Ruturaj Sahoo

1801227411

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

ASSIGNMENTS
Branch- CSE Sub code – CS40111
Sem- 7TH

Unit – 1

1. Discuss different types of embedded systems with suitable examples [L1,CO-1]

Explain how an embedded system differs from other computing system? [L2,CO-1]
2. Mention the challenges in designing such a system.
Unit – 2
Discuss the different types of processors used in embedded system for different [L1,CO-2]
1. purposes.
Draw the block diagram of embedded system hardware components in a contact-less [L2,CO-2]
2. smart card. Explain the components in an Exemplary SoC-Smart card.

Unit – 3
Determine whether the following set of periodic task is schedulable on a uniprocessor [L3,CO-3]
using RMA: T1=(e1=25,p1=150,d1=100)ms; T2=(e2=7,p2=40,d2=40)ms;
1.
T3=(e3=10,p3=60,d3=50)ms;
T4=(e4=10,p4=30,d4=20)ms.
Briefly explain why the traditional unix kernel is not suitable to be used in a [L2,CO-3]
2.
multiprocessor environment? Differentiate between a spin lock and kernel level lock.
Unit – 4

1. Briefly explain the development lifecycle of an embedded system. [L2,CO-4]

2. Discuss the basic general language characteristics in brief. Draw a neat diagram [L1,CO-4]
showing its specification.
Unit – 5
What is an emulator? What are the various components of an emulator? What are [L1,CO-5]
1.
the advantages of using an ICE?
2.
Define Testing. Explain the process of testing and debugging of embedded systems. [L1,CO-5]
 ANSWERS
Unit-1
1. Following are the types of embedded systems:-
a)Stand-alone Embedded Systems
This type of embedded systems, as the name suggests, does not require a host system
like a computer or a processor as it works by itself and displays data on the connected
device or make necessary changes on the device. Input data is taken from the ports as
analog or digital signals, and processing is done in the port itself. The result after
proper calculation and conversion is displayed through a connected device. This result
may either control or drive or display the device depending on the data. These systems
offer flexibility and efficiency even though they work alone. Various examples are
washing machines, mobile phones, or any systems that work alone without a
computer’s help.
b)Real-time Embedded Systems
When an output is required at a particular time, real-time embedded systems can be
used. When a task has to be completed on time or a deadline for a project, this system
comes as a savior. An external environment is controlled with the help of computer
systems and connected through sensors or any other output/input interfaces. We can
schedule the output either through a static or dynamic manner. There are two types
under this category. They are soft and hard real-time embedded systems.
 Soft Embedded Systems: These systems consider processes as the main task and
manage the task completely. Deadlines are not considered as a priority, and even
if the deadlines are missed, missing the processes should not happen in this
system. In a computer system, the sound system is an example of a soft system.
But it should be noted that deadlines should not always be missed as it results in
the system’s degradation.
 Hard Embedded Systems: These systems consider timelines as the deadline, and
they should not be missed in any case. Also, even if there are any delays, they
should also be time-bound in the system. There is no permanent memory, and
hence the processes should be done properly for the first time itself. The best
example of a hard embedded system is an aircraft control system. The timeline
should not be missed as well as the processes.
c)Network Embedded Systems
When a program is running inside another device, a network is formed. This is called
network embedded systems, where a microprocessor or a controller controls the
running program. A network is related to this system, and they can be either LAN or
WAN. It is not necessary that the connection should be wired or wireless. This
category can be considered the fastest growing in the embedded systems due to
flexibility and connection. Also, there is a web server where the connection is based
upon the web browser. All the network is controlled and accessed with the help of a
web browser. Security systems in any office or tech park are examples of network
embedded systems where all the connections are made through a common network and
controlled under one umbrella.
d)Mobile Embedded Systems
All the devices that are portable and working with an embedded system is a mobile
embedded system. Though there is a limitation of memory and functionality, its
portability and handy systems are useful for all people. The best example that we can
connect easily is mobile phones, laptops, and calculators.
Based on the performance of the microcontroller:
 Small Scale Embedded Systems: 8 bit or 16-bit microcontrollers are used to
design these and work with the help of batter in the system. Several
programming tools are used to develop small scale embedded systems. The
hardware is very small, and the processor is slow. The memory is also less. The
codes for developing these embedded systems can be written with the help of
any IDE.
 Medium Scale Embedded Systems: 16 bit or 32-bit microcontrollers are used to
develop medium systems. Also, these can be developed with DSPs or RISCs.
Hardware and software functionalities are complex, and several coding
languages can be used as programming tools. As small-scale systems, an IDE is
required for medium scale systems also. We can use medium-scale systems in
high-end applications with large memory and processing data.
 Sophisticated Embedded Systems: The most complex embedded system with all
the difficult complexities of hardware and software that makes the system useful
for all is called sophisticated embedded systems. These systems require registers
of huge memory, scalable processors, and IPs to work well in any environment.
They are used in systems with graphical screens, touchpads, and cutting-edge
options where software and hardware are equally needed for performance.

