A Level Biology 9700 Mr.

ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

All the activities of multicellular organisms require co-ordinating, some very rapidly and some
more slowly. The nervous system and the endocrine system provide co-ordination in mammals.
Similar co-ordination systems exist in plants.

15.1 Control and co-ordination in mammals

1. Describe the features of the endocrine system with reference to the hormones ADH,
glucagon and insulin

Humans, like all living organisms, can respond to changes in environment and so increase
survival. Humans have two control systems to do this: the nervous system and the endocrine
(hormonal) system. The human nervous system controls everything from breathing and standing
upright, to memory and intelligence. The endocrine system produces hormones that function to
control and regulate many different body processes.

The endocrine system coordinates with the nervous system to control the functions of the
other organ systems. Cells of the endocrine system produce molecular signals called hormones.
These cells may compose endocrine glands, tissues or located in organs or tissues that have
functions in addition to hormone production. Hormones circulate throughout the body and
stimulate a response in cells that have receptors able to bind with them. The changes brought
about in the receiving cells affect the functioning of the organ system to which they belong.
Many of the hormones are secreted in response to signals from the nervous system, thus the
two systems act in concert to effect changes in the body.

ADH (Anti-diuretic hormone) helps to control blood pressure by acting on the kidneys and the
blood vessels. Its most important role is to conserve the fluid volume of your body by reducing
the amount of water passed out in the urine.

Glucagon hormone promotes breakdown of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis), promotes

glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis), inhibits glycogen formation (glycogenesis), and thus
mobilizes export of glucose into the circulation. Thus, glucagon provides a critical response to
hypoglycemia.

The major purpose of insulin is to regulate the body's energy supply by balancing micronutrient
levels. Insulin is critical for transporting intracellular glucose to insulin-dependent cells or tissues,
such as liver, muscle, and adipose tissue.

1
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
2. Compare the features of the nervous system and the endocrine system

Comparison of the nervous and endocrine systems as communication systems that co-ordinate
responses to changes in the internal and external environment in mammals:

Similarities:

Differences:

2
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
3. Describe the structure and function of a sensory neurone and a motor neurone and state
that intermediate neurones connect sensory neurones and motor neurones

Nerve cells (Neurones):

The nervous system composed of nerve cells, or neurones.

A neurone has a cell body with extensions leading off it.

Several dendrons carry nerve impulses towards the cell body, while a single long axon carries the
nerve impulse away from the cell body.

Axons and dendrons are only 10µm in diameter but can be up to 4m in length in a large animal.

A nerve is a discrete bundle of several thousand neurone axons.

Nerve impulses are passed from the axon of one neurone to the dendron of another at a synapse.
Numerous dendrites provide a large surface area for connecting with other neurones.

Most neurones also have many companion cells called Schwann cells, which are wrapped around
the axon many times in a spiral to form a thick lipid layer called the myelin sheath. The myelin
sheath provides physical protection and electrical insulation for the axon, which greatly speeds up
the transmission of action potentials.

There are gaps in the sheath, called nodes of Ranvier. Not all neurones are myelinated.

Humans have Three types of neurone:

1. Sensory (unipolar) neurones have long dendrons and transmit nerve impulses from sensory
receptors all over the body to the central nervous system.

3
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

2. Motor (multipolar) neurones have long axons and transmit nerve impulses from the central
nervous system to effectors (muscles and glands) all over the body.
3. Interneurones (bipolar) also called connector neurones or relay neurones are much smaller
cells, with many interconnections. They comprise the central nervous system.
NOTE: 99.9% of all neurones are interneurones.

4
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
Neurones are highly specialised cells that are adapted for the rapid transmission of electrical
impulses, called action potentials, from one part of the body to another.

Information picked up by a receptor is transmitted to the central nervous system (brain or spinal
cord) as action potentials travelling along a sensory neurone. These neurones have their cell
bodies in small swellings, called ganglia, just outside the spinal cord.

Cross section of spinal cord

The impulse may then be transmitted to a relay neurone, which lies entirely within the brain or
spinal cord.

