Chapter 2

Solar Radiation

Prof. Sami Karaki

February 2009, 2015, 2016
September 2021

Main References
John Twidell and Tony Weir
John Duffie & William Beckman

1
 Introduction
• Solar radiation on Earth is at a maximum flux density of about 1 kW m-2 in a
wavelength between 0.25 and 2.5 μm. This is the short wave radiation that
includes the visible spectrum. The energy received varies from 3 to 30 MJ m-2 per
day depending on place, time, and weather.
• This energy is of very high thermodynamic quality from the sun with a surface
temperature of 5777 K giving a photon energy of about 2 eV.
• Radiant energy from Earth is also of the order 1 kW m-2 but occurs in a wavelength
band of 5 and 25 μm. This is the long wave radiation peaking at about 10 μm.
• Annual solar irradiation (ASI) differs significantly throughout the Earth. In northern
and central Europe it is 700 and 1000 kWh/ (m2 year), respectively; whereas in
southern Europe it is 1700 kWh/ (m2 year). The ASI in the Sahara is 2350 kWh/
(m2 year) and the global primal energy demand could be provided by collecting
the energy received by 48,500 km2 of the Sahara that has an area of 8.7×106 km2.
• The main aim of this chapter is to calculate the solar radiation available as input to
a solar device at a specific location, orientation and time. We will then deal with
the measurement of solar radiation on a horizontal surface and how we can use it
to estimate radiation on surface with other orientations at the same location.
2
 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
• The spectral distribution of solar irradiance at the earth’s mean distance (1.496x108 km) is like
that of a black body at 5777 K. The area beneath the curve is the radiant flux density on a
plane directly facing the sun’s rays; it is equal to the solar constant G0= 13672 W m-2. The
solar spectrum is divided into three main regions as shown below. The percentages shown in
Fig. 2.1 are for the spectrum at AM0.

Spectral Irradiance (W/m2 m)

2500
ultraviolet visible infrared

2000 7% 47% 46%

1500 Spectrum AM0

extraterrestrial

1000

Spectrum AM1.5
500 terrestrial

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Wavelength (m)

Fig. 2.1: Spectral solar irradiance at AM0 and AM1.5

3
 Components of Radiation - Definition
Sun Zenith

Direct beam Absorption

and reflection

Cloud and
dust
diffuse diffuse
z

Fig. 2.2: Beam and diffused radiation.

• At the earth’s surface, direct beam radiation is observable from the direction of the Sun’s
disk, and diffuse radiation is received from other directions. This shown in Fig. 2.2. Diffuse
radiation varies from less than 20% on a clear day to 100% on a cloudy day. Note that only
beam radiation can be focused.
• Beam and diffuse solar radiation measured in kWh/ (m2 day) at the following locations are,
respectively, as follows: London 0.99 and 1.47, Rome 2.41 and 1.78, LA 3.03 and 2.07, and
Cairo 3.39 and 1.95. 4
 Components of Radiation – Air Mass
The air mass (AM) is a dimensionless measure of the length of the path of beam
radiation in the atmosphere. It is approximately (?) given below in terms of the
zenith angle. Its variation at different times of the year at solar noon is given in figure
2.3 below for Cairo.

AM  1/ (cos z )

Fig. 2.3: Variation of AM

z= 6.6 z= 29.2 z= 48.2 across seasons.
z= 53.4

s

5
 Components of Radiation - Measurement
Beam Beam Beam

Diffuse Diffuse


Gbc=Gb cos  Gd Gt= Gbc + Gd

Fig. 2.4: Beam and diffused radiation.

• The measurements of radiation components are illustrated in Fig. 2.4. Let Gb be the
available beam irradiance, then the beam irradiance at a collector surface is:
Gbc= Gb cos  (2.1)
• Total irradiance is the sum of beam and diffuse components:
Gt= Gbc + Gd (2.2)
6
 Measurement of Solar Radiation
Instruments - 1

(a)

(c)
(b)

Fig. 2.5: (a) pyranometer that measures total horizontal radiation, (b)
Pyrheliometer to measure beam radiation, (c) Sphere blocking beam
radiation so that the pyranometer measures diffuse radiation. 7
 Measurement of Solar Radiation
Instruments - 2 (Table 2.1)