2.

General Purpose Computer Embedded Systems

It is designed using a microprocessor as It is mostly designed using a microcontroller

the main processing unit. as the main processing unit.

It contains a large memory semiconductor It uses semiconductor memories, but does

memories like cache and RAM. It also not require secondary memories like hard
contains secondary storage like hard disks disk, CD. Lt sometime has special memory
etc. called flash memory.
General Purpose Computer Embedded Systems

It is designed such that it can cater to It is designed such that it can cater to a
multiple tasks as per requirement. particular predefined task.

It is mostly costlier compared to the It is cheaper compared to a computer.

embedded systems

It requires huge number of peripheral It is cheaper as it requires less no of

devices and their controllers peripheral devices and their controllers are
microcontroller chip itself.

The Operating system and other software The operating system(mostly RTOS i.e Real
for the general purpose computers, are Time Operating System) and other software
normally complicated and occupy more occupy less memory space.
memory space

Following are the challenges:-

1. Stability
Stability is of paramount importance. Unexpected 4ehaviour from an embedded
software is inadmissible and poses serious risks. End users demand that embedded
software must have uniform 4ehaviour under all circumstances and be able to operate
durably without service.
2. Safety
Safety is a special feature of embedded software due to their primary application
associated with lifesaving functionality in critical environments. Software
Development Life Cycle (SDLC) for embedded software is characterized by more
strict requirements and limitations in terms of quality, testing, and engineering
expertise.
3. Security
Security became a burning issue in the digital world. The related risks grow
exponentially, especially so for IoT devices gaining popularity worldwide and
becoming more interconnected to each other. Because modern home appliances like
electric cookers, refrigerators and washing machines have connectivity feature
integrated by default, Internet of Things now is exposed to a serious risk of hacking
attacks.
4. Launch Phase
Time-to-market and time-to-revenue have always been tough indicators in embedded
software development, especially in the IoT segment. Fabrication of hardware
components housing embedded software requires extreme integration and flexibility
due to very fast development of IoT industry.
5. Design Limitations
The challenges in design of embedded software have always been in the same limiting
requirements for decades:
 Small form factor;
 Low energy;
 Long-term stable performance without maintenance.
6. Compatibility and Integrity
Expansion of IoT devices on the background of their connectivity puts more pressure
on their adaptability. Users must be capable of administering the app through a simple
user interface via all available channels including over-the-air firmware updates, which
needs extreme compatibility across the entire ecosystem. Integrity becomes a function
of security. To protect the IoT from malicious attacks or compromising, security must
be implemented within each device at every level: the end node, gateway, cloud, etc.

Unit-2
1. Different types of processors used in embedded system are:-
a)General Purpose Processor (GPP)
o Microprocessor A microprocessor is a single VLSI chip having a CPU.
In addition, it may also have other units such as coaches, floating point
processing arithmetic unit, and pipelining units that help in faster
processing of instructions. Earlier generation microprocessors’ fetch-and-
execute cycle was guided by a clock frequency of order of ~1 MHz.
Processors now operate at a clock frequency of 2GHz.
o Microcontroller A microcontroller is a single-chip VLSI unit (also
called microcomputer) which, although having limited computational
capabilities, possesses enhanced input/output capability and a number of
on-chip functional units. Microcontrollers are particularly used in
embedded systems for real-time control applications with on-chip
program memory and devices.
o Embedded Processor An embedded processor is a type of
microprocessor designed into a system to control electrical and
mechanical functions. Embedded processors are usually simple in design,
limited in computational power and I/O capabilities, and have minimal
power requirements. At a basic level, embedded processors are a CPU
chip placed in a system that it helps control.
o Digital Signal Processor A digital signal processor (DSP) is a
specialized microprocessor (or a SIP block), with its architecture
optimized for the operational needs of digital signal processing. The goal
 of DSP is usually to measure, filter or compress continuous real-
world analog signals.
o Media Processor A media processor, mostly used as an image/video
processor, is a microprocessor-based system-on-a-chip which is designed
to deal with digital streaming data in real-time rates. These devices can
also be considered a class of digital signal processors.
b)Application Specific System Processor (ASSP)
The application-specific system processor is a semiconductor integrated
circuit product used to implements a specific function. The performance,
characteristics and die size of the application-specific system processor is the
same as the ASIC. The ASSP’s are used in various types of industries to
perform video encoding or decoding and audio encoding or decoding. In place
of embedded software, the application-specific system processor is used to run
the application and it provides the solution faster. Example: IIM7100, W3100A
c)Application Specific Instruction Processors (ASIPs)
The application-specific instruction-set processors are designed for specific
applications. These processors have low power consumption, high
computational speed, and good flexibility. Due to programmability, the data
path utilization is high in ASIPs, and the performance of this instruction set
processor is good.
d)GPP core(s) or ASIP core(s) on either an Application Specific Integrated
Circuit (ASIC) or a Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuit.
GPP is used for processing signal from input to output by controlling the
operation of system bus, address bus and data bus inside an embedded system.
The application-specific instruction-set processors are designed for specific
applications. These processors have low power consumption, high
computational speed, and good flexibility. Due to programmability, the data
path utilization is high in ASIPs, and the performance of this instruction set
processor is good.