The impulse is then transmitted to many other neurones, one of which may be a motor neurone.
This has its cell body within the central nervous system, and a long axon which carries the impulse
all the way to an effector (a muscle or gland).

4. Outline the role of sensory receptor cells in detecting stimuli and stimulating the
transmission of impulses in sensory neurones

Stimuli are changes in the external or internal environment, such as

light waves, pressure or blood sugar. Humans can detect at least nine
external stimuli and dozens of internal stimuli, so the commonly-
held believe that humans have just five senses is obviously very wide
of the mark.

Receptor cells detect stimuli. Receptor cells are often part of sense
organs, such as the ear, eye or skin. Receptor cells all have special
receptor proteins on their cell membranes that actually do the
sensing, so “receptor” mean a protein, a cell or a group of cells.

5
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

The coordinator is the name given to the network of interneurones connecting the sensory and
motor systems. It can be as simple as a single interneurone in a reflex arc, or as complicated as the
human brain. Its job is to receive impulses from sensory neurones and transmit impulses to motor
neurones.

Effectors are the cells that effect a response. In humans there are just two kinds: muscles and
glands. Muscles include skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscle, and they cause all
movements in humans, such as walking, talking, breathing, swallowing, peristalsis, vasodilation
and giving birth. Glands can be exocrine – secreting liquids to the outside (such as tears, sweat,
mucus, enzymes or milk); or endocrine – secreting hormones into the bloodstream.

Responses aid survival. They include movement of all kinds, secretions from glands and all
behaviours such as stalking prey, communicating and reproducing.

6
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
5. Describe the sequence of events that results in an action potential in a sensory neurone,
using a chemoreceptor cell in a human taste bud as an example

7
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
6. Describe and explain changes to the membrane potential of neurones, including:
• how the resting potential is maintained
• the events that occur during an action potential
• how the resting potential is restored during the refractory period

Action potentials:
Action potentials are rapid changes in potential difference across the membrane of neurone.

Myelin: specialized cells called Schwann cells wrapped along the axon.

- Schwann cells are made of lipids and proteins.

- Many Schwann cells form the myelin sheath which affects the speed of conduction of electrical
impulses.
Transmission of nerve impulses;

- Impulses are brief changes in the distribution of electrical charge across the cell surface
membrane which results in action potentials.
- caused by the rapid movement of Na+ and K+ ions into and out of the axon.

Resting potential:
1. inside the axon: slightly negative
2. potential difference: -60mV to -70mV (potential inside the axon is less than that outside the
axon)

8
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
Neurones, like all cells, have sodium-potassium pumps in their cell surface membranes. However,
in neurones these are especially active. By active transport, they pump out 3 Na+ ions for every 2
K+ ions brought in.

3. the resting potential (5) is produced and maintained by Na + and K+ ion pumps:
• membrane proteins
• uses energy from the hydrolysis of ATP for active transport of ions
4. there are more channels for K+ ions; large, negative molecules inside cell attracts K + ions,
less K+ ions diffuse out, so, there is an overall excess of negative ions inside the membrane.
Action potentials:

1. Action potential is due to the rapid change in

potential difference across the membrane
caused by the change in permeability of the
membrane to Na+ and K+ ions.
2. Voltage gated channels for Na + and K+ ions
open or close depending on the potential
difference across the membrane.
3. When a receptor receives a stimulus, this can
reduce the potential difference across the
membrane, which causes sodium ion channels
to open (2). This allows sodium ions to flood
into the cell, down an electrochemical
gradient. (The 'electro' gradient refers to the
difference in charge across the membrane.
The 'chemical' gradient is the difference in concentration of sodium ions.)
9
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
4. Depolarization (2): Na+ channels open, Na+ enter the axon, potential difference is less
negative on the inside (now at +30mV to +40mV).
5. Potential difference reaches the threshold potential, this generates an action potential.
6. Repolarization (3): Na+ channels close, K+ channels open resulting in an outward movement
of K+ down their electrochemical gradient removes the positive charge inside the axon.
This sequence of events is called an action potential.

