  Vo 2  1.9  6.25  1.9

Vol. of ore  11.875US $
Cost of mining waste  10.3  1  10.3US $
Vw 2 10.3
SR (ins)    1.65
Vo 2 6.25
N.V  Value  cost  11.875  10.3
N.V  1.58US dollars
For Strip# 03
Vo 3  6.25m 3

Vw 3   8.864  1.25  1  1 1.25
2
2

Vw 3  11.86m 3
S.R  ins   11.86  S.R  ins   1.9
6.25

Value of ore  6.25  1.9  11.875 US dollars

Cost of waste  11.86  1  11.86 US dollars
N.V  11.875 - 11.86 
N.V  0.015 US dollars
For Strip # 04:-

Vo 4  6.25

Vw 4  10.114  1.25  1  1  1.25 2
2

Vw 4  12.6425  0.78125
Vw 4  13.424m 3
Vw 4 13.424
S.R  Ins    2.14
Vo 4 6.25
Cost of mining waste  13.424  1  13.424 $
Price/value of ore  6.25  1.9  11.875 $
N.V  11.875 - 13.424
N.V  -1.55US dollars
As can be seen that the net value changes from (+) to (-) as the pit is expanded, sometimes the N. V
become zero, so that this pit position is termed as “Break-even”, which is the location of final pit wall.
Now for overall volume of waste we have;

1
Δw   9.9   9.9
2
 49m 2  thickness 1
 overall vol : of waste  49m 3
 
& overall vol : of ore   9.9  5  1  1   5   5  1
2
  49.5  12.5  1m
overall vol : of ore  62m 3
overall strippig ratio  Vw  49  0.79  0.8
Vo 62
overall value of ore  62  1.9  117.8 US dollars
overall mining cost of waste  49  1  49.00 US dollars
N - value (overall)  117.8 - 49.00
N.V  68.8 US dollars

Example
Copper ore is milled to produce a copper concentrate. This mill concentrate is slipped and
transported to a smatter and the resulting blister copper is eventually refined.
In this example, the following data will be assumed.
Mill recovery rate = 80%
Mill concentrate grade = 20%
Smelting loss = 10 lbs/st of concentrate
Refining loss = 5 lbs/st of blister copper.
The ore is containing 0.55%, All the costs and revenues will be calculated in terms of 1
ton of ore. Note that ore short ton= 2000 lbs.
Solution:-
Step # 01:- Complete the amount of saleable copper (lb/s per st of ore)
a) Contained copper (cc) is :-

0.55
cc  2000lb/st *  11.00lbs
100
b) Copper recovered by mill (RM/st of ore)
80
RM  11lbs   8.8lbs
100
c) Concentration ratio (r):- the ratio of concentration is defined as
lbs of cu/st of concentrate
r
lbs of " cu" recovered/st of ore
2000   20 100 400
r   45.45
8.8 8.8
r  45.45
d) Copper recovered by smelter :- (R.S)

As, smelting loss = 10 lbs/st of concentrate.\
Economic Block Models:-

The block model representation of ore bodies rather than section representation and the
storage of the information on high speed computers have offered some new possibilities
in open pit mines.

ORE GRADE ESTIMATION

by the constant distance weighting techniques
a) Inverse Distance Techniques:-

The formula to calculate the ore grade by inverse distance technique is :
n
Σ 
gi 
di 
 i 1
Σ  i di 
n
i 1
Where,
gi= given grade of ore at a point.
g= estimated grade of ore.
di= distance b/w known point and point of estimation.
Example:
Calculate the estimated grade of ore at point “C”, using inverse distance technique.
Known grades of an ore at points C1-C6 ore shown in fig: [in brackets]
Sol:

First let’s estimate the value of distances d1, d2...d6 by using Pythogona’s theorem.
d 1  200 2  200 2  8000  d 1  282.84m

d 2  300 2  100 2  100000  d 2  316.23m
d 3  100 2  200 2  50000  d 3  223.6m
d 4  200 2  200 2  80000  d 4  282.84m
d 5  200 2  100 2  50000  d 5  223.6m
d 6  100 2  300 2  100000  d 6  316.23m
As we know that;
 g1    g 2            g 6 
 d   d   d 
 1  2  6 
g
 1  1  6 
 d   d   d 
 1  2  6
 0.409   0.165   0.258   1.365   0.023   0.644 

      
 282.84   316.23   223.6   282.84   223.6   316.23 
g
1282.84
 1
316.23
 
 1  
223.6
 
 1
282.84
 
 1
223.6
 
 1
316.23

0.0100
g  g  4.484  10 1
0.0223
:. The estimated grade of ore =g
g = 0.45 %
b) Inverse Distance Squared weighting Technique:-
Using this technique, the grade of ore is found, by using following equations.
n
gi
Σ  di 
i 1
2
g n
1
Σ  di 
i 1
2
Using the data of previous example; calculate the grade of ore by squared weighting
technique.