Type Measure- Stability Accuracy Output Price Notes

ment (% y-1) (%) at (US $)
1kWm-2
Active cavity Direct < 0.01 < 0.3 10 mV 15000 Used as
radio-meter irradiance reference.
Requires
tracking
Pyrano- Global 1 1-3 10 mV 500 - Thermopile
meter irradiance 1500 sensor
Calibrated Global 2 5 - 10 10 mA 200 - Non-uniform
Solar cells irradiance 500 spectral
response;
easy mount
Pyrhelio- Direct 1 1-2 10 mV 1500 Requires
meter irradiance tracking;
thermopile

8
 Geometry of Earth and Sun
The Equation of Time
• Earth rotates once in 24 hours about its own axis, defined Equatorial Plane
by the north and south poles (N and S), which is normal to
the equatorial plane.
N P
• In Fig. 2.6, the position of a point P on Earth’s surface is
determined by its longitude Ψ and latitude Φ angles.
Φ E
• Points G and E are points on the equator having the same
longitude as Greenwich and P, respectively.
Ψ
• Let tsolar be the solar time and tzone be the local civic time at G
point P. Let Ψzone be the longitude where the sun is
overhead when tzone is 12:00 noon, then:
tsolar = tzone + 4 (Ψ – Ψzone) + E (2.5)
• E is measured in minutes and calculated using the
“equation of time” (Spencer 1971): S
E= 229.2 (0.000075 + 0.001868 cos B – 0.032077 sin B Fig. 2.6: Longitude and latitude of
– 0.014615 cos 2B – 0.04089 sin 2B) (2.6) a point P on Earth.
• The value of B is given by: B= (n – 1)×360/ 365, where n is the day of the year
(n= 1 on January 1). The values of E may be represented by a harmonic function
that repeats itself every year and is in the range 15 minutes.

9
 Geometry of Earth and Sun
Example on the Equation of Time
• The variation in E, shown in Fig.
2.7, is due to the tilt of the N-S
axis with respect to the orbital
plane, and the elliptic orbit of
Earth around the Sun. This means 15
that the time between two solar
noons is not exactly 24 hours.
10

Equation of time (min)

Example 2.1: In Beirut what is the
solar time corresponding to 10:30 5
AM for GMT+2 on February 3?
Solution: The longitude angle in 0
Beirut is Ψ= 35.5 and the standard
meridian is 30, equation 2.5 gives: -5
tsolar = tzone + 4 (35.5 – 30) + E
-10
E is calculated from Eq. 2.6 or
approximately from Fig. 2.7. With n=
-15
34, for February 3, E= -13 min; so the
solar time is: J F M A M J J A S O N D
10:30 + [4 (5.5) – 13]’= 10:39. Month
Fig. 2.7: Plot of the equation of time
10
 Geometry of Earth and Sun
Declination Angle
δ0
21 Dec. N δ0
N
21 Sep.

Direction of rotation
S
Sun
Observer S
δ0
N δ0 Observer
N

21 Jun.
S Observer
21 Mar.
S
Fig. 2.8: Orbital plane of Earth around the Sun.
• Earth orbits the sun once per year while the direction of its axis remains fixed at an angle
0= 23.45 with the normal to the orbital plane, as shown in Fig. 2.8.
• The declination angle  is the angle between the Sun’s rays and the equatorial plane. It is
equal to the latitude of a point on Earth where the Sun is exactly overhead at solar noon. It
can be proven that it is the angle between the projection of the N-S axis on a plane normal
to an observer at a point further along Earth’s orbit, and the normal to the orbital plane.

11
 Geometry of Earth and Sun
Variation of Declination Angle

Fig. 2.9: Declination angle

at 4 times of the year.