2.
 Smart Card Hardware
Microcontroller MC68HC11D0 or PIC16C84 or a smart card processor Philips Smart
XA or an ASIP Processor. Needs 8 kB+ internal RAM and 32 kB EPROM and 2/3
wire protected memory. CPU special features, for example, a security lock

CPU locks certain section of memory - protect 1 kB or more data from modification
and access by any external source or instruction outside that memory. Other way of
protecting - CPU access through the physical addresses, which are different from
logical address used in the program.

Standard ROM 8 kB for usual or 64 kB when using advanced cryptographic features.

Full or part of ROM bus activates take place after a security check only.
ROM Contains: i. Fabrication key and Personalisation key (after insertion of this key,
RTOS and application use only the logical addresses) ii. RTOS codes iii. Application
codes iv. Utilisation lock

EEPROM or Flash scalable – only needed part unlocks when storing P.I.N., unlocking
P.I.N., access condition, card-user data, post activation application run generated non-
volatile data, invalidation lock to invalidate card after the expiry date or server
instruction

RAM – run time temporary variables

• Chip-supply system using charge pump
• I/O system
Smart Card Software
Needs cryptographic software, needs special features in its operating system over and
above the MS DOS or UNIX system features.
Protected environment -OS stored in the protected part of ROM. A restricted run-time
environment. OS, every method, class and run time library should be scalable.
Optimum Code-size; Limited use of data types; multidimensional arrays, long 64-bit
integer and floating points and very limited use of the error handlers, exceptions,
signals, serialisation, debugging and profiling
Three-layered file system for the data; master file to store all file headers (file status,
access conditions and the file lock)
A header means file status, access conditions and the file lock; Dedicated file─ second
file to hold a file grouping and headers of the immediate successor; Elementary file ─
third file to hold the file header and its file data.
Either a fixed length file management or a variable file length management with each
file with a predefined offset.

Unit-3
1. Let us first compute the total CPU utilization achieved due to the given tasks.
25 7 10 10
U = ∑4𝑖=1 𝑢i = + + + = 0.84 ≤ 1
150 40 60 30
Therefore, the necessary condition is satisfied. The sufficiency condition is given by
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑢i ≤ n(21/𝑛 -1)
Therefore, 0.84 ≤ 4(21/4-1) = 0.84 ≤ 0.76 →Not satisfied.
Although, the given set of tasks fails the Liu and Layland’s test which is pessimistic in
nature, we need to carry out Lehoczky’s test. We need to reorder the tasks according to
their decreasing priorities.
Task Start Time (ms) Processing Time (ms) Period (ms) Deadline (ms)
T4 25 10 30 20
T2 40 7 40 40
T3 60 10 60 50
T1 20 25 150 100
Testing for task T4: Since e4<= d4, therefore, T4 would meet its first deadline.
40
Testing for task T2: 7 + [ ] * 10  40
30
→ Satisfied.
→ Task T2 would meet its first deadline.
60 60
Testing for task T3: 10 + [ ] * 7 + [ ] * 10  50
40 30
→ Satisfied.
→ Task T3 would meet its first deadline.
150 150
Testing for task T1: 25 + [ ] * 10 + * 10  100
60 30
→ Not Satisfied.
→ Therefore, Task T1 would meet its first deadline.
Hence, the given task set is not RMA schedulable.

