Basic Instrumentation (Arfan)

Basic Instrumentation
Industrial instrumentation and control

A complete book of Basic instrumentation that is need for any industrial related
persons to understand the complete instrumentation for any processing plant
ARFAN ALI
Instrumentation instructor
www.arfanali.webs.com
Basic instrumentation
Book of Basic Instrumentation is written for New Coming instrument professionals
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Instrumentation
“Instrumentation is a science to measure, monitor and control the process variables for the benefit of mankind”
Process variables common in industries are Pressure, Temperature, Flow, Level, pH, Conductivity and so on.
Pressure
Pressure is defined as force divided by the area over which it is applied. Pressure is often defined in terms of
―Head‖. Pressure is a basic process variable in that it is utilized for measurement of flow (difference of two
pressures), level (liquid pressure of back pressure from a bubble tube), and temperature (fluid pressure in a filled
thermal system).
Pressure is measured as force per unit area. In English system force is measured in pounds and a common unit of
pressure is pounds per square inch (psi). The pressure of atmosphere at sea level under standard conditions is
14.696 psi absolute.
UNITS OF PRESSURE
Gravity dependent units

Units such as Psi, Kg/cm2, inches of water, and inches of mercury are all gravity dependent. The force at the
bottom of each column is proportional to the height, density, and gravitational acceleration.
Gravity independent units

Units such as pounds-force per square inch and Kilogram-force per centimeter square are independent of gravity
because a specific value of gravitational acceleration was selected in defining these units.
Pascal is exactly the same at every point, even on moon, despite changes in gravitational acceleration.
Pascal:
The English or SI (systems international) unit of pressure is defined as the pressure or stress that arises when a
force of one Newton (N) is applied uniformly over an area of one square meter (m2). This pressure has been
designated one Pascal (pa).
Pa=N/m2 (100Kpa=1 Kg/cm2)
Definitions
Absolute pressure: Pressure above perfect vacuum or zero absolute.
Atmospheric pressure: Pressure exerted by earth‘s atmosphere. It is also called barometric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7psia or 29.9 inches of mercury absolute.
Gauge pressure: Pressure above atmospheric pressure.
Differential pressure: It is difference between two pressures. The rate of flow through a restriction in a pipe is
proportional to the square root of the differential pressure. The loss in pressure increases as the flow rate
increases.
Vacuum: Pressure below atmospheric pressure.
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Static pressure: Force per unit area exerted on a wall by a fluid at rest or flowing parallel to a pipe wall. It is also
called line pressure.
Total pressure: All pressures, including static, acting in all directions.
Velocity pressure: Pressure exerted by the speed of flow. It is also called velocity head or impact pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure: Pressure below a liquid surface exerted by the liquid above.
Conditions affecting liquid pressure
Surface pressure: any pressure acting on the surface is transmitted throughout the liquid and contributes to the
pressure at any location beneath the surface.
Depth: pressure is proportional to depth below the surface.
Density: pressure is proportional to the density (or relative density) of the liquid.
Relative density (specific gravity)

Water is used as reference in comparing the density of liquids or solids, while air is used for gases. The ratio of
density of a liquid or a solid to the density of water is called relative density or specific gravity. Relative density
is also used to compare pressure in a liquid to the pressure at the same depth in water.
Calculation of Head Pressure
P (Head) = 0.433 * Height (ft) * specific gravity.
Where P = Pressure, H = Height of liquid.
0.433 = PCF (pressure conversion factor).
PCF = Head (ft) * Density (weight) of water.
PCF = 1 ft * 62.4 lb/ft3 = 62.4 lb/ft2
= 62.4 lb/1440 in2 = 0.433 psi
Boyle’s law: the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume when the gas is held at a constant temperature.
Charles’ law: volume of a gas varies directly with its absolute temperature at a constant pressure.
Absolute zero: the temperature at which molecules would stop moving (-273 oC).
Gas law: relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature is,

PV = nRT, n = no. Of molecules of gas, R = a constant, T = absolute temperature.
Pressure instruments are functionally divided into two parts,
Sensors
Transducers
There are two basic kinds of sensors
Wet sensors: contain liquid that responds to the pressure.
Dry sensors: use an elastic element that responds to pressure.
Pressure instruments can be divided in to two major categories.
1). Those that employ mechanical means to detect and communicate pressure information from the process
and secondary device
2). Those that rely on electrical phenomenon or relationship to carry out this function.
Mechanical pressure measurement systems
In mechanical systems pressure is determined by balancing a sensor against the unknown force. This can be done
by another pressure or force.
The two most common pressure balance sensors are the manometer and the dead weight tester.
The most common force balance sensors are:

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Bellows, Diaphragm, Bourdon metallic devices, and Slack diaphragm.

Pressure balance systems
It is normally used for the measurement of low pressure ranges.
Dead weight tester

It works on the basis of Pascal‘s law; any pressure communicated to the surface of a confined liquid is
transmitted unchanged to every part of the liquid.
Manometer
In this method the pressure created by a column of liquid is used to balance the pressure to be measured.
Pressure reading is the difference in height from the top of the pressure column to the top of the vented column.
Mercury is normally used in manometers.
Types of manometers
Single leg manometer: It is used to measure barometric pressure. It is a closed tube manometer with a vacuum
on sealed side. Pressure applied to open end forces liquid up into the sealed end. A barometer when moved
vertically indicates changes in elevation, becoming an altimeter.
U- Tube manometer: It is used to measure differential pressure.
Inclined tube manometer (slant manometer): It is used to provide greater reading accuracy through the use of
a longer tube.
Force balance systems

1). Bourdon tube
One end of the tube is sealed; the other is connected to the process. As the pressure in the process increases, tube
tends to straighten out. The resultant motion is transferred through a linkage or rack-and-pinion mechanism to an
indicating pointer.
A bourdon tube is basically a spring that stretches as pressure is applied. Bourdon tube metals must not be subject
to hysteresis i.e. the metal must not stretch a different amount for increasing or decreasing pressure, causing the
gauge two different reading for one pressure. The choice of metals depends on corrosion resistance, flexibility,
hysteresis characteristics, pressure range, and cost.
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It exists normally in any of the three shapes.

a). “ C” shape bourdon tube.
It is used up to ranges from 0 to 10,000 psig. The range depends on material used, flatness of tube and cross
sectional area of tube.
b). Spiral tube
Spiral element is actually a long C- type tube resembling a flat coil. One end is rigid, and the movement of the
free end is linked to a pointer of indicator.
c). Helical tube
Helical element is a long C-type spring wound like a vertical spring. It is more sensitive to small changes.
Diaphragm pressure sensors

process pressure changes. Disk is held firmly all around the outer edge. The process pressure pushes on one side
of the disk. Central portion of the disk moves in or out as the process pressure changes. Two types of diaphragms
are used.
Single diaphragm: uses only one flexible element.
Capsule diaphragm: uses two flexible elements.
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Diaphragm capsule may be made of phosphor bronze, stainless steel or other metal alloys. Two diaphragms are
welded together around the edge to make the capsule. The inside of the diaphragm is then connected to the
process pressure and outside pressure is the reference. Outside of the capsule is exposed to the atmosphere (for
measuring gauge pressure). Capsule can be enclosed in sealed container so that reference can be either a vacuum
or one side of a process pressure.
3.) Bellows pressure sensors

It is formed from a homogenous piece of seamless tubing. When pressure is applied to one end, the circular
sections expand axially and this motion is used as a measure of the pressure. It is usually made of brass or
stainless steel.
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Pressure transducers
A device that converts the mechanical output of a pressure sensor to a standard electrical signal is called the
transducer.
An electrical pressure transducer consists of three elements
1. Pressure sensing element: usually a bellow, diaphragm or bourdon tube.
2. Primary conversion element: converts mechanical action of the pressure sensing element into an
electrical signal, usually resistance or voltage.
3. Secondary conversion element: it produces a standard signal according to the needs of the control
system.
Potentiometric pressure transducers
Potentiometer is a variable resistor. It is made by winding resistance wire around an insulated cylinder. A
movable electrical contact (a wiper) slides along the cylinder, touching the wire at one point on each turn. The
position of wiper determines how much resistance between the end of wire and the wiper.
Disadvantage is that it generates discrete output i.e. the wiper does not move continuously along the wire.
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Capacitive pressure transducers

It is based on the principle of capacitor. The transducer contains two metal plates. One plate, the stator, is
stationary. The other plate is a flexible metal diaphragm that moves closer to the stator when the pressure rises.
As the pressure changes, the diaphragm moves and changes the capacitance of the device.
C = K A/d where, C = capacitance,
K = Di-electric constant, A = Cross sectional area of plates, d = Distance between plates.
The transducer is connected in an ac bridge circuit. Changes in the measured pressure cause changes in the
capacitance of the capacitor and in the bridge circuit‘s response. These changes cause changes in the voltage
output of the bridge circuit.
Response time of capacitance transducer is very fast, as ten milliseconds.
Reluctive pressure transducer

Coupled coils: two coils, each wound on an iron core, placed near each other. Ac in one coil induces ac in other
coil, so the coils are said to be coupled.
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It works by changing the reluctance (resistance in magnetic circuit) between two coils. The diaphragm between
coils B1and B2 is made of a flexible magnetic material. As pressure P1 changes compared to P2, the
diaphragm moves and changes the reluctance between coils B1 and B2, in turn changing the output
voltage, Vo, which indicates pressure. It is used to measure pressure between 10 psi to 10000 psi.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) pressure Transducer

Change in pressure causes the bellow to expand or contract, which moves a magnetic core inside a primary and
two secondary coils. The output voltage from this device varies in proportion to the position of the core. The
LVDT is often used to convert a pneumatic signal to a proportional electrical signal.
Strain gauge pressure transducers

A strain gauge changes its electrical resistance as it is stretched and relaxed. It can be attached to a pressure-
sensing diaphragm. When diaphragm flexes, the strain gauge stretches or relaxes, in turn converting pressure
changes to electrical changes. Strain gauges are all force balance devices.
The metal wire strain gauge is made of very fine wire. The wire is fastened to a pressure diaphragm or other
flexing element.
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A semiconductor strain gauge is connected to an electronic circuit to indicate pressure. It is classified into two
types.
P-type: resistance increases directly with applied strain or pressure.
N-type: resistance decreases as applied strain or pressure increases.
Piezoelectric pressure transducers

A material that produces electric voltage when pressure is applied is referred to as piezoelectric material, like
barium titanate powder and crystals of quartz, tourmaline, and Rochelle salts.
Piezoelectric pressure transducers are force balance transducers.
To amplify the voltage signal, amplifier input impedance should be high (greater than 100 M ohms).
It can measure up to 50000 psi. The instrument can indicate a pressure increase over the full range in a period of
time as short as 1 micro seconds.
Piezoelectric transducers cannot measure steady pressures. They respond only to changing pressures.
Pressure at P1 is transmitted to the piezoelectric crystal, Y1, by a diaphragm. The signal is amplified by a charge
amplifier. A second piezoelectric crystal, Y2, is included to compensate for any acceleration of the device during
use. Signals from the compensating crystal are amplified by a second charge amplifier. A difference amplifier
subtracts the amplified compensating signal from the amplified signal produced by the pressure crystal. The
difference indicates the resulting pressure.
Response time
The time required for an output to make the change from an initial value to a large specified percentage, usually
90, 95 or 99% of the final value.
Environmental conditions affecting a transducer

Ambient temperature: temperature of air surrounding a device.
Relative humidity: a measure of the moisture content of the air, specified as a range of percent RH at a reference
temperature. Temperature and relative humidity combine to produce condensation.
Vibration: Oscillation or motion of device about its position of rest.
Low pressure measurement

Vacuum: pressure below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum or absolute pressure. One atmosphere of
pressure is equal to 760 mm Hg. One torr (shorter name of Torricelli, scientist) is equal to 1 mm Hg.
1). Limp/Slack diaphragm gauge.

A slack (un-tight) flexible, nonmetallic diaphragm is used which allows it to move a large distance in response to
a small pressure change. The pressure acts against the effective area of diaphragm causing it to deflect against the
force of a flat spring. The resulting displacement is connected to pointer. Used for pressure ranges as low as 0.01
to 0.40 torr.
2) Ionization gauge
At low pressures, relative density is measured easily than pressure. The ratio of two gas pressures is equal to the
ratio of their densities, if the gas temperature remains constant.
P/Po =p/po, where P=measured pressure, Po =initial pressure, p = measured density, po = initial density.
3) Capacitance manometer
A movable metal diaphragm acts as one plate in a capacitor. Changes in pressure move the diaphragm back and
forth. Due to space change between diaphragm and fixed plate, capacitance changes. This change is converted to
current reading by using a circuit. The device is referred to as a capacitance manometer, even though the sensor is
actually a diaphragm and not a manometer.
Pressure Transmitter (Pneumatic)
To measure the pressure of hazardous chemicals remotely, a pneumatic signal transmission system is used. The
pneumatic transmitter output is piped to the recording or control instrument. Standard output range for a
pneumatic transmitter is 3 to 15 psi, 20 to 100 Kpa, or 0.2 to 1.0 bar or Kg/cm2. Transmitter output signal is
carried by tubing, usually ¼ inch copper or plastic, to the control room. The live zero makes it possible to
distinguish between true zero and a dead instrument.
PNEUMATIC RELAY (Booster relay)

A relay is a pneumatic amplifier. The function of the relay is to convert a small change in the input signal to a
large change in the output signal. Typically a 1 psi change in the input will produce approximately a 12 psi
change in output.
Pressure switch
A pressure switch turns an electric circuit on or off at a preset pressure. This pressure is referred to as the setpoint
of the switch. The contacts in a switch may be normally open or normally close.
Dead band is the difference between the value at which a control action occurs (setpoint) and the value at which
the control action is cancelled (reset point).
Pressure transmitter installation
1) Pressure tap
It is installed on tank or pipe to provide a pressure measuring point.
2) Diaphragm seal
Pressure seal is used to measure a viscous, volatile, corrosive, or extremely hot or cold fluid to keep the fluid out
of the instrument.
A sealed pressure system consists of a conventional pressure measuring element or a force balance pressure
transmitter capsule assembly connected by capillary tubing to a pressure seal. The system is solidly filled with a
suitable liquid transmission medium.
3) Pulsation Dampener (snubber)
If the instrument is intended for use with a fluid under pressure and subject to excessive fluctuation or pulsations,
a dampener should be installed which provides a steady reading.
4) Isolation valve
It allows to isolate the instrument and the sensing line for maintenance, or to stop a leakage.
5) Instrument valve
It is installed in addition to or instead of an isolation valve. It isolates the instrument from both the process and
instrument line.
6) Blow down valve
It allows purging the instrument line of any accumulated sediments.
Instrument piping, connection and fitting

Flared fitting: it is formed by making a clean, square cut at the end of the tubing and then flaring the end. A
threaded connector forces the flared end of the tubing onto a mating part.
Compression fitting: made by slipping a ring (a sleeve or ferrule) over the end of the tubing. Tightening the
threaded connector compresses the ring around the tubing, forcing it against a mating part.
Pipe fitting: a normal pipe thread is tapered i.e. the depth of male thread becomes shallower as moved away from
pipe. By tightening this fitting, shallow threads form a tight seal with the female threads. This kind of fitting is
used for high pressures.
Socket fitting: it is made by soldering or welding each pipe end into a standard connector. Used for high
pressures.
Piping
Following considerations must be kept in mind when installing the instruments.
Diameter: must be large enough for the instrument to respond quickly when the pressure changes.
Length: keep instrument lines short and tight.
Slope: mount the instrument above pressure tap for gas service while below the pressure tap for liquid service.
Flexibility: changes in temperature cause piping to expand and contract. Keep lines flexible.
Temperature: to keep instrument lines from freezing, wrap electric heating cable around the line or pass low
pressure steam through a thin tube wrapped around the line.
Liquid or Steam Pressure measurement
When a liquid pressure is measured, the piping is arranged to prevent entrapped vapors which may cause
measurement error.
When steam pressure is measured, the steam should be prevented from entering the Bourdon tube. If the gauge is
below the point of measurement, a ―siphon‖ is provided in the pressure line to the gauge.
LEVEL
Level measurement is important for proper process operation and also for cost accounting and inventory
purposes.
Liquid measurement needs two reference points.
– Surface of liquid being measured
– Datum point (fixed reference point), either bottom or top of tank.
The common methods employed for automatic continuous liquid level measurement are as follows.
1. Float and cable
2. Displacement (Buoyancy)
3. Head (Bubble tube, Diaphragm box, Pressure, Differential pressure)
4. Capacitance
5. Radiation (Nucleonic)
6. Ultrasonic
FLOAT AND CABLE
A float and cable instrument measures liquid level by transmitting to a mechanism the rise and fall of a float that
rides on the surface of the liquid.
These methods can be used on both open and closed tanks. Advantage of float is simplicity and insensitive to
density changes. Disadvantage is limitation to clean liquid and turbulence of liquid creates measurement problem
DISPLACEMENT (BUOYANCY)
It is a type of force balance transmitter. It is based on Archimedes‘s principle which states as ―A body immersed
in a liquid will be buoyed upward by a force equal to the weight of liquid displaced‖. This method is used to
measure liquid level by sensing the buoyant force exerted on a displacer by the liquid in which it is immersed.
The buoyant force on an object depends on how much liquid is displaced and the density of the liquid. The
buoyant force always equals the weight of the displaced liquid. If the buoyant force becomes equal to the object‘s
weight, the object floats.
Displacer element is a cylinder of constant cross sectional area and heavier than the liquid displaced.
This method is used for both open and closed tanks. Buoyancy transmitter is normally used in vessels where
lower connection is not possible/permissible, fluctuating pressures or levels and high temperature service.
Magnetic Reed Switches

If the liquid is hazardous chemical or at high temperature or pressure, magnetic reed switches are used. It is
normally in open state. When the floating magnet outside the tube comes near the switch, it attracts the magnetic
pole piece in the switch. This action closes the switch until the floating magnet moves away. These switches are
not sealed in the tube, and they never come into contact with the liquid in the tank.
HEAD/PRESSURE
Pressure of a liquid in an open tank depends on two factors.
The elevation or height of the liquid above the point at which the measurement is to be taken.
The relative density (specific gravity) of the liquid.
Head Pressure measurement for any liquid

Pressure= Head (ft) × Specific gravity × 0.433 (psi/ft)
Or, P = PCF × H × RD
Where P = pressure (psi), PCF = pressure conversion factor (0.433 psi/ft), a constant, H = height of liquid above
the measurement point (ft), RD = relative density of liquid.
Head pressure of mercury with 10 ft depth is,
Pressure = 10 ft × 13.60 × 0.433 (psi/ft) = 58.9 psi
In a closed tank, pressure is proportional to the liquid elevation above the measurement point plus any additional
pressure applied to the liquid.
For head pressure measurement of corrosive liquids, liquid seal is used to separate process fluid from transmitter.
The liquid seal should meet three conditions.
it should be non-compressible.
it should have a higher density than the process liquid.
It should not react with process liquid.
BUBBLE TUBE/AIR PURGE METHOD
In this method, liquid level is determined by measuring the pressure required to force a gas into the liquid at a
point beneath the surface. By this method liquid level is obtained without liquid entering the piping or instrument.
Clean air or gas in connected through a restriction to a bubble tube immersed a fixed depth in tank. Restriction
reduces air flow and builds up pressure in bubble tube until it just balances the fluid pressure at end of bubble
tube. Pressure is kept at this value by air bubbles escaping through liquid. Changes in level cause air pressure in
bubble tube to build up or drop. This pressure can be measured by an instrument connected to bubble tube. It is
used for corrosive liquids and solid bearing liquids. For processes that react with air, nitrogen can be used as a
purge gas.
Primary maintenance problems with air purge system are,
A plugged tube causes the pressure indicator to read high.
A hole in the tube causes the indicator to read low. If the hole is halfway up the tube, the indicator will work
correctly from 0 to 50% (actually 50% to 100%) of the scale reading, but the reading will not go above 50%.
In situation where air purge system is not suitable due to contaminations, liquid purge system is used.
Water is mostly used as purge liquid. A pressure regulator and flow restrictor are piped to the bubbler tube. The
supply pressure is determined by the range of liquid level to be monitored, and a self-regulating ―purge meter‖ is
normally used.
DIAPHRAGM BOX
In this method a diaphragm box is suspended from a chain. Diaphragm is filled with air. The instrument that
senses pressure changes and relates to level measurement is mounted above vessel. This method is normally used
for open vessels.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METHOD
In open tank pressure at high pressure side of cell is measure of liquid level. In closed tank, effect of tank
pressure on measurement is nullified by piping this pressure to opposite side of cell. Any difference between the
pressures sensed by the two legs is due to head pressure alone, and is used to measure the liquid level in the
vessel.
In closed tank with liquid that produce vapors, the condensed liquid produces a head pressure on the low side of
the instrument (called wet leg), causing the reading to be below zero. A zero elevation adjustment is carried out
to compensate for this zero error. After draining the wet leg, the transmitter does not read correctly until the wet
leg is refilled.
CAPACITANCE TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
The amount of capacitance depends on the distance between the plates, the area of the plates, and the height of
the dielectric between the plates. The equation is,
C = K (A/D)
Where, C = capacitance, K = dielectric constant, A = area of plate, D = distance between plates.
In this method a probe is inserted in a tank and capacitance is measured between probe and tank. Capacitance
varies with respect to tank level. This phenomenon is due to the difference between dielectric constant of air and
liquid in tank. This method is normally used for non conductive liquids.
In applications where liquid conduct, the electrode is encased in an insulating material. The liquid acts as the
capacitor‘s ground electrode, and the insulated conductor serves as the other electrode.
RADIATION TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT

