SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

NUTSHELL SERIES
BOOK 8
BY
CAPT. H. SUBRAMANIAM

Extra Master (UK), F.R.Met.S., M.R.I.N., F.N.I., F.C.M.M.I., M.I.Mar.Tech.,

M.I.Met.S.
Principal Emeritus,
L.B.S. College of Advanced Maritime Studies & Research,
Mumbai.
Nautical Training Consultant,
Mumbai.

VIJAYA PUBLICATIONS
 Publisher's page
First Edition June 1994
Reprinted January 1996
Kindle edition Aug 2019

Copyright.
All rights reserved by Vijaya Publications.
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical , photocopying, recording, or
otherwise without the prior permission of Vijaya Publications.

Digital adaptation of this book done by ADU Academy India, Chennai

Published by Mrs. Prema Subramaniam, Sole Proprietrix,

Vijaya Publications:
Website: vijayabooks.com; e-mail: [email protected]
Secondary email: [email protected]
Mobile: +91 98671 44701; Landline: +91 22 2521 7044,
Address: 101 Chaitra Heritage, 550 11th Road,
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 Dedication
Mrs Vijaya Harry
11th April ’26 - 11th Jan ‘09
Founder, Vijaya Publications.

Dedicated to my mother,
without whose patient and
constant encouragement,
this book would not have
been possible.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
CAPT H SUBRAMANIAM

Born in Sept. 1942, Harry Subramaniam was educated in the Lawrence School, Lovedale,
one of the best schools in India. He passed out of the Training Ship Dufferin in 1960 winning
several prizes. He has about ten years of sea experience including Command of merchant ships.
He has over fifty years of teaching experience at maritime training institutions and has thus
been associated with all the four great nautical training institutions in Indian history - he was a
cadet on T.S. Dufferin, the last Captain Superintendent of T.S. Rajendra, the first Captain
Superintendent of T.S. Chanakya and Principal of L.B.S. College. He retired from Govt service
in September 2002 after 34 glorious years including 12 years as head of maritime training
institutions. He then sailed in command again for six months to satisfy himself that he was also
a praticising Master, not merely a teaching Master! He has over three years of experience in
making blended learning programmes with Executive Shipmanagement Co., Singapore, and
ADUA in India. He is now a nautical training consultant in Mumbai.
His achievements/distinctions include:
• Extra Master Certificate (UK).
• External Examiner of Masters & Mates for over forty years.
• The Chief Examiner of Extra Masters of India.
• Leader of the Indian delegation to the IMO on two occasions.
• Nautical Assessor in a formal investigation into a major ship collision.
• ‘Man of the year Award’ in 2001 by Sailor Today magazine for his ‘Conception and
implementation of INDos (Indian National database of Seafarers)’.
• ‘Lifetime Achievement Award’ in 2002 by Marine World magazine.
• ‘Literary Distinction Award’ by Marex Bulletin in 2006.
• ‘Lifetime contribution to Maritime Training Award’ by GlobalMet in 2007.
• ‘Individual Innovation Award 2007’ by Sailor Today Magazine for the manner in which
he conducted India’s first Maritime Quiz for Seafarers.
• ‘Outstanding Contribution to Maritime Education & Training Award’ by the Govt. of
India on National Maritime Day 2013.
• Chairman of the Nautical Institute, India (West) Branch.
• Master (Chairman) of the Company of Master Mariners of India.
His qualifications, experience and devotion to teaching enable him to put each subject in a
'Nutshell'. All his books in the Nutshell Series have been great successes.
 Foreword

Capt. S.S. Naphade

Extra Master
Nautical Adviser to the Govt of India,
Jahaz Bhavan,Bombay 400
038.
21st April 1994.

I have known Capt Subramaniam as a friend since 1963. We were

contemporaries for all our certificates - from Second Mates to Extra
Masters. While studying for the various examinations, I found him to
be very meticulous and sincere. During those times, neither of us had
an inkling that one day he would be a professional teacher and I, an
examiner, both reaching the top - he as the head of a prestigious
training establishment and I, as the Chief Examiner of Masters and
Mates.

Capt Subramaniam has over twenty five years of experience in

teaching mariners at various levels from NWKO to Extra Master.
During this quarter of a century, he has earned a reputation as an
excellent teacher and a strict disciplinarian. That is because he has
taught with devotion and yet carried his great learning lightly. He feels
that a teacher must not only transfer knowledge but also instil a proper
code of conduct in the student.

Captain Subramaniam wears three hats - to the T.S. CHANAKYA

he is the Captain Superintendent, to the University of Bombay he is the
principal of a B.Sc. (Nautical Sciences) degree college and to the
Government of India he is a public administrator with a rank
equivalent to that of Joint Secretary.

Captain Subramaniam has already written seven books- Practical

Navigation Marine Meteorology, Shipborne Radar, Ship Stability Part
I, Stability Part II, Stability Part III and Nautical Watch-keeping. His
approach to each subject is that examinations are only a stepping stone
to actual performance at sea and his books are an obvious testimony to
this philosophy. I understand that, before writing each book, he has
taught the subject for at least ten years. In fact he made it a point to go
back to sea, for four months in command, just to ensure that the
subject matter contained in his book, Nautical Watchkeeping, was up-
to-date with current practices at sea.

This book, his eighth in the famous Nutshell Series, is written in

his usual straight forward, practical approach. One wonders how he
manages to simplify the subject so that a student can absorb, rather
than just study, the subject.

I am sure that this book also will be an instant success like his
earlier seven. I wish him all the best.

(Capt. Sudhir Naphade).

 PREFACE

I have often been asked how long it took me to write a book in the
Nutshell Series. The reply 'About eleven years' usually evokes a look of
disbelief. I would like to clarify this statement. It takes about five years
of teaching a subject to understand it well and another five to
understand it thoroughly. A fairly large number of students in each
class has the advantage that more doubts and questions are asked by
the students. Different approaches to teaching the same subject can be
tried out over a large variety of students and the effectiveness of each
approach evaluated. Thereafter, it takes about a year to write the
book, late into the night, after working full time in the college.

Like the other books in the Nutshell Series, I have attempted to

simplify the subject to make it easy and interesting. Spherical
trigonometry is a 'servicing subject' i.e., it enables a student to
understand the practice and principles of navigation. I have carefully
divided the subject into parts so that, after studying for about three
quarters of an hour, the student is given an exercise to work to test the
knowledge gained by him in that chapter.