• The observer’s view of Earth as seen from a point further along its orbit is shown in Fig. 2.9.
It is shown for 4 times of the year with circles of latitudes at 0, 23.45, and  66.5.
• The declination angle  varies smoothly from  = 23.45 at midsummer in the northern
hemisphere (21 June) to  = -23.45 at midwinter (21 December) in the northern
hemisphere. Analytically it can be found from the approximate equation of Cooper (1969)
with day n of the year:
 = 23.45 sin [ (360 (284 + n) / 365) ] (2.7)
• A more accurate formula (error < 0.035) is given by Spencer (1971):
 = 0.006918 – 0.399912 cos B + 0.070257 sin B
– 0.006758 cos 2B + 0.000907 sin 2B (2.8)
– 0.002679 cos 3B + 0.00148 sin 3B with B= (n-1) 360/ 365 12
 Geometry of Collector and Solar Beam
Definitions - 1
Normal to
• With reference to Fig. 2.10, for the collector collector
surface we define: Normal to
horizontal
Slope  : It is the angle between the collector
surface and the horizontal, with 0 <  < 90. 
Surface Azimuth Angle  : It is the angle of, the
projection of the normal to the collector surface
on the horizontal plane, and the local longitude
meridian. For a surface facing due south  =0,
180 due north, 0 to 180 facing westwards and 0
to -180 eastwards. For a horizontal surface,  = 0.
Incidence Angle  : The angle between the solar
(a)
beam and the normal to the collector surface.
• For the solar beam we define:
Zenith Angle z : It is the angle between the solar
beam and the vertical. Note that  and z are not N Fig. 2.10:
necessarily in the same plane. Perspective (a),
Solar Azimuth Angle s: It is the angle of, the top view (b).
projection of the sun beam on the horizontal W E
plane, and the local longitude meridian. The angle
between the projection of solar beam and that of
normal to the collector is s  . s  (b)
13
S
 Geometry of Collector and Solar Beam
Calculation of Incidence Angle
• The incidence angle, between beam and normal to the collector, is given by one of the
following equations:
cos  = (A – B) sin  + [C sin  + (D + E) cos ] cos  (2.9)
cos  = cos z cos  + sin z sin  cos ( s  ) (2.10)
where: A= sin  cos  , B= cos  sin  cos , C= sin  sin , D= cos  cos  , and E= sin 
sin  cos 
• The hour angle  is the angle through which the earth has rotated since solar noon:
 = (360/24) (tsolar – 12) (2.11)
• When facing the equator ( = 0) at a slope equal to the latitude,  = , Eq. (2.9) reduces to:
cos  = cos  cos  (2.12)
• For a horizontal plane  = 0 equation (2.9) is greatly simplified:
cos  = cos z = sin  sin  + cos  cos  cos  (2.13)
• The solar azimuth angle ( s) can have values in the range -180 to 180 for north or south
latitudes between 23.45 and 66.45;  s will be between -90 and 90 for days less than 12h
long; for days longer than 12h  s will have values lower than -90 and greater than 90. In
general  s has the sign of the hour angle 𝜔 and is given by the following equation:
cos 𝜃𝑧 sin 𝜙 − sin 𝛿
𝛾𝑠 = sign 𝜔 cos−1 (2.14)
sin 𝜃𝑧 cos 𝜙
14
 Geometry of Collector and Solar Beam
Example 2.2: Calculation of Angle of Incidence
Example 2.2: Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a collector
facing south in Beirut (35.5 E, 33.2 N) and tilted at the angle of latitude at 10:00
AM (civic time) on March 1.
Solution: Since the tilt angle equals the latitude ( = ) then cos  is given by (2.12).
So we need to calculate the solar time using (2.5), the hour angle using (2.11), and
the declination angle using Cooper’s equation (2.7).
First we determine the EOT E from (2.6) or approximately from Fig. 2.7 as -12.9
minutes. The solar time is:
tsolar = 10:00 + {4 (35.5 – 30) – 12.9}’= 10:09= 10.15 hours
The hour angle from (2.11) is:
ω= (360/24) (10.15 – 12)= -27.75
The declination angle on March 1 (n= 60) from (2.7) is:
 = 23.45 sin [ (360 (284 + 60) / 365) ]= -8.29
The angle of incidence is obtained using (2.12):
cos  = cos(-27.75) cos(-8.29)= 0.875   = cos-1(0.875)= 28.87
Exercise: Repeat the calculation for June 1. Also, repeat the calculation for a similar
collector placed in Aleppo at the same times and dates.

15
 Geometry of Collector and Solar Beam
Example 2.3: Solar Azimuth Angle Calculation
• Example 2.3: Calculate the zenith and solar azimuth angles in Beirut at 10:00 civic time on
March 1.
• Solution: The hour and declination angles are as calculated in Example 2.2, ω = -27.75 and
 = -8.29. From equation 2.13:
cos z = sin (33.2) sin (-8.29) + cos (33.2) cos (-27.75) cos (-8.29)= 0.654  z= 49.2
From equation 2.14
cos 49.2 sin 33.2 − sin(−8.29)
𝛾𝑠 = −1 cos−1 = -37.5
sin 49.2 cos 33.2
• Exercise: Repeat Example 2.3 for 5:30 PM on June 13, and comment on the results.