In this method a radioactive source is kept on one side of tank and detector on other side. As radiation passes
through the tank, its intensity varies with amount of material in tank and can be related to level. Its advantage is
that nothing comes in contact with liquids. It is very costly and difficult to handle.
ULTRASONIC TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Ultrasonic sound waves with frequencies of 1 to 5 MHz can be used to detect liquid or solid levels. Ultrasonic are
sound waves but at higher frequencies than 20 KHz (detected by human ear).
It consists of an ultrasonic transducer (piezoelectric crystal). When voltage is applied to plates, the piezoelectric
crystal expands or contracts. The crystal vibrates, and these vibrations can be transferred to a diaphragm to
produce ultrasonic sound waves. The liquid surface acts as a reflector, and the transducer receives the reflection
of its transmitted pulses. The transmitter and receiver are both connected to an echo timer, which measures the
amount of time between the emission of sound wave and the reception of the echo. Time required by sound wave
to travel to the liquid and back to receiver is carefully measured and this time is related to level.
In case transmitter could not be installed in tank, a noninvasive (not in contact with liquid) sensor transmits an
ultrasonic signal through the walls of a vessel. When the vessel is filled with liquid, the signal travels through the
liquid and the opposite wall to a receiver transducer, where it is converted to and electrical signal.
It has good accuracy. It is costly.
Range Suppression and Elevation

If an instrument is mounted below a vessel, it senses total head, but the head due to the distance from the
instrument location to the bottom of the vessel does not represent level in the vessel. This head must be cancelled
by a range suppression calibration, using the zero adjustment provided in the instrument.
If an instrument is mounted above a vessel, the distance from the instrument location to the zero level of the
vessel be added by a range elevation calibration, using zero adjustment provided in the instrument.
Once the zero calibration is complete for either suppression or elevation, the span adjustment provided in the
instrument is used to calibrate the actual range of level change measured in the vessel.
FLOW
Flow is defined as the volume of material that passes a specific place in a specified time interval. Units of flow
are gallons per minute (gpm), cubic feet per second (ft3/s), tons per hour (t/h) and so on.
Density
It is defined as mass of a unit volume of that fluid. Its units are g/cm3, Kg/m3, g/l.
Relative density (Specific gravity)
It is ratio of two densities. It is the ratio between the density of a certain liquid and the density of water or it is the
ratio between the density of a certain gas and the density of air. It is a unitless number.
Compressibility
It is the ability of a substance to decrease in volume when pressure is applied.
Viscosity
Viscosity of a fluid is defined as its resistance to flow. It is affected by the temperature. In metric system its unit
is poise (1 dyne-s/cm2); while in English system its unit is lb-s/ft2.
Laminar flow
It is a smooth, layered flow. Laminar flow pattern in a pipe looks like the concentric rings. The flow lines are
called streamlines. An object that disrupts the flow pattern only slightly is said to be streamlined.
Turbulent flow
It is rough and irregular. It is made up of many small currents, swirling and weaving in all direction, forming
miniature whirlpools called eddy currents. It causes considerable frictional resistance to fluid flow. An object
placed in flow path creating turbulence is called blunt object.
Bernoulli Effect
It states that as the fluid velocity increases, the pressure on the walls decreases. This inverse relationship between
fluid velocity and the pressure of containments is called Bernoulli Effect.
It can be expressed as,
V= K√ (ΔP/D)
The square root relationship between the flow velocity and the pressure differential causes a nonlinear output in
many flow meters.
Head pressure of any liquid is calculated by,
P = DH
The liquid‘s weight density in lb/ft3 divided by 144 in2 gives pressure in psi at bottom of a cubic foot of that
liquid.
Static suction lift
The vertical distance from the center line of the pump to the surface of the liquid to be pumped (source is below
pump) is the static suction lift.
Static suction head
The vertical distance from the center line of the pump to the surface of the liquid to be pumped (source is above
pump) is the static suction lift.
Total static head
Total static head is the vertical distance (in feet) between the surface on the input side and the surface on the
discharge side. If the point of discharge is above the surface of the liquid, the horizontal upper arm of the pipe is
considered the level of the free surface of the water.
Volume flow rate is calculated by equation:
Q (vol) = Ax V
Where, Q (vol) = volume flow rate
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe carrying the fluid
v = flow velocity.
Mass flow rate is calculated by:
Q (m) = D x Q (vol)
Where, Q (m) = mass flow rate
D = fluid density (mass per unit volume)
Conditions Affecting Flow Rate
The rate at which a fluid flows through a channel or pipe depends on three conditions: head, viscosity, and
frictional resistance.
Reynolds Number
A Reynolds number is the ratio of a liquid‘s (or gas‘s) inertial forces to its drag forces. It is calculated by
multiplying the velocity of the fluid by the diameter of the pipe and by the density of the fluid, and then dividing
that value by the viscosity of the fluid. Reynolds numbers are low at low velocities and high viscosities.
Rn = (Vel x Dp x D) / Visc
At a low Reynolds number (up to about 2000), the viscosity and velocity of the fluid produce a smooth, laminar
flow. Flow changes between laminar and turbulent in the range of Reynolds numbers between 2000 and 4000. At
a Reynolds number above 4000, flow is turbulent
Total flow is the amount of fluid that flows over an extended time interval. A totalizer accumulates and stores
flow- rate values received from a primary flow meter.
Flow rate is the instantaneous flow reading at a particular time. It can change greatly from one second to the
next. To measure flow rate, an in-line flow meter could be used.
Direct flow measurement: the volume of material that passes a certain location in a specified time interval. If an
instrument directly measures the volume of fluid passing a certain location in a specified time interval, volume
flow rate is measured directly.
Indirect flow measurement: it provides instantaneous flow-rate values, but it does not measure accumulated
volume. Instead, it measures changes in properties of flowing liquids— changes in velocity, depth, or pressure.
Indirect flow measurement requires both a primary and a secondary measuring device, A primary device interacts
with the flowing fluid to produce a signal that is measured by the secondary measuring device. This measurement
is then used as the indicated flow rate. Normally the function of the primary measuring device is to create a
difference in pressure, or a pressure differential, in a flowing fluid (liquid or gas).
Invasive primary device: A device whose sensing elements come in direct contact with the fluid.
Non-invasive primary device: A device whose sensing elements remain outside the wall of the pipe, never
touching the flowing fluid.
A secondary device measures or reads the differential to determine the flow velocity or volume flow rate of the
fluid.
Rangeability
The rangeability of a flow meter is defined as:
Maximum flow rate / minimum flow rate
This ratio tells the range of flow that a certain flow meter can effectively measure, from the lowest value to the
highest value.
Turndown
Turndown is defined as:
Applied maximum flow rate / applied minimum flow rate
Turndown is similar to rangeability, but turndown refers to the flow range of a flow meter in an installed system.
The maximum flow rate in the application may be well below the meter‘s maximum limit.
Fluid flow measurement is accomplished by
Displacement
a. Positive displacement meters
b. Metering pumps
Constriction type, Differential Head
Closed conduit or pipe
a. Orifice plate
b. Venture tube
c. Flow nozzle
d. Pitot tube
e. Elbow-mounted
f. Target (drag force)
g. Variable area (rotameter)
Open channel
a. Weir
b. Flume
Velocity Flow Meters
a. Magnetic
b. Turbine
c. Vortex or Swirl
d. Ultrasonic
e. Thermal
Mass Flow Meters
a. Weight types
b. Head and Magnetic types compensated for temperature, pressure and density.
c. Gyroscope precision type
d. Centrifugal force (torque) types
The factors such as Accuracy, Pressure loss, material to be measured, ease of changing capacity, ease of
installation, and cost of flow meter must be considered before selecting the flow meter.
Positive displacement meters
Positive displacement meters are measurement devices that trap a known volume of fluid and allow it to pass
from meter inlet to outlet. Then the numbers of trapped volumes passing through the meter are counted to obtain
the total flow.
Displacement means that the fluid flowing through the meter replaces (displaces) the volume of fluid that passed
through the meter immediately before.
Piston meters (reciprocating and oscillating) are normally used as positive displacement meters.
They are accurate, precise, and have a wide flow range. These are ideal for measuring low rates of flow. These
are expensive, susceptible to corrosion, and can be damaged by excessive flow.
CONSTRICTION, DIFFERENTIAL HEAD
Flow measuring system (flow meter) consists of primary and secondary devices. Primary device or restriction in
the flow line creates a change in fluid velocity that is sensed as a differential pressure (head). Secondary device
measures this differential pressure and this measurement is related to flow rate. Head type flow measuring system
depends on Bernoulli theorem ―the total energy at a point in a pipe line is equal to the total energy at a second
point if friction between the points is neglected.
PRIMARY DEVICES
ORIFICE PLATE
Orifice plate is used for all clean fluids, but not used for fluids containing solids in suspension. A conventional
orifice plate consists of a thin circular plate containing a concentric hole. It is normally made of stainless steel or
Monel metal. Most common orifice plate is sharp-edged, concentric type.
Other two types of orifice plates are eccentric and segmental, to accommodate limited amounts of suspended
solids.
Within the orifice plate, the change in cross sectional area between the pipe and the orifice produces a change in
flow velocity. The velocity head at the throat increases, causing a corresponding decrease in static head.
Therefore there is a head difference between a point immediately ahead of the restriction and a point with in the
restriction or downstream from it. The resulting differential head or pressure is a function of velocity that can
then be related to flow.
Most of the primary devices operate satisfactorily at high flow rates due to the change in flow coefficient that
occurs when the flow rate changes from high to very low.
If the orifice is not very smooth and flat, the flow measurement will be affected. In some orifices a small drain
hole (weep hole) is provided to permit condensate (or vapors) to pass through the plate without interfering with
the flow measurement. For reversible flow measurement orifice plates are beveled on both faces, and they are
installed in fittings where the pressure taps are the same distance upstream and downstream from the plate.
VENTURI TUBE
It consists of a tapered, narrowing section of pipe joined to a tapered, enlarging section. As the liquid or gas flows
through the tube, its velocity increases, causing a pressure differential between the upstream and downstream
flow. Fluid pressure is lowest at the point where the tube is most restricted. Venturi tubes can be round,
rectangular or irregular in shape. These are used to measure the flow rate of steam, air, or other gases.
It produces a large differential with a minimum permanent pressure loss. It measures flows containing suspended
solids. Its disadvantage is its high cost.
FLOW NOZZLE
In flow nozzle, the nozzle constricts the flowing stream and fluid moves faster to pass through it. The velocity
increases through the nozzle and causes a drop in the internal pressure of the fluid flowing through it. Overall
pressure loss in the flow nozzle is greater than in a Venturi tube because of increased turbulence at the nozzle
exit. Its accuracy is greater than orifice but less than Venturi. It is costly than orifice but not as compared to
Venturi.
PITOT TUBE
It is a hollow tube-within-a-tube device, designed to be pointed upstream in the fluid flow. It operates on the
principle that a pressure differential exists in the fluid between the spot where the flow impinges on the front
opening and the place where higher-velocity fluid speeds past the lateral openings.
Pitot tube is used in clean liquids, free of solid contaminants, or its openings will clog. It must be properly
positioned within the pipe where fluid velocity is average otherwise the derived flow rates will be inaccurate. Its
advantages are:
They are inexpensive
They have no moving parts
They cause minimal pressure drop
Target Meter
In target meter the fluid flows around a disk (target) suspended in the tubular section of the meter. The orifice,
then, is the annular space between the target and the walls of the tube.
It does not measure a pressure differential. Instead, it measures the force of the fluid flow against the target. This
force is converted to an output of 3 to 15 psi or 4 to 20 mA.
The target meter is mostly used for measuring viscous, dirty, or hot fluids. Its use is limited to pipe with a
diameter of 4 inches or less.
Elbow-Mounted Measuring Device

It measures pressure differential without creating a restriction in the flow. It measures the DP across a 90° elbow.
The DP is created by the acceleration of the fluid flowing through the elbow. This kind of measurement is not as
accurate as that obtained with a thin sharp-edged orifice plate, but its repeatability is good. Therefore, if a system
can be calibrated against a known flow, the accuracy of this arrangement is quite acceptable.
SECONDARY DEVICES
Secondary instruments measure the differential produced at the primary devices and convert it into a signal for
transmission. Secondary instruments include mercury manometer and various types of force balance and motion
balance pneumatic and electronic transmitters.
Accuracy: it is the overall degree to which the measurement system can determine the actual value of the
measured variable.
Precision: it refers to the ability of the measuring instrument to agree with itself repeatedly in response to the
same input. In other words, precision is the degree of repeatability in a series of successive measurements.
Lack of precision or accuracy causes measurement errors.
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Pneumatic DP transmitter, or DP cell, receives a supply of air at 20 psig (the metric equivalent is 138 kPa) and
reduces it to an output of 3 to 15 psig (20 to 100 kPa) that is directly proportional to the measured DP.
The electronic transmitter has output (normally 4 to 20 mA) that is proportional to the differential pressure.
In the DP transmitter, process fluid (if not harmful to the instrument) is piped to each side of a capsule containing
twin diaphragms. Any pressure increase in the high-pressure chamber causes the capsule to move toward the low-
pressure side and, in turn, to impart this motion to a laminated force bar. In the pneumatic transmitter, the upper
end of the bar reacts by moving the flapper toward the nozzle, which is the source of supply air.
The nozzle feed line is connected to one side of a diaphragm in the air relay.
As the flapper covers the nozzle, a pressure build-up acts on the air relay diaphragm. This opens the relay and
delivers more air pressure to both the feedback bellows and the output. This action continues until the pressure
exerted against the range rod by the bellows counterbalances the original pressure of the force bar. The zero
adjustment spring establishes a starting value (0 DP = 20 kPa). The adjustable range wheel is the pivot point for
the range rod‘s motion.
The first step in calibrating this kind of transmitter is to vent the low side of the transmitter to atmosphere. Then
apply a known pressure to the high side. If the transmitter range is 0 to 205 in of water, apply a pressure of 205 in
of water and expect the transmitter output to be 15 psi or 20 mA, depending on the kind of transmitter. Position
the adjustable range wheel to obtain the correct output. With no pressure applied to the high side of the
transmitter, the output should be 3 psi or 4 mA. Now adjust the zero screw to obtain the correct output.
VARIABLE AREA METERS (ROTAMETER)Variable-area instrument for flow measurement is the

rotameter. It consists of a tapered vertical tube with a float inside. The tube is usually made of borosilicate glass.
The diameter of the tube is smallest at the bottom and increases toward the top. The fluid to be measured enters at
the narrow bottom end and flows upward.
The float inside the tube is made so that its largest diameter almost equals the diameter of the tube at the bottom.
The density of the float is greater than the density of the fluid. This means that the float sinks to the bottom of the
tube if the fluid is not flowing. As fluid flows upward through the tube, the float rises.
The area available for the flow of fluid through the rotameter is the ring-shaped area between the tube and the
float. If the float rests on the bottom point in the tube, the area between the float and the tube is nearly zero. If the
float is higher in the tube, the area between the float and the tube is larger. As the float rises or falls in the tube,
the area available for the passage of fluid increases or decreases. This variation is the reason the rotameter is
called a variable-area instrument.
Measuring Gas Flow

Gas flow rates are measured in standard cubic feet per minute (usually abbreviated scfm). One standard cubic
foot of gas is a specific quantity of gas —one ft3 measured at standard conditions, which usually are 14.7 psia
and 70°F. This quantity of gas will occupy a different volume if either the pressure or the temperature changes.
But it is still called one standard cubic feet, because it is still the same amount of gas and will still occupy one ft3
at standard conditions. It weighs the same amount and contains the same number of gas molecules as it does
under standard conditions.
A rotameter measures the amount of gas flowing per unit of time. If the flow rate is 100 scfm, the amount of gas
flowing out of the rotameter in one minute occupies 100 ft3 if the pressure is 14.7 psia and the temperature is
70°F.
A rotameter measures a gas flow rate as though the calibration gas were flowing at standard pressure and
temperature. The actual flow rate is different from the indicated flow rate if the actual gas is different from the
calibration gas, or if the pressure or temperature varies from standard conditions
Effect of Relative density
If we replace the calibration gas—usually air—with a different gas having twice the density of air. The relative
density of the gas is therefore twice the relative density of the calibration gas. This gas has a greater effect on the
rotameter. At a specified flow rate, the denser gas causes the float to rise higher in the tube. As a result, the actual
volume of gas that flows from the meter in one minute is equal to the indicated flow rate multiplied by the square
root of 1/2. This relationship can be expressed as:
Qa = Qi √ (Drc/Dra)
Where, Qa = actual flow rate
Qi = indicated flow rate
Drc = relative density of the calibrated gas
Dra = relative density of the actual gas.
Effect of Pressure.
If the calibration gas is at the calibration temperature, but the pressure of the gas is twice the standard pressure.
The actual flow rate is then equal to the indicated flow rate multiplied by the square root of 2. That is:
Qa = Qi √ (Pa/Pc)
Where, Pa = actual pressure
Pc = calibration pressure.
Effect of Temperature.
If we use the calibration gas at the calibration pressure, but at twice the calibration temperature. The actual flow
rate of gas is then equal to the indicated flow rate multiplied by the square root of 1/2. That is:
Qa = Qi √ (Tc/Ta)
Where, Tc = calibration temperature (absolute)
Ta = actual temperature (absolute).
We can combine these three equations into a single equation for gas-to-gas conversions. This equation enables us
to convert any reading from a flow meter into the correct reading for the specific gas and the specific conditions
under which it is measured. The master equation is:
Qa = Qi √ (Drc)(Pa)(Tc) / (Dra)(Pc)(Ta)
It is assumed that the gas being measured is an ideal or perfect gas. A perfect gas is one in which the molecules
are infinitely small and exert no forces of attraction or repulsion on each other. A real that is non-perfect gas has
molecules of a finite size that exert forces on each other. To adjust these equations for non perfect gas effects,
apply a compressibility factor. The compressibility factor for a perfect gas is 1.00. For a non perfect gas, the
correction factor might be 0.85.
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW RATE MEASUREMENTS
Open channel flow is the flow of a liquid through a channel that is open to the atmosphere. It is used to measure
the water for irrigation and for industrial and municipal wastewater treatment.
WEIR
It is an obstruction placed in an open channel. Water passes through a notch cut in the weir. As the flow
increases, the level of the water flowing through the weir increases.
Two common types are:
1) Rectangular notch: the sides are vertical and the rest is horizontal. Cross sectional area of the liquid flowing
trough this notch equals the crest length multiplied by the head. Rectangular weir is designed to measure larger
flow rates.
2) V-notch: it is usually made with an angle of either 60 degree or 90 degree from one side to the other. It
provides greater accuracy than rectangular type at low flow rates. As the head changes, the triangular area
through which water flows changes in width as well as height. At low flow rates, a change in flow produces a
greater change in head.
V-notch is designed to measure lower flow rates.
FLUME (Parshall Flume)

It is designed primarily to reduce the head loss that is experienced with the weir. Its shape is like one half of the
venture tube. It consists of a sloping channel of a specific size. Flow rate is indicated by the depth of the water
flowing at a certain location. It is made of reinforced concrete, fiberglass, or aluminum. The surfaces are smooth
and flat, and the sizes are carefully measured for accuracy.
It is used to measure water for irrigation, and in sanitation system.
VELOCITY FLOW METERS

Turbine Flow meter
Fluid enters the meter from one side, first passing through the flow straightener. The straightener dampens the
turbulence in the fluid. The fluid then strikes the rotor smoothly, causing it to spin. The rate at which the rotor
spins, sometimes referred to as rotational velocity, is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid passing
through the meter.
As the rotor spins, its blades cause a pulsating electrical signal to be produced in the pickup unit. The pickup unit
is mounted in line with the rotor. Each time a blade passes the head of the pickup unit, its presence is sensed and
a voltage is produced. As the blade moves past the pickup head, the voltage decreases until another blade moves
into position. The voltage signals are called pulses.
The velocity of fluid flowing through the meter is proportional to volumetric flow rate.
The rotational velocity of the rotor is proportional to fluid velocity.
The frequency of the electrical signal produced by the magnetic pickup unit is proportional to the rotor‘s speed
(rpm).
The pickup acts as the transducer. It converts the rotary motion of the rotary vanes into electrical energy.
There are two kinds of pickups.
Inductance pickups have magnet-tipped rotor vanes. As the vanes pass the coil, a voltage is induced and current
flows in the pickup coil. The induced current pulses a receiver, each time a vane passes the coil. A disadvantage
is possible weakening of the magnets, causing errors in the measurement.
Reluctance pickups use an electromagnet as the coil. As the rotor vanes pass the pickup, they interrupt the
magnetic field. The interruptions cause variations in the strength of the field, seen as pulses by the receiver.
Both kinds of pickup are mounted at a right angle to the turbine rotor, and both kinds produce a pulse out-put.
The turbine output signal is conditioned and sent to either a flow totalizer or rate indicator. The flow totalizer
accepts the conditioned signal and provides readout in liters, gallons, barrels, or other units.
Advantages of turbine flow meter are:

High accuracy—most turbine meters are accurate within ±0.5% of reading.
Repeatability—±0.25% is normal, and meters with ±0.02% repeatability are available.
Wide flow range—turbine meters can accurately meter flows ranging from 0.001 to 40,000 gpm
Linear output—the meter‘s output varies directly with flow rate.
Fast response—a turbine meter responds quickly to changes in the flow rate. A response time of 0.005 seconds is
typical.
Turbine meters are also small in size and weight and are easy to install and maintain.
Disadvantages of turbine flow meter are:
They are expensive and unsuitable for very dirty or viscous (thick) fluids. Also, they are damaged by over speed
and the bearing is subject to wear. In addition, they require a sophisticated signal conditioning and flow readout
system and filters are required for almost every application.
Magnetic Flow meters
Magnetic flow meters are very nearly ideal, because they offer no restriction to fluid flow and can meter fluids
that other instruments cannot handle. Important metering applications include sludge in sewage-treatment plants,
or slurries in mining operations, and liquid metals (liquid sodium) in various industrial processes.
When an electrical conductor moves at right angles to a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the conductor. The
voltage induced is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and the velocity of the conductor. If there is
an increase in the intensity of the magnetic field or in the velocity of the conductor, the voltage induced in the
conductor also increases. These relationships are in accordance with Faraday‘s law of electromagnetic induction.
The electrodes penetrate the meter flow tube, make contact with the fluid, and measure the induced voltage
across the conductive fluid.
The magnitude of induced voltage is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, or flux, and to the
conductor velocity.
If the magnetic flux increases, the voltage measured by the electrodes also increases. If the velocity of the fluid
moving down the pipe increases, the voltage measured by the electrodes increases. In fact, the induced voltage is
linearly proportional to flow velocity—if flow velocity doubles, electrode voltage doubles. Or, in general terms:
E = CV
Where, E = voltage
C = a constant determined by magnetic field strength, flow tube diameter, and other fixed characteristics of the
flow meter
V = flow velocity.
As the electrode voltage changes, the electrical conductivity of the fluid also changes.
Conductivity means that an electric current can pass through the fluid. The unit of conductivity is the siemens,
formerly the mho. A siemens is equivalent to 1/ohm where an ohm is a unit of electrical resistance. (Mho is ohm
spelled backwards).
Hydrocarbons and non-aqueous (not watery) solutions have little or no conductivity and cannot be metered by
magnetic flow meters. Distilled or de-ionized water also may not be conductive enough.
Magnetic Flow meter Construction
The metal meter body is normally made of carbon steel. Two magnetic coils fit on opposite sides of the meter
body‘s inner surface. These coils provide the magnetic field for the meter. The steel meter body acts as the return
path for the magnetic field generated by the coils. The coils are potted within an epoxy-based compound. The
compound holds them in a fixed position and protects them from moisture and damage.
An insulating liner covers the interior of the meter, protecting the coils and body from the fluid passing through
the meter. The liner material used depends on the temperature of the metered fluid and its corrosive and abrasive
properties.
Two electrodes penetrate the meter body and liner at right angles to the magnetic field coils. Their purpose is to
measure the voltage induced across the fluid. The electrodes are completely insulated from the meter body. They
are flush with the liner and in contact with the fluid. In most meters, the electrodes can be replaced without
disassembling the meter or removing it from the pipeline.
Common applications of magnetic flow meter are water, acids, bases, slurries, liquids with suspended solids, and
industrial wastes. The limitation is the electrical conductivity of the liquid.
Linings for the metal tubes can be polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), polyurethane, or some other nonmagnetic,
non-conducting material. Signal output from flow tube‘s electrodes is between 1 mv to 30 mv ac, which is
converted to 4 to 20 mA through a transmitter.
The accuracy of most magnetic flow meters is ±1% of full scale measurement.
Vortex-Precession Meters
The vortex-precession meter is a high-performance volumetric flow meter. It is used primarily for measuring gas
flow. The fluid swirls as it enters the center portion of the meter. The vortex (eye of the swirl) is aligned with the
centerline of the meter.
The vortex immediately precesses (moves outward in a helical motion). Precessing is a natural phenomenon that
occurs when a rotating fluid enters an enlarged space. The outward spiral of the vortex, combined with the flow
of fluid from left to right, causes the vortex to move through the meter in a helical path.
As fluid moves past the swirl-producing vanes, it flows over a thermistor. A thermistor is a resistor whose
resistance changes sharply as temperature fluctuates. If the thermistor cools, its resistance increases. If it heats up,
its resistance decreases. A small constant current from the detector/preamplifier keeps the thermistor
continuously heated. The current heats the thermistor to an equilibrium temperature.
Suppose the fluid flow across the thermistor increases. The thermistor cools slightly, causing its resistance to
increase. Because the current to the thermistor is constant, the voltage drop across the thermistor increases.
Changes in thermistor resistance are directly related to changes in flow across the thermistor. Note that as the
vortex travels down the meter in its helical path, it causes the flow across the thermistor to change continually.
The change in flow is reflected in changing thermistor resistance. The thermistor must have a short time constant
(be capable of quick changes in resistance) to detect rapid heating and cooling.
As the vortex of the spinning fluid moves down the meter, it approaches and then moves away from the
thermistor. This movement of the vortex causes fluid flow across the thermistor to increase and then to decrease.
As flow rate increases, the fluid swirls faster and the vortex travels faster through its helical path. This action
causes flow across the thermistor to increase and decrease at a faster rate.
The frequency at which the resistance changes is proportional to the speed at which the vortex precesses. The
frequency of vortex precession is proportional to volumetric flow rate. Therefore, we can conclude that the
frequency at which the thermistor changes resistance is proportional to flow rate.
After crossing the thermistor, the fluid passes through the flow-straightening component. The flow straightener
isolates the meter from downstream piping and improves its performance. After leaving the flow straightener, the
fluid leaves the meter.
Vortex shedding meter
The phenomenon referred to as vortex shedding is the basis for the vortex-shedding meter. When flowing fluid
passes an un-streamlined body (referred to as a bluff body or strut) the flow cannot follow the sharp contours of
the obstruction. The fluid separates into layers and rolls around the bluff body. The rolling action creates vortices
that form on the sides of the body and move downstream. The formation of vortices by the bluff body is a
naturally occurring phenomenon caused by the shape of the obstruction in the flow path.
The vortices alternately spin clockwise and then counterclockwise. This is the natural way vortices form and is
the basis for the meter‘s operation. As a vortex forms on one side of the body, a low-pressure area is created. At
the same time, the effect of the spinning fluid behind the obstruction starts a vortex on the opposite side.
When the vortex on top of the bluff body breaks away from the body, the beginning of a new vortex forms on the
bottom. In turn, it also sheds and is followed by another vortex on top.
It is the alternate shedding of vortices from one side of the bluff body to the other that forms the basis of the
meter‘s operation. Remember that pressure decreases when a vortex is formed. When the vortex is shed, pressure
increases until the next vortex forms, at which time pressure again decreases.
On the opposite side of the bluff body, pressure also increases and decreases due to vortex formation and
shedding. The result is a measurable increase and decrease of pressure across the bluff body. One kind of vortex-
shedding meter is designed with sensors on opposite sides of the bluff body to detect this change in pressure.
The vortex-shedding frequency (the time between formation of vortices) is a function of flow velocity. Suppose
fluid flows through the meter at a velocity of 5 ft/s and a vortex forms and sheds 100 times each second
(shedding frequency is 100 Hz).
The sensors mounted on each side of the bluff body detect the change in pressure that accompanies the shedding
of a vortex. The output of the pressure sensors is a noisy sine wave. Its frequency is identical to the vortex-
shedding frequency
Some kind of vortex-shedding flow meters use a piezoelectric element that detects small movements of the strut
as vortices are shed.
The ultrasonic, thermal, and piezoelectric flow meters use a preamplifier to send a signal to a remote converter.
Others include a converter mounted with the flow meter.
Mass Flow
Real gases roughly follow the ideal gas law, which states that pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas are
interrelated. The gas law is:
PV = nRT
Where, P= pressure of the gas
V= volume of the gas
n = amount of gas
R = ideal gas constant
T = temperature of the gas.
If the pressure is increased, with the temperature held constant, the volume decreases. If the temperature is
increased, with the volume held constant, the pressure increases. The only constant is the mass of the gas, which
therefore does not change.
Mass flow is the molecular measurement of the gas flow rate. Mass flow is usually expressed in units of mass per
unit time—kilograms/hour (kg/hr), for example. However, gas flow is usually measured by volume—for
example, liters/hour (L/hr). Because volume depends on temperature and pressure.
Mass Flow meters
Coriolis meter is most commonly used for liquids.
Its operation is based on the natural phenomenon referred to as the Coriolis force.
Coriolis unit consists of a U-shaped flow tube enclosed in a sensor housing connected to an electronics unit. The
U shaped tube is vibrated by a magnetic device located at the bend of the tube. As the liquid flows through the
tube, it takes on the vertical movement of the tube. The force of the flowing liquid resists the force of the tube
movement, causing the tube to twist. The amount of twist is directly proportional to the mass flow rate of the
liquid flowing through the tube.
Magnetic sensors on the sides of the tube measure the tube velocity, which changes as the tube twists. The
electronics unit converts the sensor readings to a voltage that is proportional to mass flow rate. These meters are
useful for measuring liquids whose viscosity varies with the velocity (adhesives, for example), but because of the
relatively small U-tube, the Coriolis meter causes a substantial pressure drop.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature can be defined as
a) The condition of a body which determines the transfer of heat to or from other bodies.
b) The degree of hotness or coldness as referenced to a specific scale of temperature measurement.

HEAT
Energy that flows to a body and causes it to increase its temperature, melt, boil, expand, or undergo other changes
is called heat.
Unit of heat is BTU (British thermal unit). The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lb
of water 1 degree F at atmospheric pressure.
1 BTU = 1055 joules.
Calorie
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1 deg C (starting at 15 deg C) at
atmospheric pressure. 1 Cal = 4.184 joule.
Specific heat
It is defined as the ratio of heat required to raise the temperature of a certain weight of a substance 1oF to that
required to raise the temperature of the same weight of water 1oF (measured under constant pressure).
Vaporization
The change of physical state from liquid to gas is called vaporization.
Condensation
The change of physical state from gas to liquid is called condensation.
Latent heat of vaporization
The amount of heat necessary to change a substance at the boiling point from liquid to gas is called latent heat of
vaporization.
Fusion
The change of physical state from liquid to solid is called fusion ( or freezing).
Melting
The change of physical state from solid to liquid is called melting.
Latent heat of fusion:
The amount of heat that must be removed as a substance changes from a liquid to a solid, or added as the solid
becomes liquid is referred to as the latent heat of fusion.
Temperature scales
Celsius: Melting point of ice is 0 and boiling point is 100.
oC = (oF – 32) / 1.8.
Fahrenheit: Melting point of ice is 32 and boiling point is 212.

oF=(1.8 * oC ) + 32.
Kelvin It is absolute scale.
K= oC +273.15.
Rankine
oR = oF +459.67
Absolute zero
A hypothetical temperature at which a substance would have no thermal energy. T (abs.) = -273.15 oC
Triple point
The temperature at which gaseous, liquid, and solid states of a substance exist simultaneously.
All temperature measurements in industry are of two basic groups.
A). Non Electric type

Bimetallic, Liquid in glass, Filled thermal system.
B). Electric type

Thermocouple, RTD, Thermistor, Pyrometer (Radiation & Optical)
Temperature is indicated by the changes it causes in certain instruments.

Changes in density ( liquid in glass thermometers)
Changes in length or volume (bimetallic or filled system)
Voltage generated at junction of dissimilar metals (thermocouple)
Resonant frequency of crystals (quartz thermometers)
Changes in electrical resistance (Resistance thermometers)
BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS
Coefficient of thermal expansion
It is the change in length or volume of a substance per degree of temperature change.
Bimetallic thermometers use the difference in thermal expansion of two different metals to indicate
temperature. Two straight metal strips are placed side by side and welded together lengthwise. Bimetallic strip
bends towards the side that has the lower rate of thermal expansion.
If one end of strip is fixed , the distance the other end bends is directly proportional to the square of the length of
the metal strip, as well as to the total change in temperature, while inversely proportional to the thickness of the
metal. Invar (alloy of iron and nickel) is used as low expansion material while brass (alloy of copper and zinc) is
used as high expansion material.
Bimetallic thermometers are available in ranges from -75 oC to 540 oC with accuracy of ±1%.
LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS

Its operation is based on the principle that liquids expand as temperature increases. It consists of a small bore
glass tube with a thin wall glass tube at its lower end. Liquid filled is usually mercury or an organic compound.
FILLED THERMAL SYSTEMS

The basic components of a filled system thermometer are
Thermometer bulb
Capillary tube
Bourdon tube
The entire system is filled with filling fluid. A change in temperature causes the fluid to expand or contract, in
turn causing the bourdon tube to move.
1. Liquid filled system

A bulb is inserted into the substance to be measured. Filling liquid inside the bulb (commonly toluene or xylene)
is heated or cooled until the temperature of the filling liquid matches the temperature of the measured substance.
Mercury is also used as filling fluid due to rapid response to temperature changes.
2. Gas filled systems

It operates on the principle that the pressure of a confined gas varies directly with its absolute temperature.
P=kT, where k=constant, and T=absolute temperature.
Nitrogen gas is normally used as filled gas.
3. Vapor pressure systems

Liquid in vapor pressure system vaporizes during operation. Bulb is partially filled with liquid while capillary
and bourdon are filled with vapor. Liquids used are methyl chloride, sulfur dioxide, ether alcohol, and toluene.
A gas remains gaseous under pressure at normal room temperature, but a vapor under pressure at normal room
temperature returns to its liquid or solid state.
Thermometer bulbs
It is usually made of stainless steel due to good heat transfer properties.
Plain bulb: Not used where rapid response is important.
Averaging bulb: provides rapid response to temperature changes.
Capillary bulb:
It is wound in helix, increasing surface area and improving response time.
Capillary tube
A capillary should contain the smallest possible volume of filling fluid. Change of temperature in liquid in
capillary can cause movement of bourdon tube.
Bourdon tubes
Helical bourdon tube is commonly used. Bourdon tube uncoils due to temperature rise in system. An attached
linkage is used to indicate system temperature.
A transducer is used to convert position of bourdon tube to an electric or pneumatic signal for remote
transmission.
Advantages
Filled system thermometers are used with accuracy of ±0.5%. Their advantages are lesser maintenance, no
electric power requirement, satisfactory time response and accuracy.
Disadvantage
The disadvantage is that the entire system usually must be replaced in case of failure.
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR
It works on the principle that electrical resistance of any material increases with temperature increase and vice
versa. A piece of nickel or platinum wire can be used to measure resistance for different temperatures.
RTD resistance elements are constructed of platinum, copper or nickel. The metal should have a high coefficient
of resistance (change in resistance that occurs with a change in temperature).
A platinum RTD is normally used to measure precise temperature from -259 to 631 oC.
Pt 100 means temperature is 0 oC at 100 ohms resistance.
Measurement of unknown resistance
The electrical circuit used for temperature measurement is a Wheatstone bridge. The bridge converts the RTD‘s
change in resistance to a voltage output. This circuit uses four separate electrical resistors, one of which is the
RTD.
The bridge is initially balanced, with voltage output equal to zero, because all four resistors are equal. If the
resistance of the RTD changes, due to a temperature change, the bridge becomes unbalanced, resulting in a
voltage output other than zero.
In two conductors RTD, these conductors become part of resistance being measured, so ambient temperature
variation will result in error of net temperature.
Three conductor RTD cable is mostly used to minimize the effect of ambient temperature variations on cable.
In three lead circuit, L1 and L2 are in opposite arms of the bridge. The change in L1 is equal to L2. Because L3 is
in series with the input voltage, the bridge output voltage is unaffected.
Four conductor RTD is used to reduce temperature effects on cable. This circuit is used in a system with long
lead wires whose temperature varies greatly during measurement.
Resistance elements are usually long spring like wires enclosed in a metal sheath. The platinum element is
surrounded by a porcelain insulating material that prevents a short circuit from developing between the wire and
the sheath. The sheath is made of Inconel, an alloy of nickel, iron, and chromium. This material has excellent
corrosion resistance and can be used in extremely harsh environments for long periods of time without
deteriorating.
The thermowell protects the RTD from any contamination or corrosion caused by the gases or liquids being
measured.
A heavy metal head, made of cast iron or aluminum, covers the terminal block containing the electrical
connections between the RTD and Wheatstone bridge.
The main advantage of RTD is stability , linearity and accuracy.
THERMISTOR
Its name is derived from thermally sensitive resistor. Resistance of a thermistor varies as a function of
temperature. Thermistor is an electrical device made of solid semiconductor with high temperature coefficient of
resistivity.
It is usually made of complex metal oxides (manganese-nickel, manganese – nickel –iron).
In negative coefficient thermistor resistance decreases as temperature increases.
A positive coefficient thermistor (resistance increases as temp. increases) is connected in series with a control
relay to react to temperature limits or overload conditions. As temperature increases the resistance of thermistor
increases. This causes current in the relay coil to decrease, and relay trips out. It is used to protect industrial
motors.
Thermistor is very sensitive so it often does not require wheat stone bridge.
They are used in range of -260 to 315 oC.
THERMOCOUPLE
It works on the principle that if two wires made of different metals are joined at one end and joined ends are at
different temperatures than the open ends, a small voltage is produced across the open ends. Joined ends are
called hot junction while open ends are called cold junction.
To keep the wires apart, porcelain insulator is used for higher temperature.
For accurate temperature measurement, reference junction temperature must remain constant. Indicating or
recording instruments use internal and automatic cold junction compensation. Either a thermistor directly
measures mV in junction box and is compensated for net temperature output or a thermocouple added to actual
thermocouple can give net temperature.
Two main classes of thermocouples are
Noble metal thermocouples: platinum or gold is used as one wire. Highly resistant to corrosion, low electric
resistivity, good repeatability. Type S,R and B are all noble metal thermocouples.
Base metal thermocouples: type J, T, E, and K are all base metal thermocouples.
Thermal emf developed is dependant on metals of thermocouple. Common types of thermocouples are as
follows.
A). COPPER-CONSTANTAN (T TYPE)

Copper element used as positive conductor and constantan element for negative conductor. Constantan contains
55% copper and 45% Nickel. This thermocouple is used in Oxidizing or reducing atmosphere.
Range: -300 oF to +600 oF
B). IRON – CONSTANTAN (J TYPE)

Iron element is used as positive conductor and constantan element for negative conductor. This thermocouple is
used in Oxidizing or reducing atmosphere.
C). CHROMEL- ALUMEL (K TYPE)

Chromium alloy is used as positive conductor and Alumel element for negative conductor. This thermocouple is
used in Oxidizing atmosphere.
D). CHROMEL-CONSTANTAN (E TYPE)
This thermocouple is used in Oxidizing atmosphere.