Bombay
1st July 1994 (Capt.H. Subramaniam).
 Contents
Title Page
Publisher's page
Dedication
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Foreword
PREFACE
1. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY FUNDAMENTALS
2. FORMULAE FOR THE SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL
TRIANGLES
3. SIMPLE SOLUTIONS
4. RIGHT ANGLED SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
5. QUADRANTAL SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
6. POLAR TRIANGLES
7. AMBIGUOUS CASES
 1. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY
FUNDAMENTALS
GREAT CIRCLE
A great circle is a circle, on the surface of a sphere, whose plane
passes through the centre of the sphere.
NOTE
(a) A great circle divides the sphere into two identical parts, each
called a hemisphere.
(b) The radius of a great circle is equal to that of the sphere.
(c) Any number of great circles could pass through a given point
on the surface of the sphere. However, all these great circles would
also pass through a point diametrically opposite to the given point.
(d) Only one great circle can pass through any two given points on
the surface of a sphere. However, if the two points are diametrically
opposite to each other, any number of great circles can pass through
the two points.
POLE OF A GREAT CIRCLE
The pole of a great circle is a point, on the surface of the sphere,
which is equidistant, and hence ninety degrees away from, all parts of
the circumference of the great circle. Each great circle would,
therefore, have two poles which are situated diametrically opposite to
each other.
SMALL CIRCLE
A small circle is a circle, on the surface of a sphere, whose plane
does not pass through the centre of the sphere.
NOTE
The radius of a small circle is less than that of the sphere.
SPHERICAL ANGLE
A spherical angle is an angle, on the surface of a sphere, formed by
the intersection of two great circles.
NOTE
(a) In practice, a spherical angle can be measured by drawing
tangents to the two great circle arcs from the point of intersection. The
value of the angle between the tangents is the magnitude of the
spherical angle.
 (b) The maximum value of a spherical angle is two right angles
(180 degrees).
(c) Vertically opposite angles are equal.
SPHERICAL TRIANGLE
A spherical triangle is a triangle, on the surface of a sphere, formed
by the intersection of three great circles.
PROPERTIES OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
(a) The magnitude of the side of a spherical triangle is the angle
subtended by it at the centre of the sphere and is expressed in degrees
and minutes of arc.
(b) The maximum value of a side of a spherical triangle is 180°.
(c) The maximum value of an angle of a spherical triangle is 180°.
(d) The sum of the three sides of a spherical triangle is less than
360°.
(e) The sum of the three angles of a spherical triangle is any value
between two right angles and six right angles (i.e., between 180° and
540°).
(f) The sum of any two sides of a spherical triangle is greater than
the third.
(g) The greater side has the greater angle opposite to it.
(h) If two sides of a spherical triangle are equal, the angles
opposite to them are also equal to each other.
(i) A RIGHT-ANGLED spherical triangle is one in which one
angle equals to 90°. In a spherical triangle, it is possible for more than
one angle to be equal to 90°.
(j) A QUADRANTAL spherical triangle is one in which one side
equals to 90°. In a spherical triangle, it is possible for more than one
side to be equal to 90°.
(k) An OBLIQUE spherical triangle is one which is not a right
angled and not a quadrantal spherical triangle.
SYMMETRICAL SPHERICAL TRIANGLES

Two spherical triangles are said to be symmetrically equal when

each of the six elements (i.e. three sides and three angles) of one are
equal in value to each of the six elements of the other.
Because spherical triangles lie on the surface of a sphere, and are
hence three dimensional, `symmetrically equal' does not necessarily
mean congruent. Two triangles are said to be congruent only if it is
possible to superimpose one on the other.
In the following figure, ABC and DEF are two spherical triangles
as seen from OUTSIDE the sphere. All six elements of triangle ABC
are correspondingly equal to the six elements of triangle DEF.

However, the triangles are latterly inverted (are mirror images)

and, both being convex, it is not possible to superimpose one on the
other. The two triangles are, therefore, symmetrically equal but not
congruent.
Two spherical triangles are symmetrically equal if:
(a) Three sides of one are correspondingly equal to the three sides
of the other.
(b) Two sides and the included angle of one are respectively equal
to the two sides and included angle of the other.
(c) Three angles of one are respectively equal to the three angles
of the other.
(d) Two angles and the included side of one are respectively equal
to the two angles and included side of the other.
 2. FORMULAE FOR THE
SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL
TRIANGLES

SIN FORMULA
Sin A/Sin a = Sin B/Sin b = Sin C/Sin c
COSINE FORMULA
(if three side are known):
Cos A = (Cos a - Cos b . Cos c) / (Sin b . Sin c)
Cos B = (Cos b - Cos a . Cos c) / (Sin a . Sin c)
Cos C = (Cos c - Cos a . Cos b) / (Sin a . Sin b)
Where two sides and the included angle are known, the
foregoing Cosine formula may be rearranged as follows:
Cos a = Cos A . Sin b . Sin c + Cos b . Cos c
Cos b = Cos B . Sin a . Sin c + Cos a . Cos c
Cos c = Cos C . Sin a . Sin b + Cos a . Cos b
Whereas the value of Cosine is positive in the first quadrant and
negative in the second quadrant, the value of Sine is positive in both,
the first and second quadrants.
For example:
If Cos A = 0.5, A = 60°.
But if Sin A = 0.5, A = 30° or 150°.
 If only one of the two possibilities suits the situation, the ambiguity
is of no significance. However, if both the possibilities appear to be
reasonable, in any particular situation, the ambiguity may sometimes
not be cleared easily.
For example, if Sin C = 0.99985, C could be 89° or 91°.
Since both values are close, elimination by mere inspection may
not possible, especially in problems on navigation.
To avoid such ambiguities in navigation, the Haversine formula
was invented.
Haversine A = (Versine A) / 2 = (1 - Cos A) / 2.
Haversine of an angle increases as the angle increases from 0
degrees to 180 degrees, without any change of sign. Since the
magnitudes of the angles and sides of a spherical triangle cannot
exceed 180 degrees, the possibility of ambiguity is eliminated by using
the Haversine formula.
For example:
Hav 30° = 0.06699 and Hav 150° = 0.93301.
THE HAVERSINE FORMULA
NOTE: As illustrated in the book, ‘Practical Navigation’ by the
same author, the use of Sin and Cosine formulae are very easy using a
simple scientific calculator. This has made the haversine formula in
navigation practically extinct. Students studying Spherical
Trigonometry purely as a servicing subject to study Navigation can
avoid this formula.
The Haversine formula may be applied in:-
(1) The general format.
(2) The specific format.