• Another angle of interest is the solar profile angle (p) of beam radiation, which is the
π
projection of the solar elevation angle (s), from the horizontal (s= − 𝜃𝑧 ), on a vertical
2
plane passing through the azimuth direction of the collector. It is useful to calculate shades of
overhangs and is given by:
tan p= tan s / (cos( s-  ) (2.15)
The “optimum” direction of a flat plate collector is not obvious because of the diffuse
radiation. But a “good-enough” position of a fixed plate collector position is to face the
equator with a slope equal to the latitude ( =  ). At high latitudes it is sensible to adjust the
slope monthly. A concentrating collector is made to point towards the sun, through tracking,
to minimize the incidence angle.
16
 Geometry of Collector and Solar Beam
Angles of Tracking Surfaces
• Some solar collectors track the sun to minimize the angle of incidence of beam radiation and
maximize efficiency. There are different modes of tracking, e.g. east-west tracking about a
horizontal (north-south) axis, north-south tracking about a horizontal (east-west) axis, and
continuous tracking about two axes.
• For a collector tracking the sun from east to west, and rotating about a north-south axis with
continuous adjustment, the angle of incidence ( ) is obtained from:
cos  = (cos2  z + cos2  sin2 )1/2 (2.16)
The tilt angle ( ) of the surface is given by:
tan  = tan z |cos ( – s)| (2.17)
The surface azimuth angle  = -90 if s  0, and  = 90 if s  0,.
• For a collector tracking the sun from north to south, rotated about an east-west axis with
continuous adjustment, the angle of incidence ( ) is obtained from:
cos  = (1 – cos2  sin2 )1/2 (2.18)
The tilt angle ( ) of the surface is given by:
tan  = tan z |cos s| (2.19)
The surface azimuth angle  = 0 if |s| 90, and  = 180 if |s|  90.
• For a collector continuously tracking the sun about two axes to minimize the angle of
incidence: cos  = 1,  = z and  = s .

17
 Geometry of Collector and Solar Beam
Example 2.4: Calculation of Angles for Tracking Surfaces:
• Example 2.4: Calculate the angle of incidence, the tilt angle of the surface, and the sun
azimuth angle for  = 33.2, = 21, and = 30 (2:00 PM), if it is continuously rotated about a
north-south axis to minimize .
• Solution: First calculate z from equation 2.13:
cos z = sin  sin  + cos  cos  cos 
cos z = sin (33.2) sin (21) + cos (33.2) cos (30) cos (21)= 0.873  z = 29.2
From equation 2.16 we find the angle of beam incidence:
cos  = ( cos2  z + cos2  sin2  )1/2
cos  = ( cos2 (29.2) + cos2 (21) sin2 (30) )1/2 = 0.9899   = 8.15
Now we need the solar azimuth angle that is found from 2.14:
cos 29.2 sin 33.2 − sin(21)
𝛾𝑠 = 1 cos−1 = 72.96
sin 29.2 cos 33.2
The tilt angle ( ) is found from equation 2.16:
tan  = tan z |cos ( – s)|= tan(29.2) x |cos (90 – 72.96)|= 0.534   = 28.1
• Exercise: Repeat Example 2.4 for  = 60 (4:00PM).
• Exercise: Repeat Example 2.4 for if the collector is continuously rotated about an east-west
axis to minimize .

18
 Geometry of Collector and Solar Beam
Beam radiation on Tilted Surface
• Sometimes for design purposes, it is necessary to calculate the beam radiation on a tilted
surface from a measurement of solar radiation on a horizontal surface. The most common
available data is the hourly or daily radiation on horizontal surfaces. If Gb is the available
beam radiation, with reference to Fig. 2.10, the ratio Rb is given by:
Rb= (Gb cos  )/ (Gb cos z)= cos  / cos z (2.20)
• Example 2.5: What is the ratio of beam radiation to that of the horizontal surface for the
surface and time specified in Example 2.2.
• Solution: In Example 2.2 we found cos  = 0.885. The angle z was calculated in Example 2.3,
cos z= 0.662, so: 
Rb= cos  / cos z = 0.885/ 0.662= 1.34
• Exercise: Repeat Example 2.5 for = 60 (4:00PM).
• Exercise: Repeat Example 2.5 for if the collector is continuously rotated about an east-west
axis to minimize .

