Welding defect

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A welding defect is any flaw that compromises the usefulness of a weldment.
There is a great variety of welding defects. Welding imperfections are classified
according to ISO 6520[1] while their acceptable limits are specified in ISO
5817 [2] and ISO 10042.[3]

Contents

 1Major causes
o 1.1Hydrogen embrittlement
o 1.2Residual stresses
 2Types
o 2.1Cracks
 2.1.1Arc strikes
 2.1.2Cold cracking
 2.1.3Crater crack
 2.1.4Hat crack
 2.1.5Hot cracking
 2.1.6Underbead crack
 2.1.7Longitudinal crack
 2.1.8Reheat cracking
 2.1.9Root and toe cracks
 2.1.10Transverse crack
o 2.2Distortion
o 2.3Gas inclusion
o 2.4Inclusions
o 2.5Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration
o 2.6Lamellar tearing
o 2.7Undercut
 3References
o 3.1Bibliography
 4External links

Major causes[edit]
According to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), causes of
welding defects can be broken down as follows: 41 percent poor process
conditions, 32 percent operator error, 12 percent wrong technique, 10 percent
incorrect consumables, and 5 percent bad weld grooves. [4]
Hydrogen embrittlement[edit]
Main article: Hydrogen embrittlement
Residual stresses[edit]
Main article: Residual stress
The magnitude of stress that can be formed from welding can be roughly
calculated using:[5]
Where E is Young's modulus, α is the coefficient of thermal expansion, and ΔT
is the temperature change. For steel this calculates out to be approximately
3.5 GPa (510,000 psi).

Types[edit]
Cracks[edit]

Defects related to fracture.

Arc strikes[edit]
An Arc Strike is a discontinuity resulting from an arc, consisting of any localized
remelted metal, heat affected metal, or change in the surface profile of any
metal object. [6] Arc Strikes result in localized base metal heating and very rapid
cooling. When located outside the intended weld area, they may result on
hardening or localized cracking, and may serve as potential sites for initiating
fracture. In Statically Loaded Structures, arc strikes need not be removed,
unless such removal is required in contract documents. However, in Cyclically
Loaded Structures, arc strikes may result in stress concentrations that would be
detrimental to the serviceability of such structures and should be ground
smooth and visually inspected for cracks. [7]
Cold cracking[edit]
Residual stresses can reduce the strength of the base material, and can lead to
catastrophic failure through cold cracking. Cold cracking is limited to steels and
is associated with the formation of martensite as the weld cools. The cracking
occurs in the heat-affected zone of the base material. To reduce the amount of
distortion and residual stresses, the amount of heat input should be limited, and
the welding sequence used should not be from one end directly to the other,
but rather in segments.[8]
Cold cracking only occurs when all the following preconditions are met: [9]

 susceptible microstructure (e.g. martensite)

 hydrogen present in the microstructure (hydrogen embrittlement)
 service temperature environment (normal atmospheric pressure): -100 to
+100 °F
 high restraint
Eliminating any one of these will eliminate this condition.
Crater crack[edit]
Crater cracks occur when a welding arc is broken, a crater will form if adequate
molten metal is available to fill the arc cavity. [10]
Hat crack[edit]