(3) The modified format.

(1) THE GENERAL FORMAT: (most important)
Where three sides are known:
HAV one ANGLE = [COSEC one ADJ side] . [COSEC other ADJ
side] . [HAV OPP side - HAV DIFF between ADJ sides]
Where 2 sides & included angle are known:
HAV OPP side = [SIN one ADJ side . SIN other ADJ side . HAV
included ANGLE] + HAV diff between ADJ sides.
 (2) THE SPECIFIC FORMAT:
If a, b and c are known,
Hav A = Cosec b . Cosec c [Hav a - Hav (b ~ c)]
Hav B = Cosec a . Cosec c [Hav b - Hav (a ~ c)]
Hav C = Cosec a . Cosec b [Hav c - Hav (a ~ b)]
If 2 sides and included angle are known:-
Hav a = [Sin b . Sin c . Hav A] + Hav (b ~ c)
Hav b = [Sin a . Sin c . Hav B] + Hav (a ~ c)
Hav c = [Sin a . Sin b . Hav C] + Hav (a ~ b)
(3) MODIFIED FORMAT for celestial navigation:
The LONG by CHRON formula:
Hav LHA = Sec L . Sec D [Hav ZD - Hav (L ~ D)]
The INTERCEPT formula:
Hav CZD = (Hav LHA . Cos L . Cos D) + Hav (L ~ D)
NOTE
It is suggested that the Haversine formulae in their general form be
`conned by rote' (learned by heart) as they may then be applied with
ease whenever necessary in solving problems in spherical
trigonometry. The specific format may prove difficult when the letters
denoting the various elements vary from problem to problem.
The modified formulae are mentioned here for information only.
They are derived from the general format to suit specific calculations
in navigation and are not part of general spherical trigonometry.
The Haversine formula is derived from the Cosine formula.
 3. SIMPLE SOLUTIONS
Worked example 1:
In spherical triangle PQR, p = 62° 10.1', q = 111° 35.2', r = 63° 33'.
Calculate P.

HAV one ANGLE = [COSEC one ADJ side] . [COSEC other ADJ
side] . [HAV OPP side - HAV DIFF between ADJ sides]
Hav P = Cosec q . Cosec r [Hav p - Hav (q ~ r)]

P = 40° 44.7' Answer

Worked example 2:
In spherical triangle WXY, W = 88° 24.5', x = 98° 10', y = 100°
09'. Find w and X.
 To find w:
HAV OPP side = [SIN one ADJ side . SIN other ADJ side . HAV
included ANGLE] + HAV diff between ADJ sides.
Hav w = [Sin x . Sin y . Hav W] + Hav (x ~ y)

w = 87° 01' Answer

To find X:
HAV one ANGLE = [COSEC one ADJ side] . [COSEC other ADJ
side] . [HAV OPP side - HAV DIFF between ADJ sides]
Hav X = Cosec w . Cosec y [Hav x - Hav (w ~ y)]

X = 97° 46' Answer

NOTE:
 X could have, if desired, been calculated by the Sine formula as
follows:-
Sin X / Sin x = Sin W / Sin w
OR Sin X = (Sin W . Sin x) / Sin w

X = 82° 14' OR 97° 46' (see note below).

SOLUTION OF ABOVE AMBIGUITY
The greater side must have the greater angle opposite to it.

Hence X = 97° 46' NOT 82° 14'.

Most students would hurriedly put down 82° 14' forgetting the
possibility of 97° 46'. Hence the advice to use the Haversine formula
wherever possible.
Worked Example 3:
In spherical triangle LMN, M = 33° 14.0', m = 80° 05', n = 70° 12'.
Calculate N.
In this problem,
(i) three sides have not been given and
(ii) two sides and the included angle not been given.
Hence, the Haversine formula (and hence the Cosine formula)
cannot be applied. The Sine formula can, however, be used.
 Sin N / Sin n = Sin M / Sin m
OR Sin N = (Sin M . Sin n) / Sin m
Sin N = (Sin 33° 14' . Sin 70° 12'0) / Sin 80° 05'

N = 31° 34' OR 148° 26'

SOLUTION OF ABOVE AMBIGUITY
The greater side must have the greater angle opposite to it.

N = 31° 34' and NOT 148° 26' Answer.