Gb 
Gb z
Fig. 2.10: Beam radiation on 
horizontal and tilted surfaces.
19
 Available Extraterrestrial Radiation
Daily Insolation on a Horizontal Surface
• At any given time, the solar radiation on a plane normal to the beam outside the
atmosphere (𝐺0 ) is given by Eq. (2.21a) with adequate accuracy. Spencer (1971) provides a
more accurate equation (0.01%) in Eq. (2.21b):
360𝑛
𝐺𝑠𝑐 1 + 0.033 cos (2.21a)
365
𝐺0 = 𝐺 (1.000110 + 0.034221 cos B + 0.001280 sin B
𝑠𝑐
+0.000719 cos 2B + 0.000077 sin 2B) (2.21b)
• The average daily extraterrestrial insolation H0 (on a horizontal plane) is the total energy
per unit area received daily from the sun:
24
𝐻0 = ‫׬‬0 𝐺0 cos 𝜃𝑧 𝑑𝑡 (2.22)
• The seasonal variation of the daily insolation on a horizontal plane is shown in Fig. 2.11 on
the next slide and varies significantly at high latitudes due to two main reasons:
– Variation in the number of sun hours 𝑁 given by:
2
𝑁= cos−1 (− tan 𝜙 tan 𝛿) (2.23)
15
At a latitude  = 48, N varies from 16h in midsummer to 8h in midwinter.
– Increase in the zenith angle at high latitude causes cos 𝜃𝑧 to drop, which consequently
causes a reduction in the daily insolation 𝐻0 .

20
 Available Extraterrestrial Radiation
Variation with Latitude and Season

Fig. 2.11: Variation of daily insolation on a horizontal plane in clear skies. In summer H0 is
about 25 MJ m-2 per day at all latitudes. In winter H0 is much less at high latitudes because
of shorter day length, more oblique incidence.

21
 Effect of Earth’s Atmosphere 22

Energy Balance
• As solar short wave radiation enters the atmosphere, about 30% is reflected back into
space mainly due to clouds with a smaller proportion from snow and ice. This
reflectance (0= 0.3) is called the albedo.
• At thermal equilibrium the power received on earth, i.e. R2 (1 – 0 ) G0, is equal to
the power radiated from the earth’s system, i.e. 4R2   Te4, since geothermal and
tidal energy effects are minimal:
R2 (1 – 0 ) G0 = 4R2   Te4 (2.24)
with 0= 0.3,  = 1, R = 6.371×106 m, G0  1367 Wm-2, and  = 5.67×10-8 Wm-2K-4
(Stephan-Boltzmann), we obtain from Eq. (2.24) the average Earth’s temperature Te 
250K = –23C. Thus emission from Earth has the spectral distribution of a black body
at 250 K emitting energy at relatively long wavelength around 10 m (Fig. 2.12).

Fig. 2.12: Long-wave spectral

emission of Earth at T= 250 K.
 Effect of Earth’s Atmosphere 23

Greenhouse Effect
• The Earth’s average temperature is 14C that is about 37C above that of the outer atmosphere
(–23C). In effect the atmosphere acts as a blanket because its gases absorb long wave radiation.
This increase in surface temperature, is called the greenhouse effect, and the gases causing it are
called greenhouse gases (GHG). By this effect infrared radiation transmission from inside to
outside Earth is prevented or reduced.
• Measurements of gases trapped in polar ice and long term recordings of remote meteorological
stations show that the concentration of GHG in the atmosphere has increased markedly since
the industrial revolution in the late 18th century. The concentration of CO2 has increased from 280
ppm in 1800, a value very nearly sustained since year 1 CE, to about 400 ppm in 2019, largely due
to the burning of fossil fuels (IPCC 2001, Richie and Roser 2020).
• An analysis by IPCC in 2001 estimated the increase in GHG between 1750 and 2000 to have an
effect equivalent to an increase in 2.5 Wm-2 in solar radiation. Houghton (2004) gives a scientific
explanation of this effect and its implications, as some GHG contribute more than others to the
greenhouse effect. Infrared radiation is absorbed when this electromagnetic radiation resonates
with natural mechanical vibration of molecules. More complex molecules lead to more vibration
modes and a greater likelihood of absorption at any particular radiation frequency.
• Thus 1 kg of CH4 (5 atoms per molecule) in the atmosphere has as a greenhouse impact over 100
years equivalent to 21 kg of CO2 (3 atoms per molecule). This is called the ‘global warming
potential’ (GWP), so the GWP of CH4 is 21, the GWP of water vapor ranges from 3 to 10, and the
GWP of N2O is 310. Most hydro-fluorocarbons (HFC), which were used as substitutes for
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), which are ozone depletion substances, have a GWP of over 1000.
 24
Effect of Earth’s Atmosphere
• The variation of the absorptivity of selected gases of the atmosphere
versus wavelength is shown in Fig. 2.13.