Hat cracks get their name from the shape of the cross-section of the weld,
because the weld flares out at the face of the weld. The crack starts at the
fusion line and extends up through the weld. They are usually caused by too
much voltage or not enough speed.[10]
Hot cracking[edit]
Hot cracking, also known as solidification cracking, can occur with all metals,
and happens in the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the probability of this
type of cracking, excess material restraint should be avoided, and a proper filler
material should be utilized.[8] Other causes include too high welding current,
poor joint design that does not diffuse heat, impurities (such
as sulfur and phosphorus), preheating, speed is too fast, and long arcs.[11]
Underbead crack[edit]
An underbead crack, also known as a heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack, [12] is a
crack that forms a short distance away from the fusion line; it occurs in low
alloy and high alloy steel. The exact causes of this type of crack are not
completely understood, but it is known that dissolved hydrogen must be
present. The other factor that affects this type of crack is internal
stresses resulting from: unequal contraction between the base metal and the
weld metal, restraint of the base metal, stresses from the formation of
martensite, and stresses from the precipitation of hydrogen out of the metal.[13]
Longitudinal crack[edit]
Longitudinal cracks run along the length of a weld bead. There are three
types: check cracks, root cracks, and full centerline cracks. Check cracks are
visible from the surface and extend partially into the weld. They are usually
caused by high shrinkage stresses, especially on final passes, or by a hot
cracking mechanism. Root cracks start at the root and extent part way into the
weld. They are the most common type of longitudinal crack because of the
small size of the first weld bead. If this type of crack is not addressed then it will
usually propagate into subsequent weld passes, which is how full cracks (a
crack from the root to the surface) usually form.[10]
Reheat cracking[edit]
Reheat cracking is a type of cracking that occurs in HSLA steels,
particularly chromium, molybdenum and vanadium steels, during postheating.
The phenomenon has also been observed in austenitic stainless steels. It is
caused by the poor creep ductility of the heat affected zone. Any existing
defects or notches aggravate crack formation. Things that help prevent reheat
cracking include heat treating first with a low temperature soak and then with a
rapid heating to high temperatures, grinding or peening the weld toes, and
using a two layer welding technique to refine the HAZ grain structure.[14][15]
Root and toe cracks[edit]
A root crack is the crack formed by the short bead at the root(of edge
preparation) beginning of the welding, low current at the beginning and due to
improper filler material used for welding. The major reason for these types of
cracks is hydrogen embrittlement. These types of defects can be eliminated
using high current at the starting and proper filler material. Toe crack occurs
due to moisture content present in the welded area, it is a part of the surface
crack so can be easily detected. Preheating and proper joint formation is a
must for eliminating these types of defects.
Transverse crack[edit]
Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the direction of the weld. These are
generally the result of longitudinal shrinkage stresses acting on weld metal of
low ductility. Crater cracks occur in the crater when the welding arc is
terminated prematurely. Crater cracks are normally shallow, hot cracks usually
forming single or star cracks. These cracks usually start at a crater pipe and
extend longitudinal in the crater. However, they may propagate into longitudinal
weld cracks in the rest of the weld.
Distortion[edit]
Welding methods that involve the melting of metal at the site of the joint
necessarily are prone to shrinkage as the heated metal cools. Shrinkage then
introduces residual stresses and distortion. Distortion can pose a major
problem, since the final product is not the desired shape. To alleviate certain
types of distortion the workpieces can be offset so that after welding the
product is the correct shape.[16] The following pictures describe various types of
welding distortion:[17]

Transverse shrinkage
 

Angular distortion
 

Longitudinal shrinkage
 

Fillet distortion
 
 

Neutral axis distortion

Gas inclusion[edit]
Gas inclusions is a wide variety of defects that includes porosity, blow holes,
and pipes (or wormholes). The underlying cause for gas inclusions is the
entrapment of gas within the solidified weld. Gas formation can be from any of
the following causes- high sulphur content in the workpiece or electrode,
excessive moisture from the electrode or workpiece, too short of an arc, or
wrong welding current or polarity.[12]
Inclusions[edit]
There are two types of inclusions: linear inclusions and rounded inclusions.
Inclusions can be either isolated or cumulative. Linear inclusions occur when
there is slag or flux in the weld. Slag forms from the use of a flux, which is why
this type of defect usually occurs in welding processes that use flux, such
as shielded metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, and submerged arc
welding, but it can also occur in gas metal arc welding. This defect usually
occurs in welds that require multiple passes and there is poor overlap between
the welds. The poor overlap does not allow the slag from the previous weld to
melt out and rise to the top of the new weld bead. It can also occur if the
previous weld left an undercut or an uneven surface profile. To prevent slag
inclusions the slag should be cleaned from the weld bead between passes
via grinding, wire brushing, or chipping.[18]
Isolated inclusions occur when rust or mill scale is present on the base metal.[19]
Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration[edit]
Lack of fusion is the poor adhesion of the weld bead to the base metal;
incomplete penetration is a weld bead that does not start at the root of the weld
groove. Incomplete penetration forms channels and crevices in the root of the
weld which can cause serious issues in pipes because corrosive substances
can settle in these areas. These types of defects occur when the welding
procedures are not adhered to; possible causes include the current setting, arc
length, electrode angle, and electrode manipulation. [20] Defects can be varied
and classified as critical or non critical. Porosity (bubbles) in the weld are
usually acceptable to a certain degree. Slag inclusions, undercut, and cracks
are usually unacceptable. Some porosity, cracks, and slag inclusions are
visible and may not need further inspection to require their removal. Small
defects such as these can be verified by Liquid Penetrant Testing (Dye check).
Slag inclusions and cracks just below the surface can be discovered by
Magnetic Particle Inspection. Deeper defects can be detected using the
Radiographic (X-rays) and/or Ultrasound (sound waves) testing techniques.
Lamellar tearing[edit]
Lamellar tearing is a type of welding defect that occurs in rolled steel plates that
have been welded together due to shrinkage forces perpendicular to the faces
of the plates.[21] Since the 1970s, changes in manufacturing practices limiting the
amount of sulfur used have greatly reduced the incidence of this problem. [22]
Lamellar tearing is caused mainly by sulfurous inclusions in the material. Other
causes include an excess of hydrogen in the alloy. This defect can be mitigated
by keeping the amount of sulfur in the steel alloy below 0.005%. [22] Adding rare
earth elements, zirconium, or calcium to the alloy to control the configuration of
sulfur inclusions throughout the metal lattice can also mitigate the problem. [23]
Modifying the construction process to use cast or forged parts in place of
welded parts can eliminate this problem, as Lamellar tearing only occurs in
welded parts.[21]
Undercut[edit]