Exercise 1
(Oblique spherical triangles)
1. In spherical triangle CDE, calculate the angles C, D & E if c =
87° 10', d = 62° 37' and e = 100° 10'.
Answer: C = 81°24.3' D = 61°31.7' E = 102°58.0'.
2. In spherical triangle ABC, a = 49° 08', b = 58° 23.0' and C = 71°
20'. Calculate A and B.
Answer: c = 56°41.6' A = 59°00.7' B = 74°52.3'.
3. In spherical triangle PZX, P = 85° 30', x = 49° 34' and z = 99°
58'. Calculate Z and X.
Answer: p = 93°03.8' Z = 100°29.6' X = 49°27.3'.
4.In spherical triangle DEF, d = 57° 09', e = 83° 12.0' and f = 71°
08'. Calculate D, E and F.
Answer: D = 57°33.0' E = 94°06.7' F = 71°54.1'.
5. In spherical triangle JKL, j = 64° 18', k = 85° 47.0' and L = 93°
36'. Calculate J, K and l.
Answer: l = 91° 24.4' J = 64°06.1' K = 84°38.3'.
6. In spherical triangle PQR, P = 53° 05', PQ = 70° 20' and PR =
110° 14'. Calculate Q and R.
Answer: p = 65°31.4' Q = 124°29.3' R = 55°48.8'.
 7. In spherical triangle RST, r = 66° 41', s = 104° 10' and t = 54°
56'. Calculate R, S and T.
Answer: R = 47°28.3' S = 128°54.9' T = 41°03.5'.
8. In spherical triangle XYZ, x = 23° 30.0', Y = 90° 00' and z = 52°
01'. Calculate X, y and Z.
Answer: y = 55°38.4' X = 28°53.3' Z = 72°42.4'.
9. In spherical triangle ABC, A = 60° and b = c = 66° 12'.Calculate
B and C.
Answer: a = 54°27.0' B = C = 76°53.0'.
10. In spherical triangle DEF, D = 100° 35', e = 102° 48' and f =
94° 34'. Calculate E and F.
Answer: d = 99°15.5' E = 103°46.9' F = 96°52.7'.
 4. RIGHT ANGLED SPHERICAL
TRIANGLES
A spherical triangle is said to be right angled when one of its
angles is equal to 90°. In a spherical triangle, it is possible for more
than one angle to be equal to 90°.
In addition to the properties of spherical triangles, listed in Chapter
1, right angled spherical triangles have the following additional
properties of importance:
1) In any right angled spherical triangle an angle and its opposite
side are of the same affection.
Of the same affection means: both are less than 90° or both are
greater than 90°. That is, if an angle is less than 90°, the opposite side
is also less than 90° and vice versa. If an angle is greater than 90°, the
opposite side is also greater than 90° and vice versa.
2) In any right angled spherical triangle, the magnitudes of the
SIDES are either:
All three less than 90°
OR
two greater and one less than 90°.
In a right angled spherical triangle, if the values of any two other
elements (sides or angles) are given, the values of the remaining three
can be calculated.
Right angled spherical triangles can be solved by the Sine, Cosine
and Haversine formulae using the value of Sin 90° as unity and of Cos
90° as zero, wherever they occur.
The solution of right angled spherical triangles is made simpler by
the use of Napier's Rules for circular parts. Draw a circle, divide it into
five parts and number them as shown below:
 In segments (1) and (2) insert the sides containing the right angle.
In (3), insert complement of angle opposite the side in (1). In (5),
insert complement of angle opposite the side in (2). In (4), insert the
complement of the hypotenuse.
FORMULAE:
Sin mid part = Tan adjacent part . Tan adjacent part
Sin mid part = Cos opposite part . Cos opposite part
(Remember Tangent and adjacent go together).
If segment number (2) is taken to be the mid part, (1) and (3) are
its adjacent parts whereas (4) & (5) are its opposite parts.
If segment number (5) is taken to be the mid part, (1) and (4) are
its adjacent parts whereas (2) & (3) are its opposite parts, and so on.
Worked example 4:
In spherical triangle PZX, right angled at Z, p = 110° 20' and z =
84° 12'. Find the values of P, X and x.

Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part

Sin (90 - z) = Cos p . Cos x
 Cos z = Cos p . Cos x
Cos x = Cos z / Cos p = Cos 84° 12' / Cos 110°20'
Cos x = (Cos 84° 12') / (- Cos 69° 40')

NOTE: Cos x above is minus, so x > 90°.

x = 106° 54.5' Answer (i).
Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin p = Cos (90 - P) . Cos (90 - z)
Sin p = Sin P . Sin z
Sin P = Sin p / Sin z = Sin 110° 20' / Sin 84° 12’
= Sin 69° 40' / Sin 84° 12'

P = 70° 28.7' OR 109° 31.3'.

SOLUTION OF THE ABOVE AMBIGUITY:
The greater side must have the greater angle opposite to it.

P = 109° 31.3' NOT 70° 28.7' Answer (ii).

Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part
Sin (90 - X) = Tan p . Tan (90 - z)
Cos X = Tan p . Cot z
Cos X = Tan 110° 20' . Cot 84° 12'
- Cos X = Tan 69° 40' . Cot 84° 12'

X = 105° 54.5' Answer (iii).

THE EXCEPTIONAL CASE IN RIGHT ANGLED
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES:
 In a right angled spherical triangle if one side and its opposite
angle are given, there are two possibilities for that triangle, as
shown in the figure for worked example 5. It will be seen therein that
spherical triangle NCB is one possibility and SCB is the other. Each of
the three elements to be calculated in one triangle is the supplement of
its counterpart in the other.
Worked example 5:
In spherical triangle NBC, N = 40° 44', n = 36° 13' and C = 90°.
Calculate b, c and B.
NOTE: This is the exceptional case in right angled spherical
triangles.

Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part

Sin b = Tan n . Tan (90 - N)
Sin b = Tan n . Cot N
Sin b = Tan 36° 13' . Cot 40° 44'

b = 58° 15.2' OR 121° 44.8' Answer (i).

Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin n = Cos (90 - N) . Cos (90 - c)
Sin n = Sin N . Sin c OR Sin c = Sin n . Cosec N
Sin c = Sin 36° 13' . Cosec 40° 44'
 c = 64° 53' OR 115° 07' Answer (ii).
Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin (90 - N) = Cos n . Cos (90 - B)
Cos N = Cos n . Sin B
Sin B = Cos N . Sec n
Sin B = Cos 40° 44' . Sec 36° 13'

B = 69° 55.3' OR 110° 04.7' Answer (iii).