Chromel = 90% Nickel & Chromium = 9%
Constantan = 44% Nickel & Cupper = 55%
Range: +32 oF to +1600 oF
E). PLATINUM RHODIUM/PLATINUM (R ,B, S TYPE)

This thermocouple is used in Oxidizing atmosphere.
In R type thermo couple, pt = 87% & Rh = 13%
Range: Up to +2700 oF
In S type thermo couple, pt = 90% & Rh = 10%
Range: 0 oF to +2100 oF
In B type thermo couple, pt = 70% & Rh = 30%
Range: 1472 oF to +3092 oF
An extension wire made of the same material as the thermocouple is referred to as thermocouple wire, but a wire
made of different material (with characteristics similar to the thermocouple‘s) is referred to as compensating lead
wire. thermocouple wire can be used for type T and J because material is not expensive. Compensating lead wire
is normally made of copper or copper/nickel alloy.
SPECIAL PURPOSE THERMOCOUPLES
HOT BLAST
It has fast response. It is used to measure temperature of preheated air to furnace.
GASKET THERMOCOUPLE
It is mounted on studs or bolts to measure skin temperature of process lines, shell vessels or other process
machinery.
TUBE WALL THERMOCOUPLE

It is used to measure furnace tube temperature. It is installed by welding pad to tube or other surface.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THERMOCOUPLES
1). THERMOPILE
Thermocouples connected in series to measure net voltage of thermocouples.
2). DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE
Two thermocouples can be used for measuring differential temperature between two points. Connections are
made in such a way that emf‘s developed oppose each other. If temperature of both thermocouples is equal , net
emf is zero. It can be used to measure differential temperature of top and bottom of steam line.
3). AVERAGE TEMPERATURE

To measure average temperature across a vessel or duct, thermocouples may be used in parallel connection. Net
voltage produced at instrument is average voltage developed by thermocouples.
For accurate measurement, resistance of all thermocouples and extension wires should be same. Due to variation
in temperature of thermocouple and length of extension wire, a swamping resistor
Pyrometry
It is a method of measuring temperature without physical contact between the transducer and the heated material.
Its principle is based on relationship between temperature of a hot body and the electromagnetic radiation it
emits.
Electromagnetic wave: A single burst of energy, like the one emitted by the solid, is referred to as an
electromagnetic wave.
Electromagnetic radiation: A series of electromagnetic waves is referred to as electromagnetic radiation.
Pyrometry is based on the principle that intensity of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body depends partly
on body‘s emissivity or emittance and also depends on temperature of a body.
Emissivity: the ability of a surface to send out radiant energy.
Emittance: amount of energy emitted per unit area by a radiating surface.
The radiation is not visible because it is in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum, and therefore is
lower in frequency than visible light.
Emittance varies inversely with reflection, so good emitters are poor reflectors but good absorbers. Black body is
an ideal emitter/absorber.
Emittance = Test object’s total radiation / black body’s total radiation.
Two bodies at same temperatures but with different values of emittance, radiate different amounts of heat.
Most bodies emit and absorb radiation at specific wavelengths. The wave length causes an object to have a
characteristic color if it is heated.
Types of pyrometers
Narrowband pyrometer (optical pyrometer)
It operates on the principle of the relationship between the intensity of emitted radiation and the temperature of
the body. To measure the temperature of a body the intensity (brightness) of radiation emitted by body is matched
to brightness of a reference object whose temperature is known. It works in portion of electromagnetic spectrum
that lies in visible light range (0.35 to 0.75 µ).
Broadband pyrometers (radiation pyrometers)

It is based on relationship between total emitted radiation and temperature. It works in all range of
electromagnetic spectrum but likely in visible and infrared light range. As the total energy radiated by a hot body
enters the pyrometer, it is focused by the lens onto the detector (thermopile, photocell, thermistor or RTD).
Suppose the detector measures temperature 80 oC for 1200 oC temperature of target, then increase in targets
temperature causes increase in detectors temp.
Types of narrow band pyrometers

Manual optical pyrometer
Its use is limited to the wavelengths to which the human eye can respond. Reference filament is heated by an
electric current, which can be varied by a control knob. Brightness of filament is matched to that of target object.
When they are perfectly matched, filament disappears and can‘t be seen. Control knob is scaled to read directly in
degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. Filter limits (allows) the portion of electromagnetic spectrum visible to human
eye. Its advantage is flexibility and portability. It cannot measure temperature below 800 oC because level of
radiation emitted is too low.
Automatic optical pyrometer
It compares the intensity of energy radiated by a target to that emitted by a controlled reference (filament). The
modulator passes the radiation, first from target then from the reference through to the filter. Filter passes
radiation of selected wavelength to detector. Detector (photomultiplier tube or solid state photo detectors) senses
radiations alternately and generates an electrical signal proportional to the intensity of the radiation. Controller
receives signal from detector and varies intensity of filament radiation until both intensities matched. The current
through filament is measure of target‘s temperature.
Primary and secondary standards

There are three standard industrial temperature-measuring instruments.
platinum resistance thermometer
platinum rhodium-platinum thermocouple
Infrared optical pyrometer.
These instruments are periodically calibrated from National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). NIST
used to be called the National Bureau of Standards (NBS).
Primary calibration standards

The international practical temperature scale (IPTS) is based on 11 temperatures at which specific substances
change their state. These temperature points are primary fixed points. These points were chosen because the
specific conditions and corresponding temperatures can be easily duplicated.
Secondary fixed points provide additional data points in the middle portion of the IPTS. These points are often
used for testing and calibration of temperature measuring instruments because they are more conveniently
obtained.
Primary fixed points for the IPTS
SUBSTANCE TEMPERATURE (oc)
(STATE)
Hydrogen (triple point) (-) 259.34
Hydrogen /liquid/gas (-) 256.108
equilibrium at 25/76
standard atmospheres)
Hydrogen (boiling (-) 252.87
point)
Neon (boiling point) (-) 246.048
Oxygen (triple point) (-) 218.789
Oxygen (boiling point) (-) 182.962

Water (triple point) (+) 0.01
Water (boiling point) (+) 100
Zinc (freezing point) (+) 419.58
Silver (freezing point) (+) 961.93
Gold (freezing point) (+) 1064.43
Secondary fixed points for the IPTS

SUBSTANCE (STATE) TEMPERATURE (oc)
Carbon dioxide (boiling (-) 78.476
point)
Mercury (freezing point) (-) 38.862
Water (freezing point) (+)0
Phenoxybenzene (diphenyl (+) 26.87
ether) (triple point)
Benzoic acid (triple point) (+) 122.37
Indium (freezing point) (+) 156.634
Tin (freezing point) (+) 231.968
cadmium (freezing point) (+) 321.108
Lead (freezing point) (+) 327.502
Mercury (boiling point) (+) 356.66
Antimony (freezing point) (+) 630.74
Aluminum (freezing point) (+) 660.37
Primary standard instruments
A primary standard is an instrument that meets specifications based on legal international definitions of a
fundamental unit of measurement. a Pt100 is the standard for the temperature range of -259.34 to 630.74 oC (the
triple point of hydrogen to the freezing point of antimony). A platinum/10% rhodium-platinum thermocouple
(Type S) is the standard from 630.74 to 1064.43 oC (the freezing point of antimony to the freezing point of
gold). An optical pyrometer is the standard above 1064 oC.
Secondary standard instruments

These are calibrated against primary standards and are nearly as accurate. These are less expensive and easy to
use than primary standards.
Working standard instruments

These are calibrated from secondary standards and are used for on-the-job testing and calibration in the field.
Analytical Instruments
Conductivity
Resistance is a measure of the ability of an electrical circuit to oppose current flow. Conductance is a measure of
the ability of a circuit to pass current. The symbol for conductance is G. Unit of measurement for conductance is
siemens (or mho), and is the reciprocal of resistance (R) in ohms:
G = 1/R
The conductivity of a substance is the conductance of a unit length and unit cross-sectional area of that substance.
Several kinds of sensors, or probes, are used to measure the conductivity of a process liquid. The two main kinds
are:
Electrode probe
Inductive (electrodeless) probe
Electrode probe. The electrode probe operates by applying a fixed-amplitude, square-wave volt age across two
electrodes of known size and known separation immersed in the process liquid. If the liquid contains ions,
allowing a current to flow, the current is measured and converted to a conductivity reading. An alternating
current is used to avoid polarizing the liquid, a condition that would make a reading impossible. Polarization is
the production of a gaseous layer on the surface of the electrodes.
If the size of the electrode plates is changed, the amount of current changes. Therefore, the indicated conductivity
changes although the voltage has not changed. This procedure is referred to as changing the cell constant of an
instrument.
Each cell with fixed electrodes has its own cell constant. Cell constants range from 0.01 to 100 and vary by
multiples of ten. An instrument with a cell constant of 0.01 has a range of 1 to 10 micro- siemens, an instrument
with a cell constant of 0.1 has a range of 1 to 100 micro siemens, and an instrument with a cell constant of 1.0
can measure 1 to 1000 micro- siemens, and so on.
Inductive probes. The inductive magnetic field probe, also referred to as an electrodeless probe, operates on a
different principle from the electrode probe. The inductive probe is made up of two completely enclosed
electrical coils. During operation, the probe is entirely immersed in the process liquid. The probe is enclosed in a
corrosion- resistant coating.
The instrument sends an alternating current through the primary coil. This current creates an alternating magnetic
field that induces an alternating current in the pickup coil. The conductivity of the process liquid affects the
magnetic coupling between the coils. The induced current in the pickup coil is directly proportional to the
conductivity of the liquid.
No direct contact is necessary between the coils and the solution, thus reducing potential maintenance problems.
This system normally transmits a 4 to 20 mA dc signal that is proportional to the measured conductivity. To
change the cell constant, you change the probe.
Introduction to pH and ORP
pH is a measure of the number of hydrogen ions in a process liquid. ORP (Oxidation-Reduction Potential)
measures the ratio of ions that oxidize to those that reduce other chemicals
pH Measurement
The pH value of an aqueous (water-containing) liquid is an indication of positive hydrogen ion (H+) activity.
Readings of pH in non-aqueous liquids are not measures of hydrogen ion activity, but are useful in specific
situations. The molecules that make up a liquid, whether water alone or water with another chemical dissolved in
it, can be partially broken down into smaller particles referred to as ions. Some of the molecules in water (H
break down into two different kinds of ions, H (hydrogen) and OH- (hydroxyl).
By definition, pH is the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
It is important to recognize that pH measures only the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, and not the
total acidity or alkalinity of the liquid.
Liquids with a pH of less than seven have more H+ than OH- ions. They are referred to as acids. Acid solutions
increase in strength as the pH value fall below 7 (down to 0).
Liquids with a pH greater than seven are referred to as bases and have many more OH- ions than H+ ions. Basic
solutions increase in strength as the pH values rise above 7 (up to 14).
Temperature has a significant effect on pH. The effect of temperature must be taken into account in any
measurement of pH. Instrumentation normally includes a temperature detector and is capable of calculating the
pH, by means of a temperature correction factor, as if the temperature actually were 25°C.
ORP Measurement
Oxidation may be defined as the loss of electrons by one molecule and reduction as the absorption of electrons by
another. Every liquid has both oxidizing and reducing ions, but their balance varies from liquid to liquid. Those
liquids that tend to reduce have an excess of electrons. Those that tend to oxidize have a shortage of electrons.
The ORP of a process liquid indicates by its voltage polarity whether the process liquid has an oxidizing potential
or a reducing potential. A liquid with an oxidizing potential has a positive polarity relative to the reference
voltage. A liquid with a reducing potential has a negative polarity relative to the reference voltage. The unit of
ORP measurement—the voltage potential measured between two electrodes submerged in a liquid—is the
millivolt.
pH and ORP Reference Electrodes

A pH probe is made up of two separate electrodes, as is an ORP probe. The reference electrode is the same for
both pH and ORP probes, but the measurement electrodes are different.
The reference electrode is designed to provide a constant voltage potential despite changes in pH or temperature.
This electrode is used to monitor any change in the total liquid potential.
The lead wire is in an inner tube that contains silver metal and silver chloride paste. This paste is in contact with a
saturated solution of potassium chloride (KCI), which acts as an electrical bridge to the solution being measured.
The potential of the reference electrode depends on temperature and on the KCI concentration.
The KC1 slowly migrates from the reference electrode to the solution being measured by means of a liquid
junction consisting of a porous ceramic material near the bottom of the electrode. Crystals of solid KCI in the
bottom of the electrode ensure that the solution stays saturated. A portal is provided for replenishment of the KCI,
and a rubber sleeve protects the portal from contamination.
pH and ORP Measurement Electrodes
The pH measurement electrode produces a potential of 59.2 mV per pH unit, which relates directly to the solution
in which it is submerged. Measurement of the potential requires a current through a very high impedance
amplifier and back to the process liquid. Electrical connection of the measuring circuit to the liquid is through a
liquid junction—a calibrated leak of liquid from the reference electrode into the process—that is part of the
reference electrode.
The pH measurement electrode has a thin walled glass bulb filled with a liquid of known pH, usually potassium
chloride. A silver-silver chloride electrode is immersed in the liquid. The hydrogen ions on the inside of the
electrode are of a different concentration than the hydrogen ions on the outside. These ions want to reach
equilibrium by migrating through the glass wall of the electrode until the concentrations are the same.
This migration is prevented by the glass, and thus a potential is established. A potential difference across the thin
bulb will occur when the H+ activity inside the electrode is different from the H+ activity in the liquid to be
measured. Because glass is an insulator, the bulb wall must be very thin to permit accurate voltage readings.
The pH measurement electrode (which is usually attached to a high-impedance voltmeter) reacts to any change in
voltage and reports it as a pH reading. The pH measurement electrode has a watertight seal at the top to keep out
any liquid or moisture that could affect the probe‘s operation.
Both reference and measurement electrodes are contained in the same housing in the probe.
The ORP measurement electrode is simply a platinum wire exposed at its bottom end to the process liquid. The
ORP reference electrode is identical to the pH reference electrode. The ORP measurement electrode reacts to
variations in voltage. Voltage variations caused by variations in the activity of the oxidizing and reducing ions in
the process liquid are amplified and displayed as the ORP of the liquid.
Controllers
Purpose of Automatic Controllers
The purpose of any automatic controller is to bring a process variable to a desired value and keep it there. A
controller compares its process variable (PV) input, which represents the actual value of the process, with its set
point (SP), which is the desired value. Any difference, positive or negative, is called error (E), and error is the
basis for calculating the controller output needed to make PV equal to SP.
Any change in controller output causes a change in the PV value and a resulting change in the controller input.
This kind of system is a closed loop with feed back. An open-loop process does not measure the PV value and
feed it back to the instrument.
Kinds of Controllers
Virtually all industrial process controllers can be placed in one of three categories, as defined by their output
signals:
Electrical
Electronic
Pneumatic
Input signals are usually, but not necessarily, of the same form and range as the output signals.
Electrical controllers are essentially switches that pass relatively high levels of electric power capable of
operating final control elements—for example, valves, motors or heaters— directly or through auxiliary relays. A
degree of proportional control can be achieved by varying the time of the switch closure.
Electronic controllers produce a small current signal, typically 4 to 20 milli amperes (mA), but sometimes 1 to 5
mA or 10 to 50 mA. This signal is used as a pilot signal for some form of amplifier in the end element. Output
signals always have a live zero, meaning that the minimum output is other than zero (1, 4, or 10 mA), and note
that the output signal range, minimum to maximum, is always in the ratio of 1 to 5(1 to 5::4 to 20::10 to 50::1 to
5).
Pneumatic controllers use compressed air to produce controller output signals of 3 to 15 pounds per square inch
(psi) or, sometimes, 6 to 30 psi. Note the live zero and 1:5 range, as in electronic controllers. The controller
output has enough pressure to operate many end elements directly—for example, pneumatic diaphragm valves.
However, the volume of air passed through the controller is small. Amplifiers often are used to increase the speed
of response.
Variables
Typical process control loops include three kinds of values:
Measured variable
Process variable
Manipulated variable
The measured variable, which sometimes is called the controlled variable, is the primary process value like
temperature, pressure, flow, etc.
The process variable (PV) is a signal that represents the measured variable.
The manipulated variable is affected by the controller output and may not be the same as the measured
variable.
Process Dynamics
The term process dynamics refers to the characteristics and behavior of the process and includes the following:
• Speed of response. A process may be slow to respond to input energy changes (as in the case of some
temperature processes), or it may be so fast that it becomes noisy as it oscillates above and below the set point
(which happens in some flow processes).
• Lag. A process may resist change and lag behind its energy input, not responding promptly when energy is
added and over shooting the set point after energy input is stopped. Large electrically heated furnaces with heavy
loads often exhibit lag.
Dead time: There may be a delay between related actions, and a process may appear not to respond at all to
changes in energy input.
Hysteresis: A process may respond differently when approaching the set point from above than it does when
approaching from below.
Capacitance: In a process, the input of material or energy causes a change in one or more measured values in the
system. How much material or energy it takes to produce a change of one unit in one component of the system is
called the capacitance of that component.
Nonlinearity: A process may respond differently to equal increments of energy change, depending on the
starting value. Many chemical reactions exhibit nonlinearity.
Controller Terminology
SP (set point) is the desired value of a process expressed in engineering units set into the controller by the
operator.
RSP (remote set point) is a set point set into a controller from a remote source.
E (error or deviation) is the difference between the process variable and the set point.
Forward/reverse action describes the direction of output change compared to the direction of input change.
P (proportional action) is a component of the output signal whose value is related to the size of the error.
I (integral action, or reset) is a component of the output signal whose size is related to the length of time the
error has persisted.
D (derivative action or rate) is a component of the output signal whose size is related to the speed at which the
error is changing.
Bias is a fixed component of the output signal. Bias is present even when the error is zero, and is always added to
the P, I, and D components.
PB (proportional band) is a scaling factor (a multiplier) defined as the percentage change in measured variable
needed to cause a 100% change in controller output. Electronic controllers usually express PB as gain (K). Gain
is the reciprocal of proportional band. That is:
K = 1/PB = 100%/PB and PB = 1/K =100%/K.
Approach is a component in the output for processes (typically temperature processes) that have large initial
errors and a tendency to overshoot as they near the set point.
Cascade control describes an arrangement of two or more controllers in which the output of one controller
becomes the PV or RSP input to another controller rather than going to an end element, which receives only the
output signal from the final controller.
Feed forward control is a form of cascade control in which an output from one controller is sent to a second
controller.
Ratio control is a form of cascade control, often used in flow applications, in which several controllers combine
to maintain a specified quantity made up of several components in controlled ratio to one another.
Kinds of Controllers
Direct- and Reverse-Acting Controllers
When a direct-acting controller receives an increasing signal from the transmitter, the value of its output
increases.
When a reverse-acting controller receives an increasing signal from the transmitter, its output decreases. This
kind of control is typical in industrial furnaces, chemical processes, and many other processes.
On/Off Controllers
It compares the actual value of the process variable (PV) to the set point (SP). As the PV varies around the SP the
controller output cycles on and off. It works to keep the PV at the SP by applying full output when the PV
is below the SP and turning output completely off when the PV is above the SP.
The difference between the on and off values of an on/off controller is called dead band (or sometimes control
band), and is usually adjustable. Dead band reduces cycling and the resulting equipment wear.
An on/off controller often is used as a limit controller for safety purposes.
Proportional Controllers
In proportional controllers, output varies continuously and is not limited to being either fully on or fully off.
Proportional means that the size of the controller output is related to the size of the error detected by the
controller.
The actual value of a proportional controller‘s output is made up of several components called modes or actions:
Proportional (gain) action
Integral (reset) action
Derivative (rate) action
Bias (a fixed-value component of the output).
Proportional action
Proportional action asks, ―How big is the error?‖ The controller output changes in proportion to the size of the
input error signal. Large errors cause large changes in output, and small errors cause small changes in output. The
proportional-only part of a controller‘s output varies with error signal (E) and gain of controller (K). Internally,
the controller calculates KE plus bias (bias is 4 mA in a 4- to 20-mA controller) and changes its output by an
amount proportional to the change in the error signal.
The gain adjustment, K, may be labeled gain or proportional band (PB). Proportional band is the percentage
change in the measured variable needed to cause a 100% change in controller output.
Most controllers modulate the output around 50% of the span for a certain load.
Any change in the load causes the output balance point to change.
Integral (reset) action

Integral action asks, ―How long has the error existed?‖ Integral action adds to the controller‘s proportional
output by repeating the previous proportional action, and its adjustment usually is labeled repeats per minute.
Integral action can be adjusted to a low value but cannot be turned completely off. Integral action can bring the
process back to set point by resetting the controller output periodically for as long as an error exists.
Derivative (rate) action.