Refractory Period: Period of time where the axon is unresponsive, recovering from an action
potential (restoring its resting potential); another action potential cannot be generated until this
period is over

Transmission of action potentials:

An action potential generated in one part of a neurone travels rapidly along its axon or dendron.
This happens because the temporary depolarisation of one part of the membrane sets up local
circuits with the either side of it. These cause depolarisation regions as well. The nerve impulse
therefore sweeps along the axon.

NOTE: Action potentials only take place at the nodes of Ranvier, where there is no myelin
present.

How an action potential carries information:

1. Action potentials have same:

• size (same amplitude).
• speed at which the action potential travels by.

2. Action potentials have different:

• frequency
• number of neurones carrying an action potential
3. Action potential acts as a representation of the strength of the stimulus.
4. Nature of the stimulus: deduced from the position of the sensory neurone

Initiation of an action potential:

1. Receptors are cells or tissues that sense changes in the internal or external environment. Many
types of receptors transform energy (transducers) from a stimulus into the energy of an action
potential in a sensory neurone.
2. Receptors are stimulated, receptor potential rises above threshold potential, action potential
initiates and stimulates sensory neurones to send impulses to CNS.A
3. All-or-nothing law: neurones either do or do not transmit electrical impulses due to threshold
levels.

10
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
7. Describe and explain the rapid transmission of an impulse in a myelinated neurone with
reference to saltatory conduction
Saltatory conduction:
1. Myelin insulates the membrane of the axon which speeds up the rate by which the action
potential travels.
2. local circuits exist from one node to the next, thus creating “saltatory conduction” where
an action potential jumps from one node to the next.
3. with myelin: speed of conduction is 50 times faster.
4. diameter of axon increase, results in less resistance, hence faster transmission.

8. Explain the importance of the refractory period in determining the frequency of impulses
The absolute refractory period is the brief interval after a successful stimulus when no second
shock, however maximal, can elicit another response. Its duration in mammalian fibers is about
0.4 ms; in frog nerve at 15°C it is about 2 ms. The absolute refractory period is followed by the
relative refractory period, during which a second response can be obtained if a strong enough
shock is applied.
Thus, the refractoriness of a nerve after conducting an
impulse sets an upper limit to spike frequency. During the
relative refractory period, two impulses traversing a long
length of nerve must be separated by a minimal interval if
the second spike is to be full sized.
The inactivation of Na+ channels and the delayed increase
in K+ conductance are the underlying ionic conductance
changes which can explain the refractory period.

11
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
9. Describe the structure of a cholinergic synapse and explain how it functions, including the
role of calcium ions

Synapse:

It is the junction where two neurones meet but do not touch. It contains the end of presynaptic
neurone, synaptic cleft and end of postsynaptic neurone

Mechanism of synaptic transmission

1. Action potential arrives at presynaptic neurone.

2. Stimulates opening of voltage-gated channels for Ca2+.

3. Ca2+ diffuse into cytoplasm of presynaptic membrane.

4. Ca2+ attaches to the vesicle.

5. Ca2+cause vesicles containing acetylcholine (ACh – a type of neurotransmitter) move towards

the presynaptic membrane.

6. Vesicle fuses with the membrane, Ach is released and diffuses across the synaptic cleft

7. Ach temporarily binds to receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane; causes chemically-
gated ion channels for Na+ to open
12
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
8. Na+ diffuse through postsynaptic membrane depolarizes membrane generates action potential

9. Recycling of Ach, catalysed by acetylcholinesterase (stops continuous production of action

potentials)

10. choline moves back into the presynaptic neurone

11. Acetylcholine (Ach) is transported back to presynaptic vesicles.

Functions of synapses
1. ensures one-way transmission: neurotransmitters are only released on one side of synapse;
receptors on the other side of synapse

2. Integration of impulses: the body of motor neurones are

covered with terminations of multiple relay neurones. The
motor neurone only transmits impulses and initiate action
potentials if the threshold potential is reached. This ensures that
the brain is not overloaded with sensory information.