2
d 1  282.84m - - - - - - - - - - d 1  79998.4656m 2
2
d 2  316.23m - - - - - - - - - - d 2  100001.4129m 2
2
d 3  223.6m - - - - - - - - - - d 3  49996.96m 2
2
d 4  282.84m - - - - - - - - - - d 4  79998.4656m 2
2
d 5  223.6m - - - - - - - - - - d 5  49996.96m 2
2
d 6  316.23m - - - - - - - - - - d 6  100001.4129m 2
 g1   g 2 
         g 5 2    g 6 2 
d  d 
2 2
 d5   d6 
 g 
1   2 
 1   1     
 2 
   2 
       1 2    1 2 
 d1   d 2   d5   d6 
3.5885  10  5
g
8.5003  10 5
g  0.422%

ORE RESERVE ESTIMATION

by Triangular Method
From above figure:

 
Area of rectangle abcd= x 3  x 1 y 2  y 3

1
ΔA 1   x 2  x 1  y 2  y1 
Area of 2
1
ΔA 2   x 3  x 2  y 2  y 3 
Area of 2
1
ΔA 3   x 3  x 1  y1  y 3 
Area of 2

Area of ΔA  Area of abcd - ΔA 1  ΔA 2  ΔA 3

 x 3  x 1  y 2  y 1   
1
  x 3  x 1  y 2  y 3    x 3  x 2  y 2  y 3          1
2
 x 3  x 1  y 1  y 3   
Example:
Calculate the above of ΔA by using ore reserve estimation:
Easting (x)m Northing (y)m

1100 1200
1500 1200
1100 800
Solution:-
Let

x 1  1100 m, y1  1200m
x 2  1500m, y 2  1200m
x 3  1100 m, y 3  800m From given table.
And we know that;
1  x 3  x 1  y 2  y 3    x 3  x 2  
A   x 3  x 1  y 2  y 3    
2  y 2  y 3  x 3  x 1    y 1  y 3  
1 1100  1100 1200  1200  1100  1500 

A  1100  1100 1200  800  
2 1200  8001100  1100   1200  800 
1
0  0  16000  0
2
1
  160000
2
A  80,000m 2
OR
1
ΔA  bh
2
1
  400  400
2
 1  160000
2
ΔA  80,000m 2

Example:
Calculate the ore reserves in  area, as shown in following figure. Density of the ore is
given as 2.5 tons/m3
Solution:-
As we know that:
ΔA  Area of abcd -  ΔA 1  ΔA 2  ΔA 3 
    
  500  700   1  700  200  1  400  300  1  500  300
2 2 2

 350000   205000 
 ΔA  145000m 2
C1  C 2  C 3
Average thickness of ore = 3
3  5  4 12
t av:    4m
2 3
t av:  4m
Vol: of ore in Triangular area= ΔA  t av:
Vol. of ore = 145000×4m
Vol. of ore = 580000m3.
;. Ore reserves = 580000×2.5
Ore reserves = 1450000

Calculation Of Thickness Of Ore In A Drill Hole

Length of “t” Grade (%) Length × grade
ore body (m) “g” (t×g)
t 1  0.6 g 1  0.59 t 1g 1
t 2  1.4 g 2  0.48 t 2g 2
t 3  1.4 g 3  0.6 t 3g 3
t 4  1.4 g 4  0.56 t 4g 4
t 5  1.3 g 5  0.32 t 5g 5
Σ tigi
i 1
n
- - - - - - - (1)
Σ ti
:. Average thickness = (tav:) i 1
 t av: 
 0.6  0.59  1.4  0.48  1.4  0.6  1.4  0.56  1.3 0.32
 0.6  1.4  1.4  1.4  1.3
3.066
t av: 
6.1
t av:  0.503m
Calculation Of Reserves Using Weight Age Average

Thickness:
Calculate the reserves of ore shown in above fig: having a density of 1.35 tons/m 3 by
using the weight age average thickness, when; t1=40m, t2=60m, t3=50m
Solution: the weight age average thickness is calculated as:

 t 1  θ1  t 2 θ 2  t 3 θ 3 
 60 
tw        (1)
3
from above fig :
 800  300 
φ  tan 1    tan  2.5
1
 400  200 
  68.2 0
 500  300 
φ1  tan 1    tan  0.5
1
 600  400 
φ1  26.56 0
 800  500 
φ 2  tan 1     tan 1.5
1
 600  400 
φ 2  56.31 0
θ1  φ  φ1  68.2 0  26.56 0  41.64 0