Derivative action asks, ―How fast is the error changing?‖ Derivative action adds to the controller‘s output when
the error changes rapidly, even if the change is small. For slow processes like temperature control, derivative
action is beneficial. It may be detrimental, though, in processes that are inherently fast and noisy like flow.
Derivative action is adjusted in terms of the change of response time with and without derivative. The adjustment
may be labeled, usually in minutes, or unlabeled. Another switch turns rate action completely off.
Controller Tuning
Controller tuning is the selection and adjustment of the controller‘s modes (actions) for the best response and
performance of the unit over a wide range of operating conditions.
Trial-and-error methods are used more frequently for controller tuning.
To perform a typical tuning procedure, do the following:
• Turn rate action off.
• Adjust integral action to minimum,
• Set in an arbitrary gain (proportional band).
• Put the controller on AUTO and let the process stabilize. Patience is a virtue. If the process ―runs away‖ or
cycles continuously, reduce the gain. If the process is too slow to stabilize, increase the gain. With the proper
initial gain, the process should cycle once or twice across the set point before settling into a straight line near the
set point.
If the process stabilizes with a constant difference between PV and SP, add integral (reset) action to reduce or
eliminate the offset. It may be necessary to readjust gain after adding integral action, and several readjustments
may be needed to balance the system.
When the proportional and integral actions are at their optimum settings, switch on and add derivative (rate)
action in order to speed up process response.
 The length of time the controller pulses the circuit on or off is proportional to the size and direction of the
process error.
Cycle time: it is the time from the start of one ON cycle to the start of the next ON cycle. Response time: The
time it takes the process to change after the controller senses a change in PV. Shorter cycle times mean quicker
response and faster error corrections.
Duty cycle: The ratio of ON time to cycle time is called the duty cycle.
Proportional Mode
• A controller operating in the proportional mode (a proportional controller) produces a certain change in
output for each unit of difference between the value of PV and SP.
• Reverse-acting controller may operate a heater to maintain a process liquid at a certain temperature. SP is
set at 50% of the PV range. When PV equals SP, the output is also at 50%.
• Some systems are nonlinear. Output is not exactly proportional to input, and a graph of the relationship is
not a straight line. The diagonal reference line between 100% output and 100% input may be S-shaped.
Unless the curve deviation from linear is minimal or instrumentation is used to linearize it, errors will
exist at the maximum deviation points (A and B). These errors can cause over control or under control of
the output when the controller acts on the PV input signal.
• The ratio of change in output to change in input in a proportional controller is called proportional gain.
Gain is the size of the output change per unit of change in input and determines the controller‘s
sensitivity.
• 10% output change / 10% input change = 1
• When the PV value decreases to 40%, line B shows that the controller output increases to 100%. That is, a
10% input change causes an output change of 50%. Now gain is 5:
• 50% output change / 10% input change =5
• With a gain of 5, the controller responds to PV changes with a much greater output change, thus restoring
the value of PV to the value of SP more quickly.
• Gain also may be expressed as proportional band (PB). Proportional band is the PV range (given in % of
span) over which the output changes from its minimum (0%) to its maximum (100%).
• Along line A (which represents a gain of I), the output varies from 0 to 100% over the total PV range, and
the proportional band (PB) is 100% of the PV range. Along line B (representing a gain of 5), the output
varies from 0 to 100% over a range of 40 to 60% of the PV span, and PB is 20%. The smaller the PB, the
higher the sensitivity. Conversely, the larger the PB, the lower the sensitivity. A small PB equals high
gain, and a large PB equals low gain.
• Gain and PB are simply different ways of describing the same adjustment to the controller. Both values
indicate the amount of output change that occurs for a certain input change. A larger gain, or smaller PB,
causes a greater controller response to PV changes. Gain can be converted to PB and vice versa as
follows:
• Gain = 1/PB = 100% / PB and PB = 1/ gain = 100% / gain
• After installation, a proportional controller is adjusted to maintain the PV value at a specific SP under
certain load conditions. With proportional action only, a controller cannot compensate for changes in
conditions.
Offset
• The error, a constant difference between SP and PV, is called offset. Changing the set point has the same
effect on a proportional controller as a load change.
• If the process load conditions change then the output value can change. Because a proportional controller
cannot compensate for these load changes, an offset occurs between SP and PV. Increasing the gain may
provide some compensation, but increasing gain too much may make the process unstable, in turn causing
excessive cycling and unacceptable process variations.
Integral Mode (Reset)
• With a proportional controller, the only way to overcome offset is to synchronize the controller. A
controller that includes integral action eliminates the offset automatically. The integral mode also is
referred to as reset.
• As long as there is a difference between PV and SP the integral mode acts to adjust the controller output
continuously until the offset is reduced to zero.
• It does this by adding to or subtracting from the output according to:
• The size of the error
• The proportional and integral gain settings
• The length of time the error lasts.
• Suppose a sudden SP change produces a 10% error between the value of PV and SP. The proportional
gain, set to 1, causes a corresponding output change of 10%, from 50 to 60%, and stays at this level.
• However, the integral mode continues to increase the output. The output with integral repeats the
(proportional) 10% increase once each minute (as shown by line A). That is, line A shows a reset of one
repeat per minute—after one minute, output is at 70% and after two minutes, output is at 80%. Line B
shows what the output would be if the reset were set to two repeats per minute (that is, a change of 20% in
one minute).
• Integral action continues until the process error returns to zero. It acts in either direction, to correct
negative error or positive error. Any error causes integral action to eliminate offset.
• Reset is expressed in repeats per minute, but integral time is expressed in minutes per repeat, the
reciprocal of reset:
• Reset = 1/ integral time
• Integral time = 1/ reset
• Thus, a reset of two repeats per minute is equal to an integral time of 0.5 minutes (30 seconds) per repeat,
and an integral time of 0.25 minutes (15 seconds) per repeat is equal to a reset of four repeats per minute.
Reset (integral time) is most useful in processes where there are large but slow load changes.
Final Control Element

Variable: a changeable process condition which can be measured and controlled.
1. Directly controlled variable: It originates a feedback signal
2. Indirectly controlled variable: It is affected by the directly controlled variable but does not enter the
feedback loop
3. Manipulated variable: It is the quantity or condition that is varied to affect the value of the directly
controlled variable.
Final control element: the device or element that changes the value of the manipulated variable is the final
control element.
Response time: The time the control system takes to react to changes, is referred to as response time. It is critical
in maintaining process consistency.
Process gain: The amount of change in the measured variable in response to a change in the final control element
is referred to a process gain. It is crucial in maintaining accurate control.
Solenoid valves
Solenoid consists of three parts- a coil, a magnetic frame and a movable magnetic plunger. When current passes
in the coil, the coil acts like a bar magnet and attracts the movable plunge.
Force on plunger increases with the square of following fraction:
(Number of coil turns * coil current) / air gap
Two general kinds of solenoids are,
1. Direct acting: Only the plunger moves to open or close the valve because the plunger is mechanically
connected to the valve disk.
2. Pilot operated: It operates on the fluid pressure. Solenoid opens or closes a small opening (pilot orifice)
that allows fluid to exer pressure on a diaphragm. This in turn allows the valve to open fully or close.
Electric motors
Types of electric motors used as final control elements are,
 DC motor
 Single phase induction motor
 Three phase induction motor
 Stepper motor
Diaphragm Actuators
The diaphragm is made of thin flexible material that moves when exposed to pressure or force. Polyurethane,
rubber, silicon rubber, or a thin disk of metal can be used. This kind of actuator produces an up-and-down action-
that can adjust the position of valves, dampers, louvers, or other control devices requiring linear motion.
Pressurized air is admitted into the upper chamber. The lower chamber is open to the atmosphere. The
pressurized air presses downward on the diaphragm. The amount of force is equal to air pressure times the area of
the diaphragm, minus the force of the spring. If no pressurized air is applied to the input, or if the downward
force is less than the upward force of the spring, the spring holds the diaphragm at the end of the spring travel
path.
Types of actuators
Direct actuator: An actuator that- pushes down when air pressure is applied is referred to as direct acting.
Reverse actuator: An actuator that- pulls up when air pressure is applied is referred to as reverse acting.
Piston Actuators
This actuator has no springs and uses a piston rather than a diaphragm. Air pressure applied to either the top or
bottom chamber of the actuator determines the direction of rotation. This arrangement is referred to as double-
acting or two-way action.
Positioners
A positioner is a device that receives a control signal (either pneumatic or electric) and supplies proportional air
pressure to a pneumatic actuator. The actuator, in turn, proportionally adjusts the position of a valve or other final
control element. A positioner provides tighter control than an actuator alone can.
Control Valve Components

4.01 Control valves regulate or limit a process variable. They can throttle flow over a range of fully open to fully
close.
Valve Body
The part of the valve that connects to the process piping and carries the flow of fluid is referred to as the valve
body. Valve bodies must be able to withstand the same pressures and temperatures as the process piping.
Bonnet
A bonnet is a metal covering that is threaded or bolted to the valve body. It allows mounting the actuator yoke on
the valve.
Packing Box
The packing box allows the valve stem to move up and down with minimal leakage of the process fluid. Packing
rings within the packing box seal in the process fluid while allowing the valve stem to move with minimum
friction.
Packing rings are made of a relatively soft, compressible material Teflon.
Packing follower
Packing follower compresses the packing rings tightly around the valve stem, forming a leak proof seal.
Trim
The trim refers to all of the valve‘s internal metal parts that come in contact with the process fluid. It includes
• the valve stem
• the packing follower
• the guide bushings—metal inserts that fit into the valve body and guide the moving parts
• the plug—a device that controls the fluid flow, made of Teflon or similar -material and connected to the valve
stem
• the cage—a fixed cylindrical device that works with the plug to vary flow
• the seat ring—a ring that mates the plug to the surface.
Kinds of control valves

Globe valve
It provides tight shutoff (very little leakage) and can withstand high differential pressures. It requires a relatively
small linear actuator and changes flow characteristics in response to changes in trim. The globe valve‘s main
disadvantages are high pressure losses across the valve and a potential for clogging.
Two different kinds of globe valves are single-seated and double-seated. Fluid flow through either valve is
controlled by vertical movement of the throttling plugs. Double-seated valves are able to offset both the static and
dynamic forces exerted on the valve plug. Static forces are exerted by fluids at rest and dynamic forces are
exerted by fluids in motion.
The direction of flow in the double-seated valve is such that the opposing forces on the plug and valve stem
create a condition of equilibrium. For this reason, double-seated valves are also referred to as balanced valves.
This feature permits the use of a smaller actuator, with a double-seated valve than with a single-seated valve of
the same size.
One disadvantage of the double-seated valve is that it does not shut off or seal as tightly as a single-seated valve.
The reason is that thermal expansion and machining tolerances prevent both valve plugs from being seated at
exactly the same time.
Cage Valves
Cage valves are similar to globe valves in that both control flow by raising and lowering a plug. In a cage valve,
the plug fits inside a fixed, slotted cage through which fluid flows. Cage valves may be double-seated, or single-
seated. When fluid passes through to the top of the plug, fluid pressure forces on the valve‘s stem are balanced, as
in the double-seated globe valve. For this reason, double-seated cage valves are also referred to as balanced cage
valves.
Butterfly Valves
Butterfly valves have an economical, straight-through flow design with a low pressure drop and little likelihood
of clogging. This makes them especially good in slurry processes. However, butterfly valves also have
disadvantages:
• They do not shut off as tightly as globe valves.
• Their allowable differential pressures are lower than those of globe valves.
• We cannot change their flow characteristics.
Ball Valves
The ball valveis similar to a butterfly valve. However, the ball valve has a greater seating area because its flow-
control element is a sphere instead of a disk. For this reason, ball valves allow higher differential pressures and
have better sealing characteristics than butterfly valves. They are also, slightly more expensive.
Sliding-Gate Valves
Sliding-gate valves have a straight-through flow design, but can be shut off almost as tightly as globe valves.
Sliding-gate valves have good sealing characteristics. They have a lower pressure drop than the globe valve, but
not as low as that of butterfly valve. The sliding-gate valve uses a linear actuator with a very short stroke.
Diaphragm Valves
Diaphragm valves (also referred to Saunders valves) use a flexible rubber or rubber like diaphragm to control
flow. Diaphragm valves have simple, straight-through flow path, are self-cleaning, require no stem packing, and
can be shut off as tightly as butterfly valves. However, the diaphragm material cannot withstand high pressures or
high temperature.
Split-Body Valves
The split-body valve varies from the globe valve in that the two parts of the body are bolted together for easy
maintenance. To service a globe valve, first remove its actuator, yoke, bonnet, and trim. To service a split-body
valve, it is needed to remove only the bolts holding its body together. For this reason, split-body valves are often
used in processes subject to corrosion or frequent clogging.
Valve characteristics
A valve‘s inherent flow characteristics are a function of valve design and trim, independent of the valve‘s
application.
Flow characteristics are,
1. linear: if the valve stem position corresponds directly to the flow, the flow characteristic is linear.
2. equal percentage: if a certain change in valve stem position results in a small change in flow near the
closed position and a large change near the full open position, the flow characteristic is equal percentage .
3. quick opening: it is reverse of equal percentage characteristics. Large flow changes occur near the valve‘s
closed position and small flow changes occur near the valve‘s full open position.
4. butterfly
5. ball
Gain
Gain is defined as:
Change in flow / change in stem position
Gain helps describe valve characteristics:
• Gain is constant in linear valves
• Gain increases as the valve opens in equal-percentage valves.
• Gain decreases as the valve opens in quick-opening valves.
A control valve that produces large flow changes in response to small valve stem movements is said to have high
gain.
Hazardous Area Classification
This Standard provides general guidance for safe design, installation, and maintenance of electrical apparatus in hazardous
(classified) locations using appropriate means to prevent ignition of flammable gases and vapors, flammable liquids,
combustible dusts, or ignitable fibers or flyings.
Class I location:
It refers to a location in which flammable gases or vapors are or may be present in the air in quantities sufficient to produce
explosive or ignitable mixtures.
Class I, Division 1 location:
It refers to a location,
(1) in which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors can exist under normal operating conditions
(2) in which ignitable concentrations of such gases or vapors may exist frequently because of repair or maintenance
operations or because of leakage
(3) in which breakdown or faulty operation of equipment or processes might release ignitable concentrations of flammable
gases or vapors and might also cause simultaneous failure of electrical equipment that could act as a source of ignition.
Class I, Division 2 location:

(1) in which volatile flammable liquids or flammable gases are handled, processed, or used, but
in which the liquids, vapors, or gases will normally be confined within closed containers or closed systems from which they
can escape only in case of accidental rupture or breakdown of such containers or systems, or in case of abnormal
operation of equipment
(2) in which ignitable concentrations of gases or vapors are normally prevented by positive mechanical ventilation and
might become hazardous through failure or abnormal operation of the ventilating equipment
(3) that is adjacent to a Class I, Division 1 location and to which ignitable concentrations of gases or vapors might
occasionally be communicated unless such communication is prevented by adequate positive-pressure ventilation from a
source of clean
air and effective safeguards against ventilation failure are provided.
Class II location:
a location that is hazardous because of the presence of combustible dust.
Class II, Division 1 location:
(1) in which combustible dust is in the air under normal operating conditions in quantities
sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures
(2) in which mechanical failure or abnormal operation of machinery or equipment might cause such explosive or ignitable
mixtures to be produced and
might also provide a source of ignition through simultaneous failure of electrical equipment, operation of protection devices,
or from other causes
(3) in which combustible dusts of an electrically conductive nature may be present in hazardous quantities.
Class II, Division 2 location:

a location in which combustible dust is not normally in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable
mixtures and dust accumulations are normally insufficient to interfere with the normal operation of electrical equipment or
other apparatus, but combustible dust may be in suspension in the air as a result of infrequent malfunctioning of handling or
processing equipment and where combustible dust accumulations on, in, or in the vicinity of the electrical equipment may
be sufficient to interfere with the safe dissipation of heat from electrical equipment or may be ignitable by abnormal
operation or failure of electrical equipment.
Class III location:

It refers to a location that is hazardous because of the presence of easily ignitable fibers or flyings but in which such fibers
or flyings are not likely to be in suspension in the air in quantities sufficient to produce ignitable mixtures.
Class III, Division 1 location:
It refers to a location in which easily ignitable fibers or materials producing combustible flyings are handled, manufactured,
or used.
Class III, Division 2 location:
It refers to a location in which easily ignitable fibers are stored or handled (except in the process of manufacture).
Definitions
explosionproof:
a term used to describe an enclosure that is capable of withstanding an explosion of a specified gas or vapor that may
occur within it and of preventing the ignition of a specified gas or vapor surrounding the enclosure by sparks, flashes, or
explosion of the gas or vapor within, and that operates at such an external temperature that a surrounding flammable
atmosphere will not be ignited thereby
fibers and flyings:
these are materials not normally in suspension in air; and are of larger particle size than dusts. Fibers and flyings include
materials such as cotton linters, sawdust, textile fibers, and other large particles that are usually more a fire hazard than an
explosion hazard.
flameproof:
a type of protection of electrical apparatus in which an enclosure will withstand an internal explosion of a flammable mixture
which has penetrated into the interior, without suffering damage and without causing ignition, through any joints or structural
openings in the enclosure, of an external explosive atmosphere consisting of one or more of the gases or vapors for which
it is designed. This type of protection is referred to as “d.”
hermetically sealed device:
a device that is sealed against the entrance of an external atmosphere and in which the seal is made by fusion, e.g.,
soldering, brazing, welding or the fusion of glass to metal.
maintenance, corrective:
any maintenance activity that is not normal in the operation of equipment and requires access to the equipment’s interior.
Such activities are expected to be performed by a qualified person. Such activities typically include locating causes of faulty
performance, replacement of defective components, adjustment of internal controls, and the like.
maintenance, operational:
any maintenance activity, excluding corrective maintenance, intended to be performed by the operator and required in order
for the equipment to serve its intended purpose. Such activities typically include the correcting of zero on a panel
instrument, changing charts, record keeping, adding ink, and the like.
nonincendive component:
a component having contacts for making or breaking an ignition-capable circuit and in which the contacting mechanism is
constructed so that the component is incapable of igniting the specified explosive atmosphere. The housing of a
nonincendive component is not intended to (1) exclude the flammable atmosphere or (2) contain an explosion. This type of
protection is referred to as “nC.”
nonincendive equipment:
equipment having electrical/electronic circuitry and components that are incapable, under normal
conditions, of causing ignition of the flammable gas-, vapor-, or dust-air mixture due to arcing or thermal effect. This type of
protection is referred to as “nA,” “nC,” or “nR.”
Area (location) classification
Area classification schemes should specify the kind of flammable material that may be present and the probability that it will
be present in ignitable concentrations. Area classification schemes and systems of material classification have been
developed to provide a succinct description of the hazard so that appropriate safeguards may be selected. The type of
protection technique selected and the level of protection it must provide depend upon the potential hazard caused by using
electrical apparatus in a location in which a combustible, flammable, or ignitable substance may be present.
North American methods
In the United States, the area classification definitions are stated in Articles 500 and 505 of the National Electrical Code,
(NEC) NFPA 70. In Canada, similar definitions are given in the Canadian Electrical Code (CEC), Part 1, Section 18 and
Annex J18 (CSA C22.1).
Various organizations have developed numerous guides and standards that have substantial acceptance by industry and
governmental bodies for area classification. Refer to Annex C.
Area classification definitions used in the United States and Canada include the following:
a) CLASS the generic form of the flammable materials in the atmosphere, which may include gas or vapor, dusts, or
easily ignitable fibers or flyings (see Clause 3 for detailed definitions);
b) DIVISION (or ZONE) an indication of the probability of the presence of the flammable material in ignitable concentration
(see Clause 3 for detailed definitions); and
c) GROUP the exact nature of the flammable material (see 4.1.1 & 4.1.2).
Protection techniques for electrical apparatus in hazardous (classified)
locations
The most basic protection technique is to avoid placing electrical equipment in a hazardous (classified) location. Facility
planning should take this factor into account, leaving only those situations where there is no alternative.
Three basic methods of protection are:
a) explosion confinement;
b) isolation of the ignition source; and
c) energy release limitation.
Within each basic method, one (or more) specific technique necessitates specialized design in order to
minimize the potential risk of operating electrical apparatus in hazardous (classified) locations.
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SYSTEM (UPS)
A UPS is an electrical device that provides continuous, conditioned, uninterrupted power to a critical AC load. It also
provides isolation between the input and the output. It consists of a Rectifier/Battery Charger, Battery System, and Inverter.
The Battery Charger converts incoming commercial/utility AC power to DC power. This power is then supplied both to a
Battery system and an Inverter. The Inverter then converts this DC power back into AC power which is fed to the critical
load(s). The Battery is an emergency DC supply that is connected in parallel with the output of the Battery Charger, and
supplies the DC power to the Inverter (without any switching) in the event that the incoming commercial power is lost or
outside of specified tolerances.
There are many styles of UPS design, including Standby, On-line, Line-interactive, Ferro resonant, and Motor-generator.
A true UPS is an on-line system, which means that under normal operating conditions, the power flow is through the Battery
Charger, then through the Inverter to the load. This differs from off-line, or stand-by systems, which are designed such that
under normal conditions, power for the load is supplied directly from the commercial power source, NOT through the
Inverter. Depending on the design, and cost, the power may be conditioned by means of a Voltage Regulating Transformer
or Power Conditioner placed in the power path between the commercial power source and the load. In an off-line or
standby system, the Inverter only supplies power to the load if the utility power fails. The Battery then picks up the Inverter
load for a finite period of time (typically 15-20 minutes). When the battery is depleted, the Inverter will turn off, and the load
will go down.
In order for a power supply to be considered a true UPS, it must accept three sources of power. The first source is the
commercial, or utility, power that supplies AC power to the Battery Charger; the second is the Battery, which provides
emergency DC power. The third source is a bypass, or alternate, AC source, which provides emergency AC power to the
load if the Inverter is unable to supply power, either because of an Inverter failure, or a fault on the load. Under these
conditions, the load would be automatically transferred to the bypass source via a static (electronic) transfer switch. The
bypass source also supplies power in the event that the load is transferred manually from the Inverter via a manual
maintenance bypass switch.
A true on-line UPS is also referred to as a double conversion system. This means, as the name implies, that the power is
converted twice. First it is converted from AC to DC at the Rectifier; then it is converted back from DC to AC at the Inverter.
UPS is used to protect sensitive electronic loads, and to provide run time during electrical power interruptions. Computers or other
sensitive electronics will experience longer life and less maintenance problems when connected to a continuous power source.
NINE MOST COMMON POWER PROBLEMS