Undercutting is when the weld reduces the cross-sectional thickness of the

base metal and which reduces the strength of the weld and workpieces. One
reason for this type of defect is excessive current, causing the edges of the
joint to melt and drain into the weld; this leaves a drain-like impression along
the length of the weld. Another reason is if a poor technique is used that does
not deposit enough filler metal along the edges of the weld. A third reason is
using an incorrect filler metal, because it will create greater temperature
gradients between the center of the weld and the edges. Other causes include
too small of an electrode angle, a dampened electrode, excessive arc length,
and slow speed.[24]

References[edit]
1. ^ BS EN ISO 6520-1: "Welding and allied processes — Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials — Part 1: Fusion welding"(2007)
2. ^ BS EN ISO 5817: "Welding — Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their
alloys (beam welding excluded) — Quality levels for imperfections" (2007)
 3. ^ BS EN ISO 10042: "Welding. Arc-welded joints in aluminium and its alloys. Quality
levels for imperfections" (2005)
4. ^ Matthews, Clifford (2001), ASME engineer's data book, ASME Press,
p.  211, ISBN 978-0-7918-0155-0.
5. ^ Bull, Steve (2000-03-16),  Magnitude of stresses generated, University of Newcastle
upon Tyne, archived from  the original on 2009-12-06, retrieved 2009-12-06.
6. ^ AWS A3.0: 2020 - Standard Welding Terms and Definitions
7. ^ aisc.org/steel-solutions-center/engineering-faqs/8.5.-repairs
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 404–405.
9. ^ [1] A Brief MIG welder Troubleshooting Guide
10. ^ Jump up to:a b c Raj, Jayakumar & Thavasimuthu 2002, p. 128.
11. ^ Bull, Steve (2000-03-16),  Factors promoting hot cracking, University of Newcastle
upon Tyne, archived from  the original on 2009-12-06, retrieved 2009-12-06.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b Raj, Jayakumar & Thavasimuthu 2002, p. 126.
13. ^ Rampaul 2003, p. 208.
14. ^ Bull, Steve (2000-03-16),  Reheat cracking, University of Newcastle upon Tyne,
archived from  the original on 2009-12-07, retrieved 2009-12-06.
15. ^ Bull, Steve (2000-03-16),  Reheat cracking, University of Newcastle upon Tyne,
archived from  the original on 2009-12-07, retrieved 2009-12-06.
16. ^ Weman 2003, pp. 7–8.
17. ^ Bull, Steve (2000-03-16),  Welding Faults and Defects, University of Newcastle upon
Tyne, archived from  the original on 2009-12-06, retrieved 2009-12-06.
18. ^ Defects/imperfections in welds - slag inclusions, archived from the original  on 2009-
12-06, retrieved  2009-12-05.
19. ^ Bull, Steve (2000-03-16),  Welding Faults and Defects, University of Newcastle upon
Tyne, archived from  the original on 2009-12-05.
20. ^ Rampaul 2003, p. 216.
21. ^ Jump up to:a b Bull, Steve (2000-03-16),  Welding Faults and Defects, University of
Newcastle upon Tyne, archived from the original  on 2009-12-04.
22. ^ Jump up to:a b Still, J. R.,  Understanding Hydrogen Failures, retrieved 2009-12-03.
23. ^ Ginzburg, Vladimir B.; Ballas, Robert (2000),  Flat rolling fundamentals, CRC Press,
p.  142, ISBN 978-0-8247-8894-0.
24. ^ Rampaul 2003, pp. 211–212.

Bibliography[edit]

 Cary, Howard B.; Helzer, Scott C. (2005), Modern Welding Technology,

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, ISBN 0-13-113029-
3.
 Raj, Baldev; Jayakumar, T.; Thavasimuthu, M. (2002), Practical non-
destructive testing (2nd ed.), Woodhead Publishing, ISBN 978-1-85573-
600-9.
 Rampaul, Hoobasar (2003), Pipe welding procedures (2nd ed.), Industrial
Press, ISBN 978-0-8311-3141-8.
 Moreno, Preto (2013), Welding Defects (1st ed.), Aracne, ISBN 978-88-
548-5854-1.
  Weman, Klas (2003), Welding processes handbook, New York, NY: CRC
Press, ISBN 0-8493-1773-8.

External links[edit]
 Understanding Hydrogen Failures
 Radiograph Interpretation - Welds
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welding_defect