Exercise 2
(Right angled spherical triangles)
1. In spherical triangle RST, t = 80° 32', r = 60° 40' and T = 90°.
Calculate S, s and R.
Answer: S = 72° 44.3' s = 70° 23.0' R = 62° 06.4'.
2. In spherical triangle LMN, M = 44° 16.0', L = 90° and m = 39°
37'. Calculate l, n and N.
Answer: l = 65° 59.9' or 114° 00.1'; n = 58° 07.7' or 121° 52.3'; N
= 68° 22.4' or 111° 37.6'.
3. In spherical triangle PAV, A = 31° 48.0', V = 90° and v = 66°
00'. Calculate a, P and p.
Answer: a = 28° 46.6' P = 75° 50.8' p = 62° 21.1'.
4. In spherical triangle DEF, d = 112° 3', E = 113° 23' and F = 90°.
Calculate D, e and f.
Answer: D = 110° 09.4' e = 115° 00.6' f = 80° 52.1'
5. In spherical triangle PVM, PM = 92° 00', PV = 51° 55', V = 90°.
Calculate P, p and M.
Answer: P = 92° 33.2' p = 93° 14.6' m = 51° 57.7'.
 5. QUADRANTAL SPHERICAL
TRIANGLES
A spherical triangle is said to quadrantal when one of its sides is
equal to 90°. In a spherical triangle, it is possible for more than one
side to be equal to 90°.
In addition to the properties of spherical triangles, listed in Chapter
1, quadrantal spherical triangles have the following additional
properties of importance:
1) In any quadrantal spherical triangle an angle and its opposite
side are of the same affection.
Of the same affection means: both are less than 90° or both are
greater than 90°. That is, if an angle is less than 90°, the opposite side
is also less than 90° and vice versa. If an angle is greater than 90°, the
opposite side is also greater than 90° and vice versa.
2) In any quadrantal spherical triangle the magnitudes of the
ANGLES are either:
All three less than 90°
OR
two less than and one greater than 90°.
In a quadrantal spherical triangle, if the values of any two other
elements (sides or angles) are given, the values of the remaining three
can be calculated.
Quadrantal spherical triangles can be solved by the Sine, Cosine
and Haversine formulae using the value of Sin 90° as unity and of Cos
90° as zero, wherever they occur.
The solution of quadrantal spherical triangles are made simpler by
the use of Napier's Rules for circular parts. Draw a circle, divide it into
five parts and number them as shown below:
 In segments (1) and (2) insert the angles containing the quadrant.
In (3), insert complement of side opposite the angle in (1). In (5),
insert complement of side opposite the angle in (2).
Important: In segment (4) insert the angle opposite the quadrant
minus 90.
Formulae:
Sin mid part = Tan adjacent part . Tan adjacent part
Sin mid part = Cos opposite part . Cos opposite part
(Remember Tangent and adjacent go together).
If segment number (2) is taken to be the mid part, (1) and (3) are
its adjacent parts and (4) and (5) are its opposite parts.
If segment number (5) is taken to be the mid part, (1) and (4) are
its adjacent parts whereas (2) and (3) are its opposite parts, and so on.
NOTE:
Before proceeding further it would be better to figure out simply
how to get the values of Sin, Cos & Tan of (Φ- 90), where Φ is not
known, or where the value of Φ is known but is less than 90°.
In the general formula of plane trigonometry:
Sin (A - B) = Sin A . Cos B - Cos A . Sin B.
Substitute Φ for A and 90° for B,
Sin (Φ- 90) = (Sin Φ . Cos 90) - (Cos Φ . Sin 90)
But Sin 90 = 1 and Cos 90 = 0
Hence, Sin (Φ- 90) = - CosΦ
In the general formula of plane trigonometry:
Cos (A - B) = (Cos A . Cos B) + (Sin A . Sin B)
Substitute Φ for A and 90° for B,
Cos (Φ - 90) = (Cos Φ . Cos 90) + (Sin Φ . Sin 90)
But Sin 90 = 1 and Cos 90 = 0
Hence, Cos (Φ - 90) = Sin Φ
Tan(Φ - 90) = Sin (Φ - 90) / Cos (Φ - 90)
 = - CosΦ / Sin Φ = - CotΦ
Hence, Tan (Φ - 90) = - Cot Φ
Summary of foregoing:
Sin (Φ - 90) = - Cos Φ
Cos (Φ - 90) = Sin Φ
Tan (Φ - 90) = - Cot Φ
The above may be derived as shown herein, whenever desired, or
learned by heart and applied directly.
Worked example 6:
In spherical triangle PQR, PQ = 52° 11', Q = 69° 47' and QR = 90°.
Calculate P, R and PR.

Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part

Sin (90 - r) = Tan Q . Tan (P - 90)
Tan (P - 90) = Cos r . Cot Q
Tan (P - 90) = Cos 52° 11' . Cot 69° 47'

(P - 90) = 12° 43.4'

P = 12° 43.4' + 90° = 102° 43.4'
P = 102° 43.4' Answer (i).
Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part
Sin Q = Tan R . Tan (90 - r)
Sin Q = Tan R . Cot r
Tan R = Sin Q . Tan r
Tan R = Sin 69°47' . Tan 52° 11'
 R = 50° 24.3' Answer (ii).
Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin (90 - q) = Cos Q . Cos (90 - r)
Cos q = Cos Q . Sin r
Cos q = Cos 69° 47' . Sin 52° 11'

q = 74° 09.5' Answer (iii).

Worked example 7:
In spherical triangle PZX, X = 85° 18', x = 90° 00' and z = 73° 12'.
Calculate p, P and Z.

Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part

Sin (X - 90) = Tan (90 - p) . Tan (90 - z)
Sin (X - 90) = Cot p . Cot z
But Sin (X - 90) = - Cos X
- Cos X = Cot p . Cot z
- Tan p = Sec X . Cot z
-Tan p = Sec 85° 18' . Cot 73° 12'
 p = 105° 11.0' Answer (i).
Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part
Sin (90 - z) = Tan P . Tan (X - 90)
Cos z = Tan P . Tan (X - 90)
But Tan (X - 90) = - Cot X
Cos z = Tan P (- Cot X)
- Tan P = Cos z . Tan X
- Tan P = Cos 73° 12' . Tan 85° 18'

P = 105° 52.7' Answer (ii).

Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin Z = Cos (90 - z) . Cos (X - 90)
But Cos (X - 90) = Sin X
Sin Z = Sin z . Sin X
Sin Z = Sin 73° 12' . Sin 85° 18'

Z = 72° 34.5' OR 107° 25.5'

The greater side must have the greater angle opposite to it.

Z = 72° 34.5' NOT 107° 25.5' Answer (iii).