1. POWER FAILURE: It is described as zero volt condition lasting longer than a half cycle. Out ages can be
cause by mains equipment failure, accidents, lightning, Mother nature, fuses and breakers etc. Result is
system crashes and hardware damage.
2. UNDER VOLTAGE:
3. FREQUENCY VIOLATION: Rare in mains power, frequency variations are most common with back-up
power systems such as standby generators. Off-line and line interactive models, even some On-line Ups,
cannot handle frequency problems which can cause system crashes and equipment damage.
4. POWER SAG: The opposite of surges, these are triggered by the startup of large loads, mains switching,
mains equipment failure or power supply that is too small for the building demand. Result is system crash
and hardware damage.
5. OVERVOLTAGE
6. SWITCHING TRANSIENT
7. POWER SURGE/SWELLS: With voltages above 110% of normal , surges can be triggered by rapid
reduction in power loads, heavy equipment being turned off, or by mains switching. Result is hardware
damage.
8. LINE NOISE: It is often generated by normal computer operation, problems include incorrect data
transfer, printing errors, keyboard/mouse/monitor lock-ups, program crashes, data corruption, even
damage to computer power supplies.
9. HARMONIC DISTORTION: A natural multiple of the standard power wave is called a harmonics. While
harmonics can be triggered by equipment inside the network, mains power may contain harmonics
generated hundreds of miles away. Caused by motor speed controllers, even computers themselves,
distortions lead to communication errors and hardware damage.
Single Unit Float Configuration
This system utilizes AC power (Typically utility power) and converts it to DC through the battery charger. The regulated DC
power is supplied to both a bank of batteries and to the inverter. The inverter "inverts" the DC back into regulated, noise-
free AC power and passes it along to the static switch. The static switch, under normal conditions, passes this AC power
through to a manual switch and on to the load. If a failure in the inverter should occur, or a fault on the load should occur,
which overloads the inverter beyond its maximum capacity, the static switch will automatically transfer to the alternate
position and supply the alternate source of power, usually utility power, through the manual bypass switch and on to the
load. The manual bypass switch is a mechanical, make-before-break switch that is used to bypass the UPS for
maintenance purposes. If AC power to the battery charger is lost, the batteries automatically begin supplying the required
DC power to the inverter; there is no switching involved at this point.
Single Unit Rectifier Configuration
The rectifier configuration differs from the float configuration with a rectifier, usually a regulated rectifier, replacing the
rectifier/charger. The rectifier is used only to provide power to the inverter and is not used to charge the battery. A blocking
diode or thyristor is used to isolate the rectifier from the battery. A separate battery charger is used to maintain the batteries
in a fully charged state.
This configuration may be selected when an existing Float configured UPS is being replaced by a larger system where the
existing battery charger is salvageable. The existing battery charger will now be used only to recharge the batteries and the
rectifier will supply the DC power required by the inverter.
The Static Switch
The function of a static switch in the UPS is to provide an automatic transfer from the output of the inverter to the alternate
source in the event of an overload on the UPS output. An overcurrent transfer circuit is included in the static switch for this
purpose.
This circuit provides an overcurrent transfer to the alternate source due to inrushes from the load or faults on the load.
Without this feature, the inverter could be driven into current limit prior to clearing a fault. This would most likely cause all
the loads to be lost. The static switch, therefore, transfers to the alternate source at 110% to 125% (depending on
manufacturer) of rated load, where fault clearing capabilities should exist. Because this circuit cannot differentiate between
an inrush and a fault, it is common for the initial energization of a load to cause a transfer and be energized from the
alternate source.
The static switch also provides an automatic transfer from the inverter output to the alternate source in the event of an
inverter failure. A static switch should have a maximum transfer time of four milliseconds for normal critical loads
Figure 2 Static Switch Transfer to Alternate Source
Once an inverter failure occurs, the static switch senses the loss of voltage and initiates a transfer. The sense-to-transfer
initiation time is approximately four milliseconds. A zero-break static switch is also available but only with a Ferro resonant
type inverter. The zero-break static switch on the Ferro resonant inverter monitors the square wave output of the bridge,
prior to the ferroresonant transformer. Perhaps the square wave should deteriorate, indicating an inverter failure; the sense
circuit in the switch will initiate a transfer, with the stored energy in the ferroresonant transformer used to accomplish the
zero-break. Figure illustrates the zero-break and the 1/4 cycle break static switch transfer.
The Manual Switch
The manual bypass switch should be a mechanical make-before-break type of switch with overlapping contacts. Its purpose
is to bypass the output of the static switch and tie directly to the alternate source for system maintenance. The manual
bypass switch should not be used to remove alternate source power from the static switch. Instead, a circuit breaker should
be placed in series with the alternate source. This method of isolation is usually preferred to permit testing of the static
switch with power applied to both poles while in the bypass mode.
Rectifier/Battery Charger Section
The battery charger provides isolation from the AC line through an isolation transformer, as well as being a regulated
source of DC to the battery system and inverter. The output of the charger must be regulated and have current limiting
capabilities. The current limit function provides protection for both the batteries and the charger. The battery charger must
be sized large enough to supply the inverter and simultaneously recharge a fully discharge battery bank. Output voltage
regulation is important since the battery requires a precise charging voltage for maximum life and minimum maintenance.
Inverter Section
The inverter provides three primary functions in the UPS:
1. Inversion - the changing of the DC power to AC power composed of a sine wave free from harmful Harmonic
distortion; typically 5% THD or less.
2. Regulation - the regulation of the AC voltage to a tolerance level acceptable to the load, typically
+2% of the nominal voltage.
3. Limiting Capability - provides for the current limiting capability as a means of self-protection.
Ferroresonant
A ferroresonant transformer is a non-linear transformer that is designed to provide passive voltage regulation, using
magnetics only; that is, without any complex feedback circuits to monitor and adjust the output voltage level. It is designed
to operate within a pre-set regulation band; typically set anywhere from 1%-4%. A non-linear transformer differs from a
linear transformer in that the output voltage will not deviate outside of this regulation band, regardless of what happens on
the input. The output of a linear transformer, on the other hand, is as the term implies, directly proportional to the input. That
is, whatever happens on the input will directly affect the output.
Ferroresonant transformers also have the unique characteristic of being able to store energy for up to 1/2 cycle because of
its "tank circuit" design. When combined with an inverter and static transfer switch in a UPS application, this characteristic
provides "ride-through" capability to allow for a completely uninterrupted transfer to an alternate source, should it become
necessary in the event of an overload or fault, or even in the event of a total loss of the inverter, thereby maintaining power
to the load.
Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM)
A PWM inverter, unlike the ferroresonant type, employs high speed switching power devices to generate a series
of "pulses" in the inverter bridge to "simulate" a sine wave. This signal is then filtered and fed to the load through
a linear transformer. Because the PWM employs a non-regulating linear transformer (rather than a non-linear
regulator such as the ferroresonant type), a fairly complex network of feedback circuits is required to maintain the
output voltage and current at the correct levels for the load.
Redundant Configuration
This configuration has the capabilities of operating in both a "cold" or "hot" standby mode.
Each inverter is sized to supply the entire load. Inverter "A" will supply the load through static switch "A" and static switch
"B" in normal operation. In the "hot" standby mode, with both inverters running, the failure of Inverter "A" will initiate the
transfer of static switch "A" to the output of inverter "B". In the "cold" standby mode, inverter "B" off, the failure of inv erter
"A" will initiate the transfer of static switch "B" to the alternate source-to-load position. Inverter "B" can then be energized
and brought into service.
Upon an inrush or overcurrent, static switch "B" will automatically transfer to the alternate source. The over current transfer
circuitry of static switch "A" is defeated in this type of configuration. The redundant configuration UPS is considered by
many to offer the best cost versus reliability of all the various types of UPS configurations.
HART COMMUNICATION
• Conventional transmitters
• In conventional transmitters, zero and span is adjusted through Push buttons.
• Smart transmitters
• In SMART (Single Modular Auto Ranging Transducer) transmitters, zero and span is fed through hand
held communicator, in addition to other features.
• Communicator is used to check the parameters of transmitter (Service, location, Span, Damping, Alarm
etc.) remotely.
• Protocol is a set of rules/ instructions used for communication between different Medias.
• Communication techniques used by different vendors are:
• Yokogawa Brain
• Foxboro Foxcom
• Honeywell digicom
• Communication technique common to all vendors is HART (Highway Addressable remote transducer).
•
• HART is a master-slave communication protocol, which means that during normal operation, each slave
(field device) communication is initiated by a master communication device. Two masters can connect to
each HART loop. The primary master is generally a distributed control system (DCS), programmable
logic controller (PLC), or a personal computer (PC). The secondary master can be a handheld terminal or
another PC. Slave devices include transmitters, actuators, and controllers that respond to commands from
the primary or secondary master.
• The HART communication protocol operates using the frequency shift keying (FSK) principle. The digital
signal is made up of two frequencies— 1,200 Hz and 2,200 Hz representing bits 1 and 0, respectively.
Sine waves of these two frequencies are superimposed on the direct current (dc) analog signal cables to
provide simultaneous analog and digital communications
• Because the average value of the FSK signal is always zero, the 4–20 mA analog signal is not affected.
The digital communication signal has a response time of approximately 2–3 data updates per second
without interrupting the analog signal. A minimum loop impedance of 230 ohms is required for
communication.
• HART devices can operate in one of two network configurations—point-to- point or multidrop.
• POINT-TO-POINT In point-to-point mode, the traditional 4–20 mA signal is used to communicate one
process variable, while additional process variables, configuration parameters, and other device data are
transferred digitally using the HART protocol. The 4–20 mA analog signal is not affected by the HART
signal and can be used for control in the normal way.
• Multidrop
• The multidrop mode of operation requires only a single pair of wires and, if applicable, safety barriers and
an auxiliary power supply for up to 15 field devices. All process values are transmitted digitally. In
multidrop mode, all field device polling addresses are >0, and the current through each device is fixed to a
minimum value (typically 4 mA).
Benefits of HART Communication

• The HART protocol extends system capabilities for two-way digital communication with smart field
instruments. More instruments are available with the HART protocol than any other digital
communications technology. Almost any process application can be addressed by one of the products
offered by HART instrument suppliers.
• Benefits of HART communicator are:
• Improved plant operations
• Operational flexibility
• Instrumentation investment protection
• Digital communication
• The diagnostic capabilities of HART-communicating field devices can eliminate substantial costs by
reducing downtime. The HART protocol communicates diagnostic information to the control room,
which minimizes the time required to identify the source of any problem and take corrective action. Trips
into the field or hazardous areas are eliminated or reduced.
• When a replacement device is put into service, HART communication allows the correct operational
parameters and settings to be quickly and accurately uploaded into the device from a central database.
Efficient and rapid uploading reduces the time that the device is out of service.
• Software applications provide a historical record of configuration and operational status for each
instrument. This information can be used for predictive, preventive, and proactive maintenance.
HART Multidrop Networks

• HART field controllers can also be wired in a multidrop network. Each analog output signal from the
transmitter/controllers is isolated from every other output signal, which provides a cost-effective HART
network configuration.
• Connecting HART field devices in a multidrop network can provide significant installation savings. The
total cable length in a multidrop network is typically less than the maximum cable length in point-to-point
connections because the capacitance of the additional devices reduces the distance that the HART signal
can be carried.
• CONFIGURING DEVICES FOR MULTIDROP OPERATION

• Using the polling address structure of the HART protocol, up to 15 devices can be connected in a
multidrop network. The analog current of a HART device can be fixed by setting its polling address to a
number other than zero. With the HART protocol, each field instrument should be configured with
different polling addresses or tag numbers before being connected to a multidrop network—otherwise, the
master will not be able to establish communication with the slave devices.
• A HART field controller takes advantage of the HART protocol‘s simultaneous analog and digital
signaling by converting the transmitter‘s traditional analog measurement output into a control output. The
analog signal from the smart transmitter (controller) is used to manipulate the field device. The analog
output signal also carries the HART digital signal, which is used for monitoring the process measurement,
making setpoint changes, and tuning the controller.
• The communication rate of the HART protocol (2–3 updates per second) is generally perceived as too
slow to support closed-loop control in the central host. With control in the field, the control function no
longer depends on the HART protocol‘s communication rate. Instead, the control signal is an analog
output that is updated at a rate that is much faster than can typically be processed in a conventional
control system. Processing rates vary from 2–20 updates per second, depending on the product. The
HART digital communication rate remains sufficient for monitoring the control variable and changing
setpoint values.
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY
A relay is an electromagnetically operated switch that provides remote control of electrical loads with a small
control signal.
When a relay is energized, current passes through a coil of wire surrounding an iron core. The core becomes a
magnet and attracts the movable armature. As the armature moves, the contacts open or close other circuit.
An electrical relay has two separate circuits. One circuit energizes the electromagnet. This circuit is called
control circuit because it is the one in control of current flowing in the other circuit. The second circuit is called
power circuit of controlled circuit.
When current is passed through the coil, the relay is said to be energized. At this point any NC contacts open and
any NO contacts close. When the coil is de-energized, the contacts return to their ―normal‖ state.
The major advantage of a relay is that it controls a circuit that is electrically isolated from the control circuit e.g.
direct current in control circuit and alternating current in power circuit.
Disadvantage of relays lies in that once relays are wired in place for a specific application, it is difficult and time
consuming to change the control sequence. In order to obtain new control logic all of the wires in the system have
to be removed and the entire wiring pattern re-established.
Components of a PLC
Main components of PLC are
1. Processor unit
2. input/output section
3. programming device
An I/O is a device, analog or digital, that communicates with the logic circuitry and with the process to be
controlled. Input and output devices are referred to as actual or real world devices.
PLC is a control device that is event driven. It responds to changes in the present status of a particular process,
system or device.
Input devices of plc are switches and sensors. Output devices include lights, motor starters, contactors, pumps,
valves, relays, alarms, digital readouts, and many others.
Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a large scale integrated circuit. It consists of arithmetic unit, control circuitry and special
purpose registers.
Real time environment
An environment in which decisions and actions must be performed fast enough to respond to changes in the real
world.
Offline environment
An environment in which measurements are made and then manipulated without regard to what is happening in
the real world at that time.
Scan time
The time it takes a plc to run through its entire program and return to the beginning is called scan time.
Plc is widely used for weighing, welding, painting, packaging, mixing, brewing, and many other applications.
Small machines still use relays in industrial control. Also plc is used to ON or OFF relays on large piece of
equipment.
NUMBR SYSTEM
Decimal system.
It is base ten number system.
0123456789.
Octal system
Binary system
It is base two number system.
01
Hexadecimal system
It is base sixteen number system.
0123456789ABCDEF
Binary coded decimal
It is formed by taking a number in its decimal form and converting each digit to an equivalent binary number.
American standard code for information interchange (ASCII)
Standard letters, numerals, and symbols on a keyboard are known as alphanumerics. The code used to represent
alphanumerics is ASCII. It is a seven bit code that represents numerals, upper and lower case letters, punctuation
symbols, and control codes for communication.
Gray code
A device that creates a numerically coded binary signal to represent some condition, such as the position of shaft
is called an encoder. Gray code is used with encoders. In gray code only one bit changes when sequencing from
one number to the next higher or lower number. Since only one digit changes at a time in a gray code, a string of
sequential gray code numbers can be easily checked for errors.
Decimal Gray code Binary BCD Octal Hex

0 0000 0000 0000 0000 00 0
1 0001 0001 0000 0001 01 1
2 0011 0010 0000 0010 02 2
3 0010 0011 0000 0011 03 3
4 0110 0100 0000 0100 04 4
5 0111 0101 0000 0101 05 5
6 0101 0110 0000 0110 06 6
7 0100 0111 0000 0111 07 7
8 1100 1000 0000 1000 10 8
9 1101 1001 0000 1001 11 9
10 1111 1010 0001 0000 12 a
11 1110 1011 0001 0001 13 b
12 1010 1100 0001 0011 14 c
13 1011 1101 0001 0011 15 d
14 1001 1110 0001 0100 16 e
15 1000 1111 0001 0101 17 f
Boolean logic
1. AND LOGIC A.B = C
2. OR LOGIC A+B=C
3. NOT LOGIC (Inverter) Ā=B
Truth table
It is a diagram showing all possible inputs and the resulting outputs for any given logic circuit.
1 2 3 4 5
30
7 2 10 11 4 6
12 13
LOAD 1
AND 2
LOAD 7
AND NOT 2
LOAD NOT 12
AND 13
OR LOAD
AND 10
OR LOAD
LOAD 3
AND NOT 4
AND 5
LOAD 11
AND 4
AND NOT 6
OR LOAD
AND LOAD
Parts of PLC
Programmable logic controller is a system that takes signals from the real world, through inputs, and makes
logical decisions based on the programming that has been entered into its memory. Once the decisions have been
made, the programmable logic controller system operates the appropriated output devices.
Input devices
An input device is a real world device that can be used to give a signal to the input module. The input module
processes signals from input devices and give them to the processor in a form that it can understand. Each module
has a specified number of input points. Input module is typically plugged into a rack.
Input devices used with plc are,

1. Push button: it has two parts, operator and the contacts. Operator is that part of device that a person would
push with a finger. Contact is used to switch or divert the signal to the input module.
2. selector switch: it can be momentary or maintained or a combination. The operator for this device has
two, thre, or even more positions.
3. foot switches: it is like push button or selector switch but differs only in that operator is foot operated
instead of hand operated.
4. flow switches: it is used to indicate flow of fluid. It uses preset adjustment. If the flow rate reaches or
exceeds the preset value, the contacts change state.
5. float switches: used to detect liquid levels in tank or reservoir.
6. pressure switch: used for high or low pressure of a fluid or equipment.
7. limit switches: it is used to control movement of a device.
8. proximity sensor: it has two types, inductive (used to detect ferrous metals) and capacitive (used to detect
non ferrous materials like plastic or aluminum).
9. photoelectric sensors: they use ultraviolet or infrared light along with modulation/de-modulation
techniques in order to eliminate interference with outside light. These can be set as light-energize or dark-
energize devices.
10. encoders: these are used to measure rotational angles, distance and speed.
11. temperature measurement: thermocouples and rtd is mostly used to measure equipment‘s temperature.
12. analog devices: these devices work with different signals like 4 to 20 mA and 0 to 5V dc.
Output devices
An output device is a devicethat needs a signal tobe activated. Output device wired to output module is energized
when a signal is received by the module from the processor. The power that drives the output device does not
come directly from the output module. The output module is a switch that diverts power from an external power
supply to the output device.
Output devices used with plc are,
1. indicating lamps: they provide important operational information to person operating the system. These
are found in control panels.
2. Mimic panels: it is a graphic representation of the equipment to be controlled. Mimic panels present
operational informations like vlave open/shut, pump ON/OFF.
3. annunciators: it provides visual information that can alert the system operator of a problem or an
important change.
4. relays: it is used to take signal from plc and use that signal to control several different loads.
5. contactors: it is used for larger loads because it has better power handling capacity as compared to relays.
6. Motor starters: it is designed to control heavy loads. These are used to control motors. Auxiliary overload
contacts change state in the presence of an overload condition.
7. solenoid valves: they use an electromagnet that moves magnet core in the valve body to either stop or
allow flow through the alve.
Input/Output Modules
In plc the modules are mounted in equipment housing. The modules can be inserted into any I/O slot, and can be
removed without turning off the ac power or removing the field wiring. They use printed circuit board technology
and the circuit boards have an edge connector that can be inserted into a plug in the backplane connector of the
rack. This backplane has a printed circuit and that contains the parallel communications bus to the processor and
the dc voltages to operate the logic on the I/O modules.
Discrete Input/Output Modules

These interface modules connect field input devices with sensing signals that are on/off, open/closed, or a switch
closure, and output devices that require a separate and distinct siganal to control theirstate.
In operation, if an input swith is closed, the input module senses the supplied voltage and converts it to a logic
level signal acceptable to the cpu to indicate the status of that devie. A logic 1 indicates ON or CLOSED, and a
logic 0 indicates OFF or OPENED.
AC Input modules
The input circuit is composed of two primary parts: the power section and the logic section. The power and logic
sections of the circuit are normally coupled with a circuit that electrically isolates the input power section fro the
logic circuits. The electrical isolation is very important in harsh industrial environment.
The bridge rectifier circuit converts the incoming signal to a dc level that is sent to a filter circuit, which protects
against electrical noise on the input power line. This filter causes signal delay of 10-25 m sec. the threshold
circuit detects whether the incoming signal has reached the proper voltage level for the specified input rating. If
the input signal exceeds and remains above the threshold voltage for a duration of atleast the filter delay, the
signal will be accepted as a valid input.
When a valid signal has been detected, it is passed through the isolation circuit, which completes the electrically
isolated transitin from ac to logic level. The dc signal from the isolator is used by the logic circuit and made
available to the processor via the data communications bus. Electrical isolatin (power) is provided so that there is
no electrical connecton between the field device and the controller (logic). This electrical separation helps
prevent large voltage spikes from damaging the logic side of the interface (or the controller). The coupling
between the power and logic sections is normally provided by an optical coupler or a pulse transformer.
Direct current (dc) input modules
The dc voltage input modules convert discrete on/off direct current inputs to logic level signals compatible with
the programmable controller. They are available in three voltage ranges: 12,24, and 48 volts dc.
Transistor-transistor logic (ttl) input modules
Ttl input modules allow the controller to accept signals from TTL-compatible evices, including solid-state ntrols
and sensing instruments. These modules require an external +5 v dc power supply.
Isolated input modules
I/O modules usually have a common return line connection for each group of unputs or outputs on a single
module. Sometime it isrequired to connet an input device of different ground levels to the controller. The
common of each input is separated from the othercommons in the modulw.the isolated input module then
requires twice as many input connection terminals, so it can accommodate only half the inputs in the same
physical space.
AC output modules
The circuit consists of logic and power sections, coupled by an isolation circuit. The processor sends to thelogic
circuit the output status determined by the logic program. If the output is energized, the signal from the processor
is fed to the logic section and passed through the isolation circuit, which will switch the power to the field device.
The switching section generally uses a triac or a silicon controlled rectifier to switch the power.
Direct current (dc)output module
It is used to switch direct current loads. It uses power transistor to switch the load.
Dry contact output module
The contact output module allows output devices to be turned ON or OFF by a normally open (NO) or normally
closed (NC) set of relay contacts. Advantage lies in that we got eletical isolation between the power output signal
and the logic signal.
TTL output module
It allows the controller to drive output devices that are TTL compatible, suchas seven-gegment LED displays,
integrated circuits, and varuis 5-v dc devices. These modules generally require an external +5 V dc power supply
with specific current requirements.
Isolated output module
In these modules we don‘t have to pay great concern with various ac voltage phases in our process plant.but
amount of wiring requird is increased, whereas there is one neutral point in ac output modules.
Analog and Digital I/O modules