ultraviolet visible infrared

Fig. 2.13
 Effect of Earths Atmosphere 25

Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation

• Solar radiation received at the surface of Earth vary due to two significant phenomena: (1)
atmospheric scattering by air molecules, water and dust, and (2) atmospheric absorption mainly
by O3, H2O, and CO2 (Iqbal 1983).
• Air molecules are very small compared to the wavelength of solar radiation. so scattering is
mainly due to water molecules aggregation and their condensation on dust particles.
• Absorption of radiation in the atmosphere is due largely to ozone in the ultraviolet region ( <
0.38 m) and to water vapor and CO2 in the infrared region.
• Visible radiation (0.38 m < < 0.74 m) is
almost totally transmitted by the pure
atmosphere but aerosol and particulate matter
can have significant absorption. About half of
the solar irradiance is in this region.
• Infrared short wave radiation (0.74 m < < 2.5
m) constitutes 50% of the extraterrestrial
radiation and about 20% of this is absorbed
mainly by water vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide
(CO2). Concentration of water vapor may vary
significantly up to 4% by volume whereas that
of CO2 is now about 0.04% by volume, but is
increasing measurably year to year.
Fig. 2.14: Spectral irradiance at top
of atmosphere and at sea-level.
 Estimation of Solar Irradiance on Clear Days 26

Beam Radiation - Hottel’s Method

• Scattering and absorption of radiation vary with atmospheric conditions and air mass. The
method of Hottel estimates beam radiation through a clear atmosphere taking into account
the zenith angle and altitude for four climate types. Let the transmittance for beam radiation
be b= Gb/ G0 and given in the following form:
𝜏𝑏 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 exp(− 𝑘ൗcos 𝜃𝑧 ) (2.25)
• The angle 𝜃𝑧 is the solar zenith angle, and the constants a0, a1, and k for the standard
atmosphere with 23 km visibility are given by:
𝑎0 = 0.4237 − 0.00821 (6 − 𝐴)2 𝑟0 (2.26)
𝑎1 = 0. 5055 + 0.00595 (6.5 − 𝐴)2 𝑟1 (2.27)
𝑘= 0. 2711 + 0.01858 (2.5 − 𝐴)2 𝑟𝑘 (2.28)
• Where A is the altitude in km of the collector, and r0, r1, and rk are correction coefficients
given in Table 2.2:
• The clear sky beam radiation is: Table 2.2: Correction Coefficients
Gb= G0 b (2.29) Climate Type r0 r1 rk

The beam radiation normal to the Tropical 0.95 0.98 1.02

horizontal is: Mid-latitude Summer 0.97 0.99 1.02
Gbh= G0 b cos 𝜃𝑧 (2.30) Sub-artic Summer 0.99 0.99 1.01
Mid-latitude Winter 1.03 1.01 1.00
 Estimation of Solar Irradiance on Clear Days 27

Diffuse Radiation – Liu and Jordan’s Method

• To get the total radiation, it is necessary to estimate the diffuse radiation on a horizontal
plane. Liu and Jordan (1960) developed an empirical relation between the transmission
coefficients of beam (𝜏𝑏 ) and diffuse radiation (𝜏𝑑 ) on a clear day:
𝐺𝑑
𝜏𝑑 = = 0.271 – 0.294 𝜏𝑏 (2.31)
𝐺0 cos 𝜃𝑧
• Where 𝐺𝑑 is the diffuse radiation on a horizontal plane , 𝐺0 cos 𝜃𝑧 is the beam radiation at
the edge of atmosphere on a horizontal surface. The diffuse radiation is to be added to the
beam radiation to obtain the total clear sky radiation.
• Example 2.6: Estimate the standard clear sky radiation in Beirut at an altitude of 100m at 9:30
solar time on August 1.
• Solution: On August 1, n= 213, the declination angle is = 17.9, and from Eq. 2.13 the cosine
of the zenith angle is cos z = 0.8. Next the coefficients of Eq. 2.25 are found using the mid-
latitude summer correction factors: a0= 0.134, a1= 0.742, and k= 0.386. The transmittance for
beam radiation b is found from Eq. 2.25:
0.386
Τ0.8
𝜏𝑏 = 0.134 + 0.742𝑒 − = 0.592
The extraterrestrial radiation from Eq. 2.21 is 𝐺0 = 1330 Wm-2 and the beam radiation normal
to the horizontal from Eq. 2.30 is:
Gbh= G0 b cos 𝜃𝑧 = 1330×0.592×0.8= 787.4×0.8= 630 Wm-2
The diffuse radiation coefficient is obtained from Eq. 2.31 as 𝜏𝑑 = 0.097 and the diffuse
radiation is from: 𝐺𝑑 = 𝜏𝑑 𝐺0 cos 𝜃𝑧 = 0.097 × 1330 × 0.8 = 103 Wm-2 . The total radiation
on the horizontal plane is Gh= 630 + 103 = 733 Wm-2 .
 Estimation of Solar Irradiance on Clear Days 28