3. Allow connection of nerve pathways: axons branch out to form

more synapses with multiple neurones, humans have a wider
range of behaviours.
• in dangerous situations: information from 1 neurone
spreads throughout the body to
reach many relay neurones and effectors
• decision-making in brain: motor neurones have many
dendrites.
• larger surface area for a lot of synapses.
• neurone can integrate information from many parts of the body

4. involved in memory making and learning: e.g.: brain receives information about 2 things at the
same time, new synapses are formed.

13
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
10. Describe the roles of neuromuscular junctions, the T-tubule system and sarcoplasmic
reticulum in stimulating contraction in striated muscle
Stimulating muscles to contract:

1. Action potential arrives at presynaptic neurone.

2. Stimulates opening of voltage-gated channels for Ca2+ to diffuse into cytoplasm.
3. Ca2+ cause vesicles containing acetylcholine (ACh) to move towards the presynaptic
membrane.
4. Vesicle fuses with the membrane, Ach is released and diffuses across the neuromuscular
junction; Ach temporarily binds to receptor proteins on the sarcolemma; causes chemically-
gated ion channels for Na+ to open.
5. Na+ diffuse into the sarcolemma to depolarize membrane, this generates action potential that
spreads along the membrane.
6. Depolarization of sarcolemma spreads down to T-tubules.
7. Channel proteins open: Ca2+ diffuses out of SR.
8. Ca2+ binds to troponin. Tropomyosin moves to expose myosin-binding sites on actin filament;
Myosin heads form cross-bridges with thin filaments, results in sarcomere shortening.

14
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
11. Describe the ultrastructure of striated muscle with reference to sarcomere structure using
electron micrographs and diagrams
Striated muscles:
Striated muscles are muscles attached to
the skeleton. They are neurogenic, they
contract when stimulated to do so by
impulses that arrive via motor neurones.

Structure of a striated muscle:

- a muscle contains many muscle fibres

- muscle fibres are made up of specialized

cells called syncytium (as they contain
many nuclei).

• Sarcolemma: cell surface membrane.

• Sarcoplasm: It is the plasma containing large numbers of mitochondria packed between
myofibrils to perform aerobic respiration and produce ATP required for muscle contraction.
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR): cell surface has large numbers of protein pumps to transport Ca2+
into cisternae of SR.
• T-tubules: deep infoldings into the interior of the muscle fibre.

15
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
Myofibril
Striations: stripes on a muscle fibre, produced by the regular arrangement of many myofibrils. Each
myofibril is made up of parallel groups of thick filaments that lie between groups of thin filaments.

Structure of thick and thin filaments:

The thick and thin filaments are arranged in a precise lattice to form a sarcomere. The thick
filaments are joined together at the M line, and the thin filaments are joined together at the Z line,
but the two kinds of filaments are not joined to each other. The position of the filaments in the
sarcomere explains the banding pattern seen by the electron microscope.

Thick filaments: Made of myosin – a fibrous protein with a globular head that points away from the
M-line
Thin filaments:

• Actin: globular protein. Many actin molecules link together to form a chain. Two chains twisted
together form the thin filament
• Tropomyosin (fibrous protein) twisted around the two chains.
• Troponin: attached to actin chain at regular intervals.

16
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
12 explain the sliding filament model of muscular contraction including the roles of troponin,
tropomyosin, calcium ions and ATP
Muscles contraction (Sliding Filament Model):

1. The cross bridge changes back to its original shape (reoriented), while detached (so as not
to push the filaments back). ATP hydrolysis forces heads to let go of actin.
2. The cross bridge swings out from the thick filament and attaches to the thin filament.
3. The cross bridge changes shape and rotates through 45°, causing the filaments to slide. The
energy from ATP splitting is used for this “power stroke” step, and the products (ADP +
Pi) are released.
4. A new ATP molecule binds to myosin and the cross bridge detaches from the thin filament.