With the availability of integrated circuits and microprocessors it became possible to use analog and digital
modules. Analog input modules are able to send or receive analog signal used by field instruments.
In discrete I/O only a single bit is require to read an input or control an output. Digital modules allow a group of
bits to be interfaced as a unit to accommodate devices that require the bits be handled in parallel forlm, normally
in binary coded decimal (BCD) format or in serial form (pulse input or output).
Analog input modules
The voltage or current inputs are converted from an analog to a digital value by and analog-to-digital converte
(ADC). The conversion value, is passed through to the controller‘s data bus and stored in a memory location for
later use. Analog input interfaces use a very high input impedance, which allos them to interface field devices
without signal loading. The analog signal from field is converted to a proportional 12 bit binary or four digit
BCD value.
Analog output modules
The module receives data from the processor in digital form and converts it to analog form through digital to
analog converter (DAC). Isolation between the output circuit an dthe ogic circuit is generally provided through
optical couplers. These modules normally reuire an external power supply with certain current and voltage
requirements.
Binary coded decimal input modules
It provides parallel communication between the processor and input devices. Typical parameters are timer and
counter presets and process control set pint values. These modules generally accept voltages in the range of 5 V
dc (TTL) to 24 Vdc and are grouped in a module containing 16 or 32 inputs, which correspond to one or two I/O
registers.
Binary coded decimal output modules
This module provides parallel communication between the processor and an output evice like seven segment
LED display or a BCDdisplay.
Encoder/Counter input modules
It provides a high speed counter, external to processor, which responds to input pulses sensed at the interface. It is
independent of either program scan or I/O scan. Encoders are used withinterfaces that receive BCD or Gray code
data, which represents the angular position of the mechanical shaft being measure. The data communication
between the encoder /counter interface and the CPU is bidirectional.
Intelligent I/O modules
These modules condition input signals or other signals that cnnot be interface using standard I/O modules. These
intelliigen modules can perform complete processing fundctions.
Thermocouple input modules
It takes input directly from thermocouple and provides cold junction compensation to correct for changes in cold
junction temperatures. The input signals are filtered, amplified, and digitized through an A/D converter and then
sent to the CPU on command from a program instruction. The data is used by the control program to perform
temperature contl and/or indication.
Stepping motor module
It generates a pulse train that is compatible with stepping motor translators. The pulses sent to the translator
normally represent distance, speed, and direction commands to the motor.
Stepping motor interface accepts position commands from the control program. Position is determined by the
prset count of output pulses, a forward or reverse direction command, and the acceleration or deceleration
command for ramping control is determined by therate of output pulses. These commands are generally specified
during program control, and, once the output interface is initialized by a start, it will output the pulses according
to the PC program. Once the motion has started, the output module will generally not accept any commands from
the CPU until the move is completed.
Control loop module
It is used in closed loop control where proportional-integral-derivative (PID) contol algorithm is required. The
control algorithm applied is,
Vout = Kpe + Ki ∫ e dt + Kd de/dt

Where, Vout = output control variable
e = PV-SP = error
Kp = the proportional gain
Ki = the integral gain
Kd = the derivative gain
The module receives the process variable, compares it to the set point selected by the operator and computes the
error diference. The values of gains are determined by control engineer based on application. Modules also
provide square root extraction of process variable used to obtain a linear scale output for use on flow control
loops.
Communications I/O modules
These modules are used in plc to communicate among system components.
ASCII Communication module
It is used to send and receive alphanumeric data between peripheral equipment and the controller. Devices are
printer, video monitors, digital display instruments. Information exchange interface generally takes place via an
RS-232C,RS-422, or a 20 mA dc current loop communications link.
Local I/O adapter modules
These modules are used in larger Plc to allow I/O subsystems to be remotely located from the processor. The
remote subsystem is used to interface with a unit process using a standard I/O rack and the required I/O modues.
Rack include a dc power supply to drive the internal circuitry of the I/O modules and a remote I/O adapter
module that rovides the communications with the processor init. Subsystems are normally connected to the
processor using a serial or star configuration.
Serial data communications module
It is used to communicate between the plc and a computer with a serial output port. Computer with control
program and process graphic display software, connected via a serial communications cable and module to a plc
can be used as a ladder programming terminal at a remote location to debug or troubleshoot the control program
in the system.
Network communications module
Network interface module allows a number of plc and other computer based devices to communicate over a local
area network. LAN is able to transfer data and control information from one system to another at a fixed data
transmission rate.
Processor
A complex part of the system where logical decisions are made based on the program that has been loaded into
the memory.
Types of memory
Random access memory (RAM)
It is used for the user memory because it can be easily changed and is fast as compared to other memories. It is
also called read/write memory because one can read and write data from/to RAM.
Read only memory (ROM)
It is a permanent type memory and cannot be changed by the controller program. I/O table and executive program
is stored in this memory. The executive program is that part of the system that makes the system a PLC and not
just a general purpose computer.
Programmable read only memory (PROM)
It is loaded with data that will remain unchanged until it is reprogrammed. The controller itself can not reprogram
a PROM, whereas special equipment is required to reprogram this PROM.
PROM is often used to store the user memory after the program has been de-bugged. In case any change needed
in program the entire chip must be erased and reprogrammed.
Memory types in processor unit are of two types.

1. Register table: it contains all information about the present status of the input and output points. Andy
change in input or output points is registered in part of register table called the I/O table.
2. User memory: it is the section of memory which stores the user program used to perform specific control
functions.
Programming device
Program loader is a device that is used to load the program into the processor. Programming device allows the
user to reate new control programs or edit and verify existing programs. Desktop unit, hand held programmer and
personal computer are major programming devices.
Power supply
Interna power supply: it is mostly part of rack or a plug in module. It is used to power theomponents of the
system, not the output devices.
External power supply: it is not part of controller itself. It is used to energize the output devices.
Instruction set
Vocabulary used in the programming language is called instruction set. PLC has a built in program that converts
the source language (used by human programmer) into machine code (understood by processor only).
Source languages used are ladder logic, Boolean, GRAFCET, BASIC and others.
Ladder logic
It is a graphic language. A schematic diagram of logic is drawn on screen. The instruction set consists of coils,
normally open contact, normally closed contact, counter, timer, and other symbols.
To understand the relationship between I/O devices and software, think of the input points on the modules as
relay coils. The input coil is external to the software and therefore does not come in software. These input coils
have contacts in software. Think of the output pints as contacts that have coils in the software. These output
contacts are external to the software and are not taken in software.
Boolean programming
It is in the form of listing. It is based on Boolean algebra. All logic is combination of three logical operations:
AND, OR, NOT.
Considerations of plc
Three basic considerations in developing a plc are,
1. number of input/output points.
2. memory requirement for system.
3. scan time of system.
Documentation package of plc involves following,
 hardware drawings
 bill of material
 spare parts list
 component data tear sheets
 software listing
 sequence of operation
 operations manual
 users manual
 logs
Maintenance problems
From maintenance point of view, each time something out of ordinary that happens must be thoroughly
documented. Any change like part replacement, adjustment and calibration, retrofit and modification, and
problem with its cause and corrective action taken must be recorded in maintenance log. Almost a biggest
maintenance problem associated with control systems is dirt. Dirt and dust can clog filters, causing electronics to
get too hot, and can interfere with electrical contact (as some type of dirt contains conductive material).
Troubleshooting
The process used to diagnose the problem and find the failed part or component is called troubleshooting.
One technique for troubleshooting is ―shot in dark‖. We continue to replace parts until the problem is solved.
This approach is expensive, wastes time, and some time never solves problem.
General principles for troubleshooting are,
1. understand how the system works
2. gather all the information you can
3. develop a test strategy
4. ask yourself, ―does it make sense?‖
there are methods to detect intermittent problem (the problem that occurs occasionally). Apply heat, vibration,
vary input voltage and connect data recorder (to capture the data when the system fails).
A large majority of problems are solved by something as simple as fixing a loose connection.
DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEMS

Computers as we know them today have been available only since the late 1970s, and became important to
process control only in the 1980s.
Objectives for using computers in Industry
• more capability
• faster operation
• high reliability
• smaller control rooms
• lower installation costs
• reduced operator requirements
• greater flexibility for change and expansion
• ability to do more complex control strategies.
Data Acquisition System
In DAS process measurements of temperatures, pressures, flow rates, and so on are brought into the computer.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

• SCADA is used in industries like electric power distribution, gas and oil pipelines, and off-shore drilling.
These industries are characterized by facilities connected over hundreds or thousands of miles.
• SCADA systems use large mainframe computers at a central location and remote terminal units (RTUs) at
the distant facilities, which are generally unattended. The RTUs gather and store local data and transmit
them to the central computer on request, although emergency conditions can be transmitted without a
computer request. The central computer analyzes the data it receives and sends instructions back to the
appropriate RTUs.
• Remote terminal units are intelligent devices. Once an RTU has its instructions (for example, a setpoint
value to be maintained) from the central computer, it is able to obtain input data, make calculations on the
data, and produce control outputs, all without further assistance from the central computer. If the data
transmission system fails, the RTU maintains the process at the current set points. The RTU holds
information about events in its own memory and can transmit this information to the computer on request.
If an emergency condition (an alarm) occurs, the RTU can interrupt the supervisory function of the
SCADA computer and ask for assistance.
• A typical first-generation distributed control system was, basically, a series of microprocessor- based
multi loop controllers distributed along a communications network, often called a data highway.
• Operator‘s station, resembling a personal computer, was included on the network to display the control
operations being performed.
• Control functions (algorithms) were virtually identical to the traditional proportional-integral- derivative
(PID) capabilities of analog controllers, but also added many new functions.
• Later-generation DCSs appeared rapidly and grew in size and complexity. Color displays and pictorial
representations of plant operations are universal and have themselves become an engineering specialty.
DCSs have acquired capabilities of programmable logic controllers, data acquisition, reporting and
statistical capabilities, logging, and printing. In addition, all DCSs can communicate with business-
management computers. This means that management has access to real-time operations data. Decisions
can be made by the minute instead of by the week.
Personal Computer
• Hardware: Component of a computer is called hardware.
• Firmware. A set of non volatile instructions are called firmware, stored in read-only memory (ROM). The
term nonvolatile means permanent—that is, firmware is not lost when the power is turned off. An
operating system stored in ROM is an example of firmware.
• Operating system: It enables a microprocessor to function by telling it where to get data, how to interpret
and process the data, where to store results internally, and how to send information to a person. The
operating system also determines what application software the equipment can accept and operate.
• Software. A set of instructions loaded into the machine after it is started from its built-in firmware. The
types are,
• system software: It is the term for an operating system. The operating system is not sufficient to make the
equipment operational, and so additional software (applications or utilities) is needed.
• application software: It enables the computer to perform specific tasks. when application software is
loaded into a PC from a disk (floppy or hard), the PC runs whatever was recorded on the disk e.g. word
processor, spread sheet, data base or CAD.
• utility software: It adds to or improves the capability of standard software. PC utilities include clocks and
calendars, various cursor shapes, recovery utilities, and many others.
• Artificial intelligence (Al) It refers to computer programs that appear to think or reason like humans.
Process control applications of Al consider the results.
• Expert systems Expert systems are a subset of AI. They are constructed (programmed) by interviewing a
human expert and then storing his or her conclusions in a computer.
• Expert systems can guide a computer automatically or can guide a human operator to make the best
response to an unfamiliar situation.
• Fuzzy logic It is a programming method that allows the computer to evaluate by degrees, not just by two-
state (discrete, binary) conditions. Conventional two-state logic is called crisp logic.
• Fuzzy logic is used to model processes or controllers where the interaction between variables or the
variables themselves are largely unknown and the processes are too complex or too nonlinear to model
simply.
• Successful fuzzy controllers have been developed using knowledge from operators and control engineers.
Integrated control systems
1.53 Before computers entered the scene and began to be widely used in process control, several independent
functions were applied to the process, including:
research and development
operation
data acquisition record keeping
• inventory management
• quality control
• financial management.
The development of computer capabilities has made it possible to combine all of these functions, and more, into a
single system, as shown in Fig. 1-10. Integrated control systems appear to be the current trend.
1.54 Superficially, an integrated control system appears to be no different from a DCS. Within it, however, are
the loop control functions for continuous and batch processes, programmable controller functions for discrete
operations, data acquisition and storage, powerful computational and analytical abilities, and the multipurpose
capabilities of a large computer
Small Computers
Microprocessor-based computers called Small computers are used in process control
These include,
• Dedicated (one-purpose) microprocessor- based devices in a field instrument
• Embedded single-board computers—that is, complete small computers entirely built into and integrated with an
instrument‘s circuitry
• General-purpose equipment containing microprocessors—for example, personal computers
• Control stations containing microprocessors.
The smallest of the small computers used in process control are the so-called ―smart‖ devices. These include:
 Sensors
 Transmitters
 Signal conditioners/converters
 Final control elements
 Special-purpose devices.
Smart devices minimize or eliminate the need for periodic recalibration, increase the speed of response, and
simplify the tasks of maintenance and calibration.
Smart Sensors and Transmitters
A conventional pressure sensor makes use of a moving element to detect pressure changes. The span and zero
adjustments needed to make the sensor suitable for a particular application must be made manually, using
calibration equipment. The moving element is slow, often nonlinear, and may be affected by hysteresis,
temperature, and overpressure. The mechanical linkage is subject to friction and wear.
Because of its moving parts, the conventional sensor must be recalibrated periodically to maintain dependable
performance.
A smart pressure sensor typically uses a piezoelectric sensing element (for example, a crystal), which reacts to
pressure without any movement. The element is mounted on a circuit board with a microprocessor. The analog
pressure signal given by the crystal is converted to a digital signal for use by the microprocessor. Span and zero
adjustments can be made by an instruction to the microprocessor from the loop controller.
The sensing element‘s instantaneous response, usually linear, is unaffected by overpressure over wide ranges.
The electrical signal to the microprocessor travels at the speed of light. The microprocessor is capable of
providing high-resolution, temperature- compensated digital signals that are stable (free from unwanted
variations) and can be transmitted with high reliability. The transmitter sends a digital signal instead of an analog
signal to the control loop.
Smart sensors are very reliable, and they do not need periodic recalibration. On-board diagnostics and/or
diagnostics from the loop controller verify the unit‘s health and can warn of impending problems. Smart sensors
are available in one form or another for many process variables, including temperature, level, pressure, flow,
viscosity, as well as for liquid and gas analysis.
Smart transmitters improve loop performance mainly because they introduce far less additional error than a
conventional transmitter might. Smart transmitters are fast and produce a stable and reliable digital signal. They
do not require periodic recalibration, and they can have on-board and remote diagnostics. They also enable
remote calibration of span and range (a very important feature) and can communicate directly with the computer.
Smart Signal Conditioners
Process control requirements often include the need to convert, amplify, distribute, or otherwise manipulate a
signal. These needs may arise from safety considerations, transmission distances, computational requirements, or
other special circumstances. The devices used are known collectively as signal conditioners.
Microprocessor-based signal conditioners usually are programmable so a few standard designs can be configured
to suit most application needs, especially if smart devices are used within the loop. Some microprocessor-based
devices are so capable that no further signal conditioning is needed.
Smart Final Control Elements
The most common final control element is a valve. Conventional valves are analog.
In smart control valve the microprocessor in the valve decides what steps are necessary and positions the valve
without further instructions from the loop controller. Because a smart valve is digital, it provides more accurate
control. It is not subject to hysteresis or other errors that cause cycling.
2.18 Valves are not the only smart final control devices. Microprocessors are applied to variable-speed motor
controls, chemical feeders, heating units, and most of the other final control elements used in process control.
Special Instruments
Special-purpose instruments used in process control include,
 Chromatographs (analytical instruments that separate a mixture into its component parts)
 moisture analyzers
 Infrared analyzers
 Fine-particle sizers
 Comparators.
These special-purpose devices are completely self-contained and are capable of full performance without being
connected to other process control instruments or systems. They often operate off-line for process analysis or
quality control purposes. How ever, they are universally capable of communicating with the on-line process
control equipment.
Microprocessor-Based Panel-board instruments

Controllers, indicators, and recorders—are control room panel-board instruments. Signal conditioners are often
put in the control room or in the adjacent electronics room. If a change in kind of signal is involved (for example,
from 4 to 20 mA to digital), the signal conditioner is located in the electronics room.
Single-Loop Controllers
Microprocessor-based controllers are ―fully loaded‖. Wide scale ranges, various units of measure, sensor
linearization, control modes beyond the conventional (P, P1, PD, PID), and all sorts of alarms are built in to be
selected or ignored by the user during the original setup procedure, or configuration.
Multi-loop Controllers
If a microprocessor could handle two interconnected loops for ratio control, it could (theoretically) also handle
two independent loops within one controller. In addition, more powerful 8-bit microprocessors made it possible
to handle four or even eight loops within a single controller.
Multi-loop controllers required a new concept of time sharing. Single-loop controllers were continuously
connected to their sensors and final elements. Multi-loop controllers had to connect to a sensor, adjust a final
element, disconnect, and connect to another sensor and final element. However, a micro processor could step
through eight loops in milliseconds while the process responded in tens of seconds, making this time sharing
completely transparent to both the process and the operator.
Networks
Multi-loop controllers are connected with each other through networking. A plug-in multi-conductor bus cable
allows the use of a shared display, perhaps a CRT (cathode-ray tube, a video display that could show the operator
all loops as a group or any one loop as a detail, all at one location. The operator could make all adjustments at
this location, except for configuration changes, which were made at a separate engineer‘s console.
In a network, a controller is a station with an address. Depending on the microprocessor used, 8, 16, 32, or 64
addresses are normally available. Therefore, a process can be modified or expanded by adding more multi-loop
controllers to the network. The shared display is easily reconfigured to make the new stations accessible to the
operator.
Microprocessor-Based Indicator Circuits

Although all loop controllers include indicators of input and output, process control loops also have many
independent indicator circuits, often with built-in alarms. These kinds of circuits may be for convenience, or they
may be demanded by insurance regulations and safety codes. These instruments are connected in parallel to the
microprocessors.
Microprocessor-Based Recorders
Conventional chart recorders are made in round-chart and strip-chart versions.
These recorders may have up to four pens drawing traces in different colors. Maintenance of the inking system is
frequent and messy. Indicating scales are specially engraved, and chart paper is specially printed to match the
measuring circuits. Chart drive is by clock motor, usually a fixed single speed, with multiple motors or gear
drives available for multiple speeds (by manual selection). These recorders often have alarm capabilities.
Today‘s recorders can acquire, store, and print historical data. The chart-producing recorder still is required for
troubleshooting, because it provides an identifying record of the system.
The microprocessor provides variable-speed chart drives and flexible alarm capabilities. A large number of points
can be monitored, and these recorders can be networked in such a way that they serve as small front-end data
acquisition systems for other instruments on the network.
The user is able to configure any desired input range, including that of nonlinear thermo-couples, in the desired
units of measure. The indicator scale is a digital display that conforms automatically to the configured input. The
microprocessor normally includes a real time clock, enabling the recorder to display and print times along with
the recorded traces.
Some microprocessor-based recorders do not need preprinted chart paper. These recorders can use blank charts
and print both the grid and the trace of input values. The data may be presented either as trace lines or in tabular
form. The printing may be done by a thermal print head on special paper or by inkjet on plain paper, as well as by
several other methods.
Programmable Logic Controllers

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) were developed in the early I 970s and represent the earliest and most
successful application of computers in process control.
The term programmable means that equipment behavior is defined by instructions (software), not by its
manufacturing specifications. Programmable logic controller (PLC) was the name given to the original
equipment, which performed only logic operations. Later devices acquired some loop capability and were called
P(L)Cs for programmable (mostly logic) controllers. Today‘s units are called simply programmable controllers
(PCs) and may be part of integrated control.
Prior to 1970, discrete manufacturing processes and batch controls used motor control centers (MCC), large
metal cabinets with many switches and lights on the outside, filled with large electromechanical relays and
masses of wires on the inside. These MCCs controlled the stopping, starting, and sequencing of motors and other
on/off devices. Most circuits required both a relatively small pilot relay and a heavy-duty contactor relay. Initial
installation, maintenance, and (especially) modification were complex, expensive, and error-prone projects.
Ladder diagrams were universally used to design, document, and guide the installation. These diagrams were
drawn by process engineers and used by installation crafts persons to do the actual point-to-point wiring. In
theory, changes would be documented by revision of the ladder diagram, but it was often easier and less
expensive to install a new MCC than to rewire an old one.
A small keypad on the case, or a removable calculator-like keyboard, had buttons representing on, off, normally
open relay, normally closed relay, counter, timer, and other PLC functions. The PLC was configured through
these keys by following a conventional ladder diagram to associate inputs, internal PLC functions (for example,
timers), and outputs. Configuration was much faster than hard-wiring, and the PLC could detect common
errors—for example, open, crossed, or duplicated connections.
The process engineer could now draw a ladder diagram on the computer screen and download to configure the
PLC. Further more, because the intermediate steps from diagram to actual wiring were eliminated, the ladder
diagram (which could be printed out) became self-documenting and always up-to-date.
In the late 1980s, P(L)Cs acquired many of the loop control capabilities of microprocessor-based networked loop
controllers and started to be known as PCs (programmable controllers). Today‘s PCs are displacing
microprocessor-based loop controllers in the traditional process industries and are competing with some
distributed control systems.
Integrated Control Systems