The ASHRAE Method

• A simpler method to estimate clear sky radiation is to use the ASHRAE data of a standard
atmosphere. The beam irradiance 𝐺𝑏 on a plane perpendicular to the sun rays is given by:
𝐺𝑏 = 𝐶𝑛 𝐴 exp(− 𝐵ൗcos 𝜃𝑧 ) (2.32)
• Where A is the available normal direct solar irradiance at the edge of the atmosphere as given
in Table 2.3, and B is the apparent atmospheric extinction coefficient. The values of these
coefficients, for a standard atmosphere over a year are given in Table 2.3. The reduction of 𝐴
from the solar constant 𝐶𝑠𝑐 = 1367 W/m2 is due to reflection by the clear atmosphere. In
summer there is more humidity in the atmosphere and thus more reflection. 𝐶𝑛 is the clear-sky
index which is location dependent and varies from 0.85 to 1.15. One way to estimate 𝐶𝑛 is by
comparing values with measured data (Goswami 2004) and adjusting 𝐶𝑛 accordingly.
• The total solar radiation on a horizontal surface is:
𝐺ℎ = 𝐺𝑏 cos 𝜃𝑧 + 𝐶𝐺𝑏 = 𝐺𝑏ℎ + 𝐺𝑑 (2.33)
• Where 𝐺𝑏ℎ is the beam radiation normal to the horizontal and 𝐺𝑑 is the diffuse radiation.

Table 2.3: ASHRAE Coefficients

Coeff 21 J 21 F 21 M 21 A 21 M 21 J 21 J 21 A 21 S 21 O 21 N 21 D

A 1230 1214 1185 1135 1103 1088 1085 1107 1151 1192 1220 1233

B 0.142 0.144 0.156 0.180 0.196 0.205 0.207 0.201 0.177 0.160 0.149 0.142

C 0.058 0.060 0.071 0.097 0.121 0.134 0.136 0.122 0.092 0.073 0.063 0.057
 Beam and Diffuse Components of Radiation: 29

On Horizontal Surface
• In many cases, the global horizontal radiation is measured and there is a need to estimate the
beam or diffuse radiation. First the clearness index 𝑘 𝑇 is calculated as follows:
𝐺ℎ
𝑘𝑇 = (2.34)
𝐺0 cos 𝜃𝑧
• Where 𝐺0 is the solar radiation calculated from Eq. 2.21, and 𝐺ℎ is the measured global
horizontal radiation.
• The fraction of hourly diffuse radiation on a horizontal plane 𝜌𝑑 = 𝐺𝑑 /𝐺ℎ is then given by the
widely used Orgill and Holland’s (1958) correlation:
1.0 − 0.249𝑘 𝑇 for 𝑘 𝑇 ≤ 0.35
𝜌𝑑 = 𝐺𝑑 /𝐺ℎ = ቐ 1.557 − 1.84𝑘 𝑇 for 0.35 < 𝑘 𝑇 ≤ 0.75 (2.35)
0.177 for 𝑘 𝑇 > 0.75
• A more accurate correlation was developed by Erbs et al (1982) and is given by Duffie and
Beckman (2013).
• Once the diffuse radiation is obtained (from 2.35), then the beam radiation normal to the
horizontal is estimated as:
𝐺𝑏ℎ = 1 − 𝜌𝑑 𝐺ℎ (2.36)
• And the beam normal radiation is then given by:
𝐺𝑏ℎ
𝐺𝑏 = (2.37)
cos 𝜃𝑧
 Beam and Diffuse Components of Radiation: 30