Exercise 3
(Quadrantal Spherical Triangles)
1. In spherical triangle ABC, a = 69° 09', c = 90° and C = 117° 11'.
Calculate A, B and b.
Answer: A = 56° 13.9' B = 34° 43.4' b = 39° 49.1'.
2. In spherical triangle DEF, D = 64° 36', e = 90° 00' and E = 76°
47'. Calculate d, f and F.
Answer: d = 68° 06.7' f = 119° 38.6' F = 122° 12.6'
 3. In spherical triangle LMN, N = 81° 50', m = 90° 00' and L =
119° 07'. Calculate l, M and n.
Answer: l = 118° 52.1' M = 86° 02.2' n = 82° 51.2'.
4. In spherical triangle PQR, p = 73° 05', q = 90° 00' and r = 79°
12'. Calculate P, Q and R.
Answer: P = 72° 46.1' Q = 93° 19.4' R = 78° 42.3.'
5. In spherical triangle PZX, p = 90°, x = 64° and z = 90°.
Calculate P, Z and X.
Answer: P = 90° 00.0' Z = 90° 00.0' X = 64° 00.0'.
 6. POLAR TRIANGLES
NECESSITY
The Cosine formula, and hence the Haversine formula, can be used
only when three sides are known or when two sides and the included
angle are known.
The Sine formula involves two opposite pairs of sides and angles
and is hence restricted in its use.
The foregoing formulae cannot be used if three angles, or two
angles and the included side, are known and it is required to calculate
the other three elements of a spherical triangle. In such cases, solution
is possible by use of the polar triangle.
POLAR TRIANGLE
As mentioned earlier in this book, the pole of a great circle is
equidistant, and hence 90° away from, all parts of the circumference of
the great circle. Each side of a spherical triangle is part of a great
circle. If the poles of each of the three sides of a spherical triangle
were joined together by great circle arcs, the spherical triangle so
formed is called the polar triangle of that spherical triangle. The
original spherical triangle is then called the primitive triangle of that
polar triangle.
In the following figure, ABC is the primitive spherical triangle. A'
is the pole of side BC (i.e. pole of a), B' is the pole of side AC (i.e.
pole of b) & C' is the pole of side AB (i.e. pole of c). A'B'C' is,
therefore, the polar triangle of spherical triangle ABC.
 As a point of interest, the converse is also true - ABC is the polar
triangle of A'B'C'. This is proved as follows:
AB' = 90° (B' is the pole of arc AC).
AC' = 90° (C' is the pole of arc AB).
A is thus 90° from all parts of great circle arc B'C' and is hence its
pole.
BA' = 90° (A' is the pole of arc BC).
BC' = 90° (C' is the pole of arc AB).
B is thus 90° from all parts of great circle arc A'C' and is hence its
pole.
CA' = 90° (A' is the pole of arc BC).
CB' = 90° (B' is the pole of arc AC).
C is thus 90° from all parts of great circle arc A'B' and is hence its
pole.
THE SUPPLEMENTAL THEOREM
In the foregoing figure, side AB is produced to meet B'C' in X and
side AC is similarly produced to Y.

The length of arc XY and the magnitude of angle A are equal when
expressed in degrees & minutes. This is illustrated by tilting the sphere
until A and the centre of the sphere appear to be in transit to the
observer’s eye. Arcs ABX and ACY would appear as straight line
radii. Arc XY is apparently equal to angle A in magnitude as shown in
the following figure:
 Since B' is the pole of great circle arc ACY, and C' is the pole of
ABX,
B'Y = 90° = C'X
or B'Y + C'X = 180°
But B'Y = B'X + XY and C'X = C'Y + XY
So B'X + XY + C'Y + XY = 180°
But B'X + XY + C'Y = B'C'
So B'C' + XY = 180°
So, a' + A = 180°
Or a' = (180 - A) and A = (180 - a')
Similarly:
b' = (180 - B) and B = (180 - b')
and c' = (180 - C) and C = (180 - c')
Also, it can be proved that:
a = (180 - A') and A' = (180 - a)
b = (180 - B') and B' = (180 - b)
c = (180 - C') and C' = (180 - c)
STATEMENT
a) The sides of the polar triangle are the supplements of the
corresponding angles of its primitive triangle.
b) The angles of the polar triangle are the supplements of the
corresponding sides of its primitive triangle.
Worked example 8 :
In spherical triangle PQR, P = 57° 30.5', Q = 95° 17', and R = 70°
11'. Calculate p, q and r.
 In polar triangle P'Q'R',
p' = 180 - 57° 30.5' = 122° 29.5',
q' = 180 - 95° 17.0' = 84° 43.0',
r' = 180 - 70° 11.0' = 109° 49.0'.

By application of the Haversine formula (not shown here) using

the three sides of the polar triangle:
P' = 122° 41.4',
Q' = 96° 30.9'
R' = 110° 10.0'
p = 180 - P' = 57° 18.6',
q = 180 - Q' = 83° 29.1'.
r = 180 - R' = 69° 50.0'.
Worked example 9 :
In spherical triangle LMN, L = 88° 24.5', n = 100° 09' and M = 97°
46'. Calculate l, m and N.
 In polar triangle L' M' N',
l' = 180 - L = 91° 35.5'
N' = 180 - n = 79° 51.0'
m' = 180 - M = 82° 14.0'.
By application of the Haversine formula (not shown here) using
the two sides and included angle of the polar triangle:
n' = 80° 10.0',
L' = 92° 59.0'
M' = 81° 50.0'
N = 180 - n' = 99° 50.0',
l = 180 - L' = 87° 01.0',
m = 180 - M' = 98° 10.0'.
Exercise 4
(Polar triangles)
1. In spherical triangle ABC, A = 81° 24.3', B = 61° 31.7' and C =
102° 58'. Calculate a, b and c.
Answer: a = 87° 09.5' b = 62° 37.0' c = 100° 08.9'.
2. In spherical triangle PQR, Q = 74° 52.3', R = 71° 20' and p = 49°
08'. Calculate P, q and r.
Answer: P = 59° 00.7' q = 58° 23.0' r = 56° 41.6'.
3. In spherical triangle DEF, D = 85° 30', E = 100° 29.6' and f =
49° 34'. Calculate d, e and F.
Answer: d = 93° 03.4' e = 99° 58.0' F = 49° 27.3'.
4. In spherical triangle PQR, P = 57° 33', Q = 94° 06.7' and R =
71° 54.1'. Calculate p, q and r.
Answer: p = 57° 09.0' q = 83° 12.0' r = 71° 08.0'.
5. In spherical triangle WXY, X = 84° 38.3', Y = 93° 36' and w =
64° 18'. Calculate W, x and y.
Answer: W = 64° 06.1' x = 85° 47.0' y = 91° 24.5'
6. In spherical triangle ABC, A = 53° 05', B = 124° 29.3' and C =
55° 48.8'. Calculate a, b and c.
Answer: a = 65° 31.4' b = 110° 14.0' c = 70° 20.0'.
7. In spherical triangle CDE, C = 47° 28.3', d = 104° 10' and E =
41° 03.5'. Calculate c, D and e.
Answer: c = 66°41.0' D = 128°54.9' e = 54°56.0'.
8. In spherical triangle FGH, F = 28° 53.3', g = 55° 38.4' and H =
72° 42.4'. Calculate f, G and h.
Answer: f = 23° 30.2' G = 89° 59.8' h = 52° 01.0'
9. In spherical triangle LMN, M = 76° 52.9', L = 60° 00' and N =
76° 52.9'. Calculate l, m and n.
Answer: l = 54° 26.8' m = n = 66° 11.7'.
10. In spherical triangle PQR, P = 100° 35', Q = 103° 46.9' and r =
94° 34'. Calculate p, q and R.
Answer: p = 99° 15.5' q = 102°48.0' R = 96° 52.7'
 7. AMBIGUOUS CASES
A summary of the methods for the solution of spherical triangles,
suggested so far in this book, is as follows:

1) Given three sides - Haversine formula or Cosine formula.