Many developments are occurring simultaneously. P(L)Cs have acquired loop control capabilities. In addition,
the logic capabilities of distributed control systems are being enhanced, and DCS is entering the traditionally
discrete control field of the P(L)C.
Integrated control refers to a system that combines all the diverse elements of process control. These elements
include loop control, data acquisition and processing, process history and archiving, statistical process control
(SPC), just-in-time (JIT) inventory control, cost accounting, and many other management features.
Personal Computers
Personal computers are finding applications in process control as the available equipment provides more power at
less cost. Standard personal computers, by themselves, are unable to communicate with the sensors and final
control elements used in process control. However, signal conditioner manufacturers have made input/output
equipment available to solve this problem.
Software authors have made excellent process control software available at low cost.
The ready availability of I/O equipment and excellent software makes it practical for an owner to assemble a
personal computer-based process control system as a do-it-yourself project at low cost with high probability of
success. Also, system integrators are available to provide turnkey control systems based on personal computers.
Distributed Control System Hardware
A distributed control system usually consists of several subsystems:
• Operating/engineering workstations
• Geographically distributed processing units
• Software
• Host/guest computers
• A transmission system to interconnect the DCS subsystems.
The degree to which a computer or computer- based system-—for example, a DCS—allows substituting the
product of one manufacturer for the product of another manufacturer determines whether it is an open or closed
system. The terms are relative.
Workstations
The term workstation is frequently used to describe the fastest and most powerful personal computers.
Workstation refers to the location and/or the equipment used by people to interface with the distributed control
system and the process it controls. Common synonyms are operator( ‗s) station, engineer( ‗s) station, and process
window.
These stations appear to be personal computers (the workstation variety of PC) mounted in a console or on a
desk. The console or desk contains, out of sight, extensive electronic equipment—for example, power supplies,
transmission system interfaces, and mass memory devices.
The display screens at a workstation, typically 19-in, size and full color, bring to the operator all the information
and controls that used to appear on individual instruments mounted on many square feet of control panel. An
operator could scan an older con trol panel and know instantly whether everything was normal. It takes a bit more
expertise and more time to call up appropriate displays at the workstation.
The operating displays are arranged in a hierarchy of overview/group/detail/alarm/graphic/trend/ history. A
hierarchical arrangement of display shows more and more about less and less. Critical data—alarms, for
example—are often displayed continuously on a dedicated (single-purpose) screen.
Displays are called up and control actions are performed with keyboards and a variety of other input devices.
Systems generally use the conventional QWERTY keyboard which has the character set and arrangement of a
standard type writer with the letters QWERTY in that order.
In addition to keyboards, other input devices include the following:
• Mouse
• Trackball
• Joystick
• Touch-screen
• Digital pad
• Voice recognition.
The same display in a small system or a separate workstation in a large system, serves engineering functions—for
example, configuration and trouble shooting. Access to algorithm and parameter values generally is limited to the
engineering console.
Remote Processing Units

Remote processing units (RPUs) are the heart of a distributed control system. An RPU is a small computer that is
located close to the equipment it monitors and controls. It is connected to workstations by the transmission
subsystem—the data highway. Many kinds of small computers can be used as RPUs if they include the terminal
screws necessary for input/output connections to the data highway. An RPU is able to function as eight separate
instruments, perhaps loop controllers, on a time-sharing basis within the real-time requirements of most
processes. A large DCS can have hundreds of RPUs.
Each RPU function is defined (given a job description) during the configuration process, which is the original
setup of the distributed control system. Each RPIJ has a library of 50 or more job descriptions, called algorithms,
stored within it. An algorithm is a step-by-step set of instructions to achieve a certain result. Typical algorithms
are:
• On/off switch
• PID controller
• Ratio controller
• Adder/subtractor.
The configuration instructions are issued from the workstation over the data highway to the RPU.
The RPU reads the job description in its library, gets the necessary inputs from the process, performs the
calculations prescribed by the algorithm, and issues an output to the process.
Workstations are the most prominent parts of a distributed control system and are often credited with more
responsibility than they actually have. The workstation itself has no process control function and could be turned
off or completely disconnected from the system without affecting the ability of the RPUs to maintain process
control. The work station simply displays what the RPUs are doing and what the effects are on the process.
If an RPU fails, only eight channels out of possibly thousands are affected. It is easy and economically reasonable
to provide redundancy or other backup strategies to minimize even these relatively small problems. A light on the
workstation CRT warns the operator to replace the failed card. An active workstation is necessary for providing
visibility of the process and for issuing instructions
Remote processing units are housed in heavy-duty cabinets on the plant floor near the process. These cabinets
also contain input/output (I/O) systems, power supplies, and auto/manual stations for local operation or
emergency conditions. All of these components are capable of redundancy or other back-up strategies for maxi
mum reliability.
Although power to the cabinets is 115 V AC, RPUs normally operate on 24-V dc power, which can be supplied
by a UPS (uninterruptible power supply) during power failures. The UPS allows an orderly shutdown of a
process over less than a 30-minute period and also enables the equipment to ride through a minor electrical
transient. However, note that the presence of control system power does not necessarily mean that the process can
operate if it depends on motors and other high- powered equipment.
I/O may be smart or intelligent equipment, capable of being distributed along a data high way and separated from
its associated RPUs, acting as a data acquisition system.
Host/Guest Computers
DCS requires larger computers to permit their users to take full advantage of their benefits. Depending on how
they are used, these larger computers are called host or guest computers:
• A host computer provides a high level of service to the DCS.
• A guest computer receives a high level of service from the DCS.
A host computer might gather information from thousands of DCS data points and compile it into a finished
report, while a guest computer might receive the finished report from the DCS and distribute it or simply store it
in its large memory.
Transmission System
The subsystems and components of a distributed control system are all parts of a local area network (LAN),
which is physically interconnected by a data highway. A data highway may use fiber optics, coaxial cable, or
twisted-pair.
Technically, only a single cable is needed, but all DCS data highways use at least two cables for the reliability
that is gained from redundancy. Whenever possible, the two cables follow different routes in order to minimize
the possibility of physical damage by accident—for example, being hit by a forklift. Two redundant cables form
one logical data highway. In most DCSs, multiple data highways can be connected to a single workstation.
Multiple workstations can be connected to any data highway, and any workstation can have additional multiple
data highways to create very large systems.
Each DCS designer chooses a topology that determines the logical arrangement of nodes—the points where
hardware is connected to the data high way.
• Star topology connects each remote to the master. There are no direct remote-to-remote (peer-to- peer)
connections. Instead, a remote station relies on the system master to relay messages to and from the other remote
stations.
• Hub topology is like a spoked wheel with remote stations arranged on the rim and a master station at the hub.
Each remote is connected to the master and is also connected to other remotes along the rim.
• Ring topology is like the rim of a wheel with no spokes or hub. All stations are connected to the rim and
communicate by transmitting messages around the rim. The primary station has greater capability than the
secondary stations, but does not have the full power of a master station.
Intelligible data transmission requires a logical structure called protocol. Certain topologies favor certain
protocols, but any topology can use any protocol. Protocol sets rules to govern node behavior.
Protocols used in distributed control systems include, among others, token passing, contention, and polling.
Token-passing protocol allows each individual a turn to talk. No one else may talk until his turn. A token is
passed from person to person as each turn is over. Each turn has a maximum length, but the speaker can pass the
token as soon as he has finished talking to keep the meeting moving. No chairperson is needed to keep order, but
someone might have responsibility for keeping the minutes of the meeting.
Contention protocol allows each individual to holler for attention, contending (competing) with the others. A
typical example is a press conference with a politician. The VIP hears everyone, but responds selectively to
messages that seem most important at the moment. Unacknowledged reporters keep repeating their calls for
attention.
Polling protocol allows an individual to speak by invitation, as in a formal business meeting. One person has
total control and can ask any participant to speak or to stop speaking.
Contention, polling, and similar protocols require some form of data transmission control. The master station
serves as a data highway traffic director.
Distributed Control System Software

As an off-the-shelf personal computer (PC) is often used as a DCS workstation, the DCS software must be
compatible with the PC‘s operating system software. Because the PC often is used to format management reports
from process data provided by the DCS‘s data acquisition function, the DCS soft ware has to be compatible with
the word processing, spreadsheet, and report-generating software used by the personal computer.
The DCS uses commercial graphic design software that permits (in fact, requires) the user to create his own
displays. Engineers need to understand computer operating systems and application software in order to design
custom graphic displays, prepare management reports, and perform other application-specific functions.
Operators cannot rely solely on specially labeled keys to call up displays, but must be computer literate and must
have vendor-specific training to use personal computer keyboards and commands.
Distributed Control System Reliability

In a DCS, the unit is one processing unit. If this unit fails, up to 64 loops can be lost.
Many statistical parameters can be applied to the kinds of solid-state devices that are used in DCSs. Two
commonly used parameters are called MTBF and MTTR:
• MTBF (mean time between failures) is a measure of reliability, predicting how often repairs will be needed.
• MTTR (mean time to repair) is a factor of availability, predicting how much time will be lost while the repair is
being made.
• Availability is equal to MTBF/ (MTBF + MTTR), where both factors have the same time units.
Because MTBF approaches 100 years for DCS components and MTTR is typically 15 minutes for replacement of
printed circuit boards, DCSs provide both high reliability and high availability
Distributed control systems are provided with comprehensive diagnostics. Components are able to check
themselves and other components and report any problems to the operator by means of a priority display at the
workstation. Diagnostic routines can locate faults geographically to a data highway station level or better, and
fault indicators can usually locate the specific component within the station. This degree of fault location, and
repair by replacement, makes the short MTTR possible.
Total redundancy provides every device in pairs—a primary and a secondary—for the maximum protection
against failure
Another strategy, applicable with or without redundancy, is the use of auto/manual (A/M) stations in critical
loops. A/M stations are analog or, more likely, microprocessor-based single-loop controllers that can track one
channel of a DCS processing unit and provide single-loop integrity if the processing unit fails. They normally
have independent wiring and power supplies enabling them to operate totally independent of the distributed
control system.
The ability of a DCS to provide configuration reload is a great aid to replacement and short MTTR. An RPU
contains a large database of algorithms, application programs, and other data installed by the configuration
process prior to start-up. This arrangement, which permits the processing unit to operate independently of the
work station, is called a local database.
The workstation itself contains a global data-base that contains a configuration copy (image) for every processing
unit (and other configured device) in the entire system. If any device is replaced, the replacement can be
configured over the data highway in seconds with the database of the device it replaced.
Peripherals
Several peripherals are commonly used with distributed control systems
• Printers. Often several printers are used, each for a specific purpose. For example, one might be for alarms,
another for operator actions, and a third for management reports.
• Large displays. CRTs of 25- to 32-in, size are often used, and some larger systems have projection displays of
48- to 60-in, size.
• Video copiers. Video copiers produce color hard copy (printout) of a screen display and are often used with
systems that use pictorial interactive graphics for process control.
• Mass memory. Standard DCSs have mass memory measured in megabytes but graphics- or history-intensive
systems require gigabytes or even terabytes. A host/guest computer can provide this amount of storage, but high-
capacity peripherals—for example, optical disks, compact discs (CDs), and video tape—are economical
alternatives.
• Programmable logic controllers. PCs are sometimes used as peripherals to a DCS for extensive and/or high-
speed data acquisition, but the present trend is toward integration into a single system.
• Remote diagnostics. In addition to the built-in diagnostics, even more extensive diagnostic facilities can be
added as peripherals. These facilities also make possible world-wide communication so that a DCS manufacturer
in the United States can diagnose, correct, and even reconfigure a system in Pakistan.
Setting Up Distributed Control Systems

There are two fundamental aspects to putting a distributed control system (DCS) into service— configuration and
operation. Configuration is an engineering function. Configuration
The configuration process involves several phases and requires a thorough knowledge of both the DCS and the
process to be controlled. During configuration, the hardware is located and defined, inputs and outputs are
identified, parameters are assigned, control functions (algorithms) are selected, and displays are built and
arranged. Parameters are the values that can be expressed numerically or in Boolean (TRUE/FALSE) terms for
proportional/integral/derivative values, units of measure, alarm limits, and so on.
Algorithm libraries are still provided for common control functions (for example, PID—
proportional/integral/derivative), but special programmable functions can be written in a high-level computer
programming language and intermingled with algorithms.
Displays can be in any form and can show any system data, but are usually arranged in a hierarchy. Pictorial
displays can be very intricate, and the entire process can be controlled from properly designed pictorial displays,
which also are usually arranged in a hierarchy. Displays are called up, one at a time, to show the desired level.
Hierarchical Displays
• Overview displays show a little information about a lot of loops.
• Group displays show a lot of information about a few loops.
• Detail displays show everything about one loop.
If both faceplate (a section of a group display) and pictorial displays are used, the hierarchy applies to each
category.
Overview displays show many loops with little detail, and are the equivalent of standing 20 ft back from a large
control panel. You can see all the red alarm lights, but cannot read any of the values. Control functions cannot be
performed on an overview display. Rather, it serves as a table of contents for the available displays.
Group displays show a few loops (typically eight) with considerable detail and are the equivalent of standing a
foot back from a control panel. You can read the values on the group of instruments in front of you, but you
cannot even see other groups of instruments on the panel. Control functions can be performed on group displays,
but configuration parameters cannot be changed.
Detail displays show all the values for one loop and are the equivalent of withdrawing a single instrument from
its case on a panel. You can read its values and even its internal adjustment settings, but you cannot see any other
instruments on the panel. Control functions can be performed on detail displays, and configuration parameters
can be changed. For security purposes, the configuration engineer can limit or prohibit changes that can be made
by the operator.
The Scope of integration

Large amounts of valuable management information resides in the networks and systems, so these process
elements are connected to the business mainframes which serve as host or guest computers for the process, and as
management information system (MIS) computers for the business administrators.
Integration is taking place at all levels, aiming at total business integration and flexible integrated manufacturing
systems that are able to respond quickly and profitably to consumer demands.
Total Business Integration

The conceptual model of total business integration is often shown as a triangle or pyramid or as a tree structure.
Each level has its own management concerns and could (and often does) operate independently from the other
levels. However, the greatest efficiency comes when all of the levels operate together with responsiveness to one
another.
There are two main reasons why open systems are not yet common:
• Companies have millions of dollars invested in their individual systems.
• Each protocol has its own unique advantages.
Manufacturers of computers, computerized equipment, and application software (programs) are apt to design
closed systems, both for technological reasons and for purposes of market control. Closed (or proprietary)
systems can transfer data only among like elements of a system, usually elements from a single manufacturer or
―clones‖ of these elements from other manufacturers.
Users prefer open systems because they allow computerized equipment and software from a variety of
manufacturers to be integrated without difficulty. Open systems allow data to be transferred among all the
hardware and software elements of a system, regardless of the manufacturer of each element.
OSI/ISO The open systems interface (OSI) standard of the International Standards Organization (ISO) attempts
to solve the compatibility and integration problems without imposing design constraints on the manufacturers of
computerized equipment and software. OSI/ISO bridges are hardware/software devices that can be interposed
between different stations of like computerized equipment systems to provide communications. Gateways
perform the same function for unlike systems.
The OSI model defines seven interface layers or entry points for equipment that is operating in an integrated
system
Discrete Processes and Manufacturing Systems

Discrete manufacturing involves materials that are carried (rather than those that flow) to produce goods such as
automobiles, bicycles, lawn mowers, and washing machines. The manufacturing cycle includes design, drafting,
engineering, purchased parts procurement, parts manufacturing, assembly, quality control, and distribution.
Powerful computers provide full-color, three-dimensional displays of new designs that can be rotated and viewed
from any angle. Colors can be changed instantaneously, and the effects of light and shadow can be simulated
directly on the CRT display. Profiles and design details can be varied at will. Computer aided design (CAD)
computers are able to operate computer-driven equipment that produces foam or plastic prototypes directly from
the screen display.
Computer-aided engineering (CAE) deals with the strength of materials and shapes, fitting of parts, weight,
structural rigidity, and many similar engineering considerations. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) uses a
computer to control a machine—for example, a Lathe, a milling machine, or a robot.
CAM provides many advantages:
• Reduced machine setup time
• Greater flexibility
• Higher quality
• Greater consistency
• Automatic, accurate metric conversion
• Integration with other levels.
Flexible Manufacturing and Materials Control

A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is essential in today‘s competitive marketing environment. Consumers
demand choice in the products they buy.
Manufacturing resources planning (MRP) is an important element in an FMS. Manufacturing resources include
people, materials, tools, cells, and operations.
Just-in-time inventory control is meant to provide the right parts at the right time to a manufacturing cell or to
some other point in the process without the need for any stock inventory. Thousands of manufactured and
purchased parts in hundreds of thousands of combinations must be coordinated within a few minutes to make JIT
work as a true zero-inventory method on a large scale.
Materials management system (MMS) uses computers to minimize inventory costs when true JIT zero-
inventory cannot be attained. An MMS computer is on line at all times and can balance reorder points with
current lead times much faster and more reliably than traditional minimum-stock and physical inventory methods.
Reliability is important. Traditional methods typically have early order and quantity safety factors (―cushions‖)
added at several points, usually resulting in inflated inventories. An MMS does not have these cushions. An
MMS may operate either independently or within the larger framework of MRP, depending on the degree of
system integration used at a facility.
Statistical Process Control

Most continuous processes use closed control loops and feedback to maintain control close to a desired point, the
set point (SP). If the actual value of the process variable (PV) differs from the set point, an error is detected. The
feedback signal helps produce a controller output that drives the process toward the set point.
Most discrete processes are open loops without feedback. If an error occurs when a part—a screw, perhaps—is
being made, that part is defective. Furthermore, without feedback, the error is not detected or corrected at the
point of processing, so the process is apt to continue making defective parts until they are detected by inspection.
An automated computer-con trolled machine can produce large quantities of defective parts in a short time, so
this can be a serious problem. In most cases, it is not possible or economical to rework defective parts. Even if the
material can be salvaged, the added value from each processing operation is lost.
A better method—because it corrects the process sooner—is to measure every part as soon as it is produced and
to use the measurements in statistical process control (SPC).
SPC is applied widely in discrete manufacturing industries and processes. Many quality-conscious
purchasers require potential suppliers to have fully operational SPC programs in place before they can become
approved vendors. SPC is less common in the continuous process industries, but its basic principles apply and are
attractive for high-value, high-quality products—for example, pharmaceuticals—and also in refineries and many
other places now. All continuous processes with DCSs use SPC routinely.
Integration of Continuous and Batch Processes

A large integrated plant is certain to have batch and continuous processes running together with the
discrete processes on site.
Modern batch and continuous processes using microprocessor-based instruments, programmable
controllers, and distributed control systems provide extensive and valuable data acquisition facilities for the
management levels of the plant integration model. Most of these control instruments and systems are available to
MAP specifications, and OSI/ISO bridges and gateways are available for readily interfacing them into an
integrated plant network.
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Basic Instrumentation

Industrial instrumentation and control

Book of Basic Instrumentation is written for New Coming instrument professionals

Gravity dependent units

Gravity independent units

Relative density (specific gravity)

Gas law: relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature is,

The most common force balance sensors are:

Bellows, Diaphragm, Bourdon metallic devices, and Slack diaphragm.

Dead weight tester

Force balance systems

It exists normally in any of the three shapes.

Diaphragm pressure sensors

3.) Bellows pressure sensors

Capacitive pressure transducers

Reluctive pressure transducer

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) pressure Transducer

Strain gauge pressure transducers

Piezoelectric pressure transducers

Environmental conditions affecting a transducer

Low pressure measurement

1). Limp/Slack diaphragm gauge.

PNEUMATIC RELAY (Booster relay)

Instrument piping, connection and fitting

Magnetic Reed Switches

Head Pressure measurement for any liquid

RADIATION TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Range Suppression and Elevation

Elbow-Mounted Measuring Device

VARIABLE AREA METERS (ROTAMETER)Variable-area instrument for flow measurement is the

Measuring Gas Flow

FLUME (Parshall Flume)

VELOCITY FLOW METERS

Advantages of turbine flow meter are:

b) The degree of hotness or coldness as referenced to a specific scale of temperature measurement.

Fahrenheit: Melting point of ice is 32 and boiling point is 212.

All temperature measurements in industry are of two basic groups.

A). Non Electric type

B). Electric type

Temperature is indicated by the changes it causes in certain instruments.

LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS

FILLED THERMAL SYSTEMS

1. Liquid filled system

2. Gas filled systems

3. Vapor pressure systems

Two main classes of thermocouples are

A). COPPER-CONSTANTAN (T TYPE)

B). IRON – CONSTANTAN (J TYPE)

C). CHROMEL- ALUMEL (K TYPE)

This thermocouple is used in Oxidizing atmosphere.

E). PLATINUM RHODIUM/PLATINUM (R ,B, S TYPE)

SPECIAL PURPOSE THERMOCOUPLES

TUBE WALL THERMOCOUPLE

SPECIAL FEATURES OF THERMOCOUPLES

3). AVERAGE TEMPERATURE

Broadband pyrometers (radiation pyrometers)

Types of narrow band pyrometers

Primary and secondary standards

Primary calibration standards