On a Sloped Surface
• The total radiation on a sloped surface may be calculated using the “isotropic sky model”
developed by Liu and Jordan (1963). It is considered to include three terms: beam, isotropic
diffuse, and diffuse radiation reflected from ground. It is expressed as:
1+cos 𝛽 1−cos 𝛽
𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺𝑏ℎ 𝑅𝑏 + 𝐺𝑑 + 𝐺ℎ 𝜌𝑔 (2.38)
2 2
• Where (1 + cos 𝛽)/2 is the view factor to the sky and (1 − cos 𝛽)/2 is the view factor to
ground, and 𝜌𝑔 is the ground reflectance factor.
• The isotropic sky model is conservative but is easy to understand. An improvement using an
“anisotropic sky model” that takes into consideration the circumsolar and horizontal
brightening components into consideration. It was first proposed by Hay and Davies (1980)
and modified was modified by Reindl et al (1990) by accounting for horizon brightness using a
𝛽
modulating factor proposed by Klucher (1979) for the isotropic model: 1 + 𝑓 sin3 . The
2
model is known as the HDKR (Hay, Davies, Klucher, Reindl) model:
1+cos 𝛽 𝛽
𝐺𝑇 = (𝐺𝑏ℎ +𝐺𝑑 𝐴𝑖 )𝑅𝑏 + 𝐺𝑑 1 − 𝐴𝑖 1 + 𝑓 sin3
2 2
1−cos 𝛽
+𝐺ℎ 𝜌𝑔 (2.39)
2

𝐺𝑏ℎ
• Where the anisotropic index 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐺𝑏ℎ Τ 𝐺0 cos 𝜃𝑧 and the modulating factor 𝑓 = ൗ𝐺ℎ
 Beam and Diffuse Components of Radiation: 31

Example using Isotropic Model

• Example 2.7: On March 1 at 10:00 civic time the average solar radiation on the horizontal
plane in Beirut was measured to be 615 Wm-2. Use the isotropic model to determine the
components of beam, diffuse, and reflected radiation on an inclined surface due south with
tilt angle  =  . Consider that ground reflectance is 𝜌𝑔 = 0.6.
• Solution: For the given date and hour, the hour angle, the declination angle, the zenith angle,
and the incidence were calculated in Example 2.2 to be ω= -26.5, = -8.29 and z = 48.5,
and = 27.75. So Rb= cos  / cos z = 0.885/ 0.662= 1.34. We first need to determine the
clearness index (Eq. 2.34) 𝑘 𝑇 = 615/ (1390 × 0.662)= 0.668 and so from the Orgill and
Holland’s correlation the diffuse radiation coefficient is 𝜌𝑑 = 0.328. The beam radiation and
diffuse radiations are given by:
𝐺𝑏ℎ = (1 - 0.328) × 615= 413 Wm-2
𝐺𝑑 = 0.177 × 615= 202 Wm-2
The ratio 𝑅𝑏 = 1.34, so from Eq. 2.38 we get the three components of radiation on the surface:
1+cos 33.2 1−cos 33.2
𝐺𝑇 = 413 × 1.34 + 202 + 615 × 0.6
2 2
= 553 + 186 + 30 = 769 Wm-2
• As an Exercise Repeat Example 2.7 using the HDKR “anisotropic sky model”.
 Summary and Conclusions 32

• In this chapter, we have developed our understanding of the nature of extraterrestrial

radiation available from the Sun and how it is modified by Earth’s atmosphere. Beam and
diffuse radiations’ characteristics were discussed, and methods for measuring them were
outlined.
• Concepts on the geometry of the Sun, Earth, and a collector at a given latitude, longitude,
and slope were also discussed. Mathematical tools were presented to determine various
quantities needed to assess the amount of radiation falling on the collector that may be
fixed or tracking. These quantities included the declination angle, the hour angle, the
equation of time, the zenith angle, and the incidence angle.
• We then discussed the greenhouse effect and learned that over the last 800,000 years,
the energy received by Earth from the Sun and that emitted by Earth as infrared radiation
were in balance giving Earth a temperature, beneath the atmosphere, equal to 14°C.
Human activity over the last 250 years, through the burning of fossil fuels, has significantly
increased the concentration of CO2 from 280 ppm to 400 ppm. This is severely disrupting
the energy balance on Earth and causing global warming and climate change.
• In the later part of this chapter, we presented methods to estimate beam and diffuse
radiation falling on a horizontal surface from measurement of global horizontal radiation.
This was used in an “isotropic” or “anisotropic” model to assess the energy available on a
collector that may be flat or concentrating, and tracking the Sun or being at a fixed slope.