2) Given two sides and the included angle Haversine formula or
Cosine formula.
3) Given three angles - Polar triangles.
4) Given two angles and the included side Polar triangles.
In each of the foregoing cases, any two triangles with the same
particulars would be symmetrically equal, as explained in the end of
Chapter 1. Hence there is no possibility of any ambiguity in the
values of the remaining elements that have to be calculated.
The cases not considered so far are:
5) Given two sides and one excluded angle.
6) Given two angles and one excluded side.
In each of these last two types, (5) and (6), it is most probable that
two triangles, each having the same given particulars, would not be
symmetrically equal. Consequently, there may be more than one
possible value for each of the elements that are to be calculated. Each
possibility would be the supplement of the other, for the same element.
Problems of these two types [i.e. (5) and (6)] can be solved by
dropping a perpendicular from one vertex to the opposite side and then
solving the two right angled triangles so formed.
Since there are three vertices in a triangle, there are three possible
perpendiculars that can be drawn. The perpendicular to be considered
should be one that does not divide any of the sides or angles whose
value is given. Otherwise the problem cannot be solved.
In some cases, the perpendicular may fall outside the triangle. In
such a case one of the sides of the triangle would have to be extended
to receive the perpendicular. This can be illustrated by the following
examples:
Suppose, in spherical triangle ABC, the perpendicular AD is being
drawn from point A to side BC.
a) If both angles B and C are acute, then point D will lie between
points B and C.
 b) If both angles B and C are obtuse then point D will lie between
points B and C.
c) If angle B is acute and C is obtuse, point D will lie on BC
produced.
d) If angle C is acute and B is obtuse, point D will lie on CB
produced.
Proof of each of the foregoing statements can be made bearing in
mind that in any RIGHT ANGLED spherical triangle, an angle and
its opposite side must be of the same affection.
Figure for statements (a) and (b)
(both angles acute or both angles obtuse)

STATEMENT (a)
If both angles B and C are acute, then point D will lie between
points B & C.
Step 1: Given that D lies between B and C and that angle B is
acute, required to prove that angle C is also acute.
Proof: In right angled spherical triangle ABD, AD is less than 90°
owing to angle B being given to be acute. In right angled spherical
triangle ACD, angle C must be acute because AD is less than 90°.
Step 2: If both angles B and C are acute, it is not possible for D to
lie outside BC.
Proof: Let D lie on BC produced. In right angled spherical triangle
ABD, AD < 90° because angle B is given to acute. But in right angled
spherical triangle ACD, AD > 90° because angle ACD (supplement of
ACB) is obtuse. Since AD cannot be < 90° and also > 90°, D cannot
lie on BC produced. By similar reasoning, D cannot lie on CB
produced.

In view of the foregoing, it is obvious that when both angles B and

C are acute, D would lie between B and C.
STATEMENT (b)
If both angles B and C are obtuse then point D will lie between
points B & C.
The proof of this statement is similar to that given for statement
(a).
STATEMENT (c)
If angle B is acute and angle C is obtuse point D will lie on BC
produced.
FIGURE FOR STATEMENT (c)
(angle B acute and angle C obtuse)
 Step 1: Given that D lies on BC produced and that angle B is
acute, required to prove that angle ACB is obtuse.
Proof: In right angled spherical triangle ABD, AD is less than 90°
owing to angle B being given to be acute. In right angled spherical
triangle ACD, angle ACD must be acute because AD is less than 90°.
Hence angle ACB, being the supplement of angle ACD, must be
obtuse.
Step 2: If angle B is acute and angle C is obtuse, it is not possible
for D to lie between points B and C.
Proof: Let D lie between B and C. In right angled spherical
triangle ABD, AD < 90° because angle B is given to acute. But in right
angled spherical triangle ACD, AD > 90° because angle ACD is given
to be obtuse. Since AD cannot be < 90° and also > 90°, D cannot lie
between B and C.

Step 3: If angle B is acute and angle C is obtuse, D would lie on

BC produced. Another possible point, D1 exists on CB produced but is
too far away.
Proof: Any two great circles would intersect at two points situated
diametrically opposite to each other. If great circle arcs BCD & AD
intersect at right angles, the same two great circles would also intersect
at right angles at D1 situated diametrically opposite to D. Since D lies
close to BC, while D1 lies 180° away the required point is D not D1.
In view of the foregoing, it is obvious that when angle B is acute
and angle C is obtuse, D would lie on BC produced.
STATEMENT (d)
By following the same line of reasoning used to prove statement
(c), statement (d) - if angle C is acute and angle B is obtuse, point D
will lie on CB produced - can be proved.
FIGURE FOR STATEMENT (d)
(angle B obtuse and angle C acute)

Worked example 10
In spherical triangle DEF, D = 49° 27.3', EF = 49° 34' and F = 100°
29.6'. Calculate DE, E and DF.

Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part

Sin (90 - F) = Tan FG . Tan (90 - EF)
Tan FG = Cos F . Tan EF
Tan FG = Cos 79° 30.4' . Tan 49° 34'
 FG = 12° 03.9'
Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part
Sin (90 - EF) = Tan (90-E) . Tan (90-F)
Cos EF = Cot E . Cot F
Tan E = Sec EF . Cot F
Tan E = Sec 49° 34' . Cot 79° 30.4'

FEG = 15° 56.3'

Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin EG = Cos (90 - F) . Cos (90 - EF)
Sin EG = Sin F . Sin EF
Sin EG = Sin 79° 30.4' . Sin 49° 34'

EG = 48° 27.3' OR 131° 32.7'

NOTE: Since DEG is a right angled spherical triangle, a side and
its opposite angle must be of the same affection. Since D is less than
90°, EG must also be less than 90°.
Hence EG = 48° 27.3' NOT 131° 32.7'.
NOTE:- Before calculating the elements of triangle DEG, it must
be noted that, as explained in Chapter 4, this is an exceptional case in
right angled triangles - an angle (D) and its opposite side (EG) are
known - and hence the values of the other two sides are surely
ambiguous.

Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part

Sin DG = Tan EG . Tan (90 - D)
Sin DG = Tan EG . Cot D
Sin DG = Tan 48° 27.3' . Cot 49° 27.3'

DG = 74° 52.5' OR 105° 07.5'

Answer (i)
Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin (90 - D) = Cos EG . Cos (90 - E)
Cos D = Cos EG . Sin E
Sin E = Cos D . Sec EG
Sin E = Cos 49° 27.3' . Sec 48° 27.3'

Answer (ii)
Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin EG = Cos (90 - D) . Cos (90 - DE)
Sin EG = Sin D . Sin DE
Sin DE = Sin EG / Sin D
Sin DE = Sin 48° 27.3' / Sin 49° 27.3'

DE = 80° 02.0' OR 99° 58.0' Answer (iii).

Worked example 11:
 In spherical triangle ABC, b = 110° 14.0', c = 70° 20' and C = 55°
49'. Calculate A, a and B.
Imaginary construction of the spherical triangle ABC:
Great circle arc AC is drawn equal to 110° 14'. Spherical angle C is
constructed equal to 55° 49' and the side (great circle arc) produced
indefinitely to X. Centre A, radius equal to 70°20', a great circle arc is
drawn. It will be observed that this arc cuts CX at two places – B1 &
B2 - each of which is a possible position of B. The required spherical
triangle is, therefore, AB1C or AB2C.

NOTE 1: Spherical triangle AB1B2 is an isosceles triangle. Hence

perpendicular AD would lie midway between B1 and B2 and the two
spherical triangles, AB1D & AB2D, would be symmetrically equal.
NOTE 2: Using Napier's Rules in right angled spherical triangles
ADC and ADB1, CD and DB1 can be calculated.
Then CB1 = CD + DB1
Since DB1 = DB2, CB2 = CD - DB1
or, putting it generally, CB = CD ☐ DB.
NOTE 3: Using Napier's Rules in right angled spherical triangles
ADC and ADB1, angles CAD and DAB1 can be calculated.
Then CAB1 = CAD - DAB1
Since DAB1 = DAB2, CAB2 = CAD + DAB1
or, putting it generally, CAB = CAD ☐ DAB.
 Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part
Sin (90 - C) = Tan CD . Tan (90 - AC)
Cos C = Tan CD . Cot AC
Tan CD = Cos C . Tan AC
Tan CD = Cos 55° 49' . Tan 110° 14'
- Tan CD = Cos 55° 49' . Tan 69° 46'

CD = 123° 16'
Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin AD = Cos (90 - C) . Cos (90 - AC)
Sin AD = Sin C . Sin AC
Sin AD = Sin 55° 49' . Sin 110° 14'
Sin AD = Sin 55° 49' . Sin 69° 46'

AD = 50° 54.8' OR 129° 05.2' (see following note).

NOTE: In a right angled spherical triangle, an angle and its
opposite side must be of the same affection. Hence in triangle ADC,
AD must be less than 90°, because C is less than 90°.
Hence AD = 50° 54.8' NOT 129° 05.2'.
Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part
Sin (90 - AC) = Tan (90 - A) . Tan (90 - C)
Cos AC = Cot A . Cot C
Tan A = Sec AC / Tan C
Tan A = Sec 110° 14' / Tan 55° 49'
- Tan A = Sec 69° 46' / Tan 55° 49'

CAD = 116° 59.2'

Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part

Sin (90 – AB1) = Cos AD . Cos DB1
Cos AB1 = Cos AD . Cos DB1
Cos DB1 = Cos AB1 / Cos AD
Cos DB1 = Cos 70° 20.0' / Cos 50° 54.8'

DB1 = 57° 44.3'

Sin mid part = Tan adj part . Tan adj part
Sin (90 - A) = Tan AD . Tan (90 - AB1)
Cos A = Tan AD . Cot AB1
Cos A = Tan AD / Tan AB1
Cos A = Tan 50° 54.8' / Tan 70° 20.0'

DAB1 = 63° 53.8' = DAB2

 Totalling up the calculated values:

NOTE: The maximum value of the side of a spherical triangle is

180°. At first sight, it would seem that, instead of going anticlockwise
by 181° 00.3' from C to B2, it would be in order to go 178° 59.7'
clockwise from C. On closer inspection, this is not acceptable.
Keeping A, C and B1 fixed, if we were to go clockwise from C to B2,
the newly formed angle C would be obtuse (i.e. 180° - 55° 49'). Thus,
in this particular problem, B1 is the only possible position for B.
Totalling up the calculated values:

As already explained earlier in the note, B2 stands eliminated in

this problem.
In right angled spherical triangle AB1D,
Sin mid part = Cos opp part . Cos opp part
Sin AD = Cos (90 – B1) . Cos (90 – AB1)
Sin AD = Sin B1 . Sin AB1
Sin B1 = Sin AD / Sin AB1
Sin B1 = Sin 50° 54.8' / Sin 70° 20.0'

AB1D = 55° 30.9' OR 124° 29.1'

NOTE: In right angled spherical triangle AB1D, an angle and its
opposite side must be of the same affection. Since AD is less than 90°,
AB1D must also be less than 90°.
Hence, AB1D = 55° 30.9' NOT 124° 29.1'
and AB1C = (180° - AB1D) = 124° 29.1'
Summary of answers - worked example 11:
 Exercise 5
(Ambiguous cases)
1. In spherical triangle ABC, C = 81° 24.3', c = 87° 10.0', a = 62°
37.0'. Calculate A, B and b.
Answer: A = 61° 31.7' B = 102° 59.0' b = 100°10.0'
2. In spherical triangle PQR, Q = 94° 06.0', r = 71° 08.0', q = 83°
12.0'. Calculate P, R and p.
Answer: P = 57° 35.1' R = 71° 54.2' p = 57° 10.9'.
3. In spherical triangle DEF, E = 84° 38.3', F = 93° 36.0', f = 91°
24.4'. Calculate D, d and e.
Answer: D = 64° 07.0' d = 64° 18.8' e = 85° 46.9'.
4. In spherical triangle XYZ, Y = 112° 40', y = 96° 18.0', z = 100°
31'. Calculate X, Z and x.
Answer: X = 99° 49.8' Z = 114° 06.5' x = 139°09.2'
5. In spherical triangle PQR, q = 102° 48', Q = 103° 46.7', R = 96°
52.7'. Calculate P, p and r.
Answer: P = 100° 32.0' or 136° 33.2; p = 99° 14.0' or 136° 21.4'; r
= 85° 25.6' or 94° 34.4'.