θ 3  φ1  φ 2  26.56 0  56.310  82.87 0

θ 2  180 0  φ1  φ 3   180 0  41.64 0  82.87 0 
θ1  55.49 0
Substitute the values of t1, t2, t3, θ 1, θ 2, θ 3 in equation 1

 (40 x 41.64)  (60 x 55.49)  (50 x 82.87) 
 60 
tw  
3
 9138.5 
 
tw   60 
3
152.3
tw 
3
tw = 50.77 m
∆ A = Area of abcd – [∆A1, ∆A2, ∆A3]

∆ A = (400 x 500) – [ (½ x 500 x 200) + (½ x 300 x 200) + (½ x 400 x 200) ]
∆ A = 200000 – 120000
∆ A = 80000 m2
Volume of A = A x tw = 80000 x 50.77
:. Volume of A = 4061600 m3
:. Ore reserves = Volume x density
= 4061600 m3 x 1.35 t/m3
= 5483160 tons

Example:
In a level terrain, determine the max height of high wall that dragline can strip without re-
handling, using the following data:
Dumping radius =(Rd)= 47m,
Outside diameter of tub = (Et) = 11m,
Spoil angle of repose (  ) =370
High wall angle = ( φ ) = 8740
Pit width =(w) = 15m
Sean thickness = (T) = 1.22 m
Swelling factor = (Ps) = 30 %
Solution:
As we know that
Rd = Re + So
.: Re = Rd – So -------> 1 and So = 0.75 Et.
Re = 47 – (0.75 Et)
Re = 47 – (0.75 ×11)
Re = 47 – 8.25
Re = 38.75 m
  Ps   W  
Re  Hcotφ  cotθ H1     tanθ   T 
  100   4  
  30  15 0 
38.75  Hcot74 0  cot37 0 H1     tan37   1.22
  100   4  
 0.287H  1.3271.3H  2.825  1.22
 0.287H  1.7251H  3.748  1.619
38.75  2.0121H  2.13
2.012H  38.75  2.13
36.62
H
2.012
H  18.2

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SURFACE MINE DESIGN

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani

Department of Mining Engineering,

INTRODUCTION TO OPEN PIT MINING

Slope angle is an important geometrical parameter which has a significant economic

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 2

BASIC BENCH GEOMETRY

Fig.1: Bench Nomenclature

FACE: It is an exposed area from where the overburden or mineral/ore is extracted.

CREST: highest point of the face.

TOE: lowest point the face.

BENCH: the step or floor accommodating the mine machinery.

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 3

BANK WIDTH: It is the horizontal projection of the bench face.

sometimes reduced to a width of about 1

i) Deposit characteristics (total tonnage, grade distribution, value etc) dictate a

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 4

Fig. 2: Working Bench

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 5

Fig. 2a: Functions of a catch bench

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 6

DEVELOPMENT OF ACCESS ROAD: (ORE ACCESS;)

Figure 3: Geometry of the ore body

Figure 4: Ramp access for example ore body

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 7

:. Volume of Ramp = V= 50 H2/g × Rw; (ft3)

V = 365625 ft3 Ans

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 8

DEVELOPMENT OF ACCESS ROAD: (ramps)

i) In waste rock (Fig. 5a)

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 9

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 10

THE PIT EXPANSION PROCESS

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 11

Figure 6: Detailed steps in the development of a new production level

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 12

1. DRIVE BY CUTS :- (parallel cuts-drive by)

2. TURN AND BACK:- (Parallel cuts-turn and back)

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 13

DETERMINATION OF THE MINIMUM OPERATING ROOM

This is expressed as; “WB = SB + WC”

 Beach height = 40 feet

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 14

The design shows that:-

 Working bench width = 102 feet

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 15

 Step # 04:- The desired working bench dimensions become ;

WIDTH OF CUT :- (Wc)

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 16

WIDTH OF SAFETY BENCH :- (SB)

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 17

Let us consider a pit consisting of four benches as shown in fig: 11

Fig. 11: Initial Geometry of the pit:

Fig. 12: Mining of bench # 01

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 18

Fig: 13:- Cut mining from bench # 02

i.e.:- θ01 ≠ θ02

Engr. Izhar Mithal Jiskani 19

PIT SLOPE GEOMETRY

 Height of each bench = y = 50 feet.