Providing ATP for muscle contraction:

1. aerobic respiration takes place in mitochondria.
2. lactic acid fermentation occurs in the sarcoplasm.
3. Creatine phosphate is stored in the sarcoplasm and acts as an immediate source of energy when
ATP in the sarcoplasm runs out;

- when the demand for energy is slowed down or stopped, ATP molecules recharge creatine

- when the demand for energy is high, but no ATP is spare to recycle creatine

17
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
15.2 Control and co-ordination in plants
Plant co-ordination systems can involve rapid responses as in the case of the Venus fly trap, as
well as complex interactions between plant growth regulators, such as auxin and gibberellin.
Plants respond quite differently to different concentrations of plant growth regulators.

1. Describe the rapid response of the Venus fly trap to stimulation of hairs on the lobes of
modified leaves and explain how the closure of the trap is achieved

Venus fly trap

The Venus fly trap is a carnivorous plant that obtains

a supply of nitrogen compounds by trapping and
digesting small animals, mostly insects.

Anatomy of the Venus fly trap:

• Midrib acts as hinge.

• Have two lobes.
• Have glands that secrete digestive enzymes.
• Having three sensory hairs on each lobe that
respond when they are deflected.
• Nectar-secreting glands to attract insects.
• Stiff outer-edges that interlock to trap insects.

18
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
Electrical communication in plants:
• Microelectrodes in leaf cells detect changes in potential difference.
• Depolarisation results from the outflow of Cl-.
• Repolarisation is achieved by the outflow of K+.
• action potentials travel along cell membranes, from cell to cell through
plasmodesmata
• these action potentials last longer and travel more slowly than in animal neurones

1. Sensory hair is deflected.

2. Ca2+ channels at the base of the hair opens. Ca2+ flows in and generates a receptor potential.

3. Within 20 - 35 seconds, if 2 hairs get stimulated or 1 hair is stimulated twice, an action potential
will spread across the lobe, causing the trap closure.

Further stimulation (deflection of hairs) will force the edges of lobes to seal. More Ca2+ enter cells
result in stimulation of the exocytosis of vesicles containing digestive enzymes.

Once the insect is digested, the cells on the upper surface of the midrib grow slowly so the leaf
reopens and tension builds in the cell walls of the midrib so the trap is set again.

Adaptations to reduce waste of energy:

• one hair stimulated will not close the trap e.g.: wind, raindrop.
• gap between stiff outer edges allow small insects to escape because they are not worth it.

19
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
2. Explain the role of auxin in elongation growth by stimulating proton pumping to acidify
cell walls
Chemical communication in plants:

Plant hormones or plant growth regulators are:

- produced in a variety of tissues.
- move from cell to cell (by diffusion or active transport) or carried in xylem sap and phloem sap.

The two types of plant growth hormones, auxin and gibberellin.

Auxin:
Synthesized in meristems (the growing tips of shoots and tips of roots, where cell division
occurs). It gets actively transported away from the meristems, from cell to cell and via phloem
sap.

Function: controlling growth by;

1. cell division: mitosis
2. Cell elongation (by absorption of water; auxin is involved)
3. cell differentiation
Mechanism of Auxin Action:
1. Auxin binds to receptor

2. Stimulates ATPase to pump H+ across the cell surface membrane (from cytoplasm to cell wall,
therefore lowering the pH of the cell wall).

20
A Level Biology 9700 Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
3. Potassium ion channels stimulated to open; K+ move into the cytoplasm, therefore lowering
the water potential inside the cytoplasm. Water moves into the cytoplasm via osmosis

4. Expansins (pH-dependent enzymes) are activated by the decrease in pH. Expansins loosen
linkages between cellulose microfibrils.

5. Disruption occurs briefly due to bonds between cellulose microfibrils broken, causing the cells
to expands without losing overall wall strength.

3. Describe the role of gibberellin in the germination of barley

Seed Germination (wheat and barley):

Seeds are dormant (waiting for the optimum condition) when first shed from parent plant. It
contains very little water and is metabolically inactive.

1. Absorption of water stimulates germination.

2. Embryo synthesizes gibberellin in response to water uptake.
3. Aleurone layer synthesizes amylase and other enzymes in response to gibberellin.
4. Amylase mobilizes energy reserves: hydrolyses starch to maltose.
5. Maltose is converted to glucose and respired to release ATP.

21