2. The traditional unix kernel is not suitable to be used in a multiprocessor

environment because:-
Insufficient Device Driver Support: In Unix, (remember that we are talking of the
original Unix System V) device drivers run in kernel mode. Therefore, if support for a
new device is to be added, then the driver module has to be linked to the kernel
modules – necessitating a system generation step. As a result, providing support for a
new device in an already deployed application is cumbersome.
Lack of Real-Time File Services: In Unix, file blocks are allocated as and when they
are requested by an application. As a consequence, while a task is writing to a file, it
may encounter an error when the disk runs out of space. In other words, no guarantee
is given that disk space would be available when a task writes a block to a file.
Traditional file writing approaches also result in slow writes since required space has
to be allocated before writing a block. Another problem with the traditional file
systems is that blocks of the same file may not be contiguously located on the disk.
This would result in read operations taking unpredictable times, resulting in jitter in
data access. In real-time file systems significant performance improvement can be
achieved by storing files contiguously on the disk. Since the file system pre-allocates
space, the times for read and write operations are more predictable.
Inadequate Timer Services Support: In Unix systems, real-time timer support is
insufficient for many hard real-time applications. The clock resolution that is provided
to applications is 10 milliseconds, which is too coarse for many hard real-time
applications.

Spinlock is a locking system mechanism. It allows a thread to acquire it to simply wait

in loop until the lock is available i.e. a thread waits in a loop or spin until the lock is
available. Spinlock is held for a short period of time. Spinlock are useful in
multiprocessor system. A critical resource is required by the tasks T1 and T2 for very
short times (comparable to a context switching time). This resource is protected by a
spin lock. The task T1 has acquired the spin lock guarding the resource. Meanwhile,
the task T2 requests the resource. When task T2 cannot get access to the resource, it
just busy waits (shown as a loop in the figure) and does not block and suffer context
switch. T2 gets the resource as soon as T1 relinquishes the resource.
A kernel-level lock is similar to a traditional lock. When a task waits for a kernel level
lock to be released, it is blocked and undergoes a context switch. It becomes ready
only after the required lock is released by the holding task and becomes available. This
type of locks is inefficient when critical resources are required for short durations of
the order of a few milliseconds or less. Now, if a kernel level lock is used, another task
requesting the lock at that time would be blocked and a context switch would be
incurred, also the cache contents, pages of the task etc. may be swapped. Here a
context switching time is comparable to the time for which a task needs a resource
even greater than it.
 Unit – 4
1. (a)NeedThe need may come from an individual or from the public or from a
company. ‘Need’ should be articulated to initiate the Development Life Cycle; a
‘Concept Proposal’ is prepared which is reviewed by the senior management for
approval.
Need can be visualized in any one of the following three needs:
New or Custom Product Development.
Product Re-engineering.
Product Maintenance.

(b)ConceptualizationDefines the scope of concept, performs cost benefit

analysis and feasibility study and prepare project management and risk management
plans.
The following activities performed during this phase:
Feasibility Study : Examine the need and suggest possible solutions.
Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA): Revealing and assessing the total development cost and
profit expected from the product.
Product Scope: Deals with the activities involved in the product to be made.
Planning Activities: Requires various plans to be developed first before development
like Resource Planning & Risk management Plans.

(c)AnalysisThe product is defined in detail with respect to the inputs, processes,

outputs, and interfaces at a functional level.
The various activities performed during this phase..
• Analysis and Documentations: This activity consolidates the business needs of the
product under development.
• Requirements that need to be addressed..
 Functional Capabilities like performance
Operational and non-operational quality attribute
 Product external interface requirements
Data requirementsUser manuals
Operational requirements
 Maintenance requirements
 General assumptions
Defining Test Plan and Procedures: The various type of testing performed in a
product development are:
Unit testing – Testing Individual modules
Integration testing – Testing a group of modules for required functionality
System testing- Testing functional aspects or functional requirements of the
product after integration
User acceptance testing- Testing the product to meet the end user requirements.

(d)DesignThe design phase identifies application environment and creates an

overall architecture for the product.
It starts with the Preliminary Design. It establishes the top level architecture for the
product. On completion it resembles a ‘black box’ that defines only the inputs and
outputs. The final product is called Preliminary Design Document (PDD). Once the
PDD is accepted by the End User the next task is to create the ‘Detailed Design’.
It encompasses the Operations manual design, Maintenance Manual Design and
Product Training material Design and is together called the ‘Detailed Design
Document’.

(e)Development and TestingDevelopment phase transforms the design into a

realizable product. The detailed specification generated during the design phase is
translated into hardware and firmware.
The Testing phase can be divided into independent testing of firmware and hardware
that is:
Unit testing
Integration testing
System testing
User acceptance testing

(f) Deployment Deployment is the process of launching the first fully functional
model of the product in the market. It is also known as First Customer Shipping (FCS).
Tasks performed during this phase are:
Notification of Product Deployment: Tasks performed here include:
Deployment schedule
Brief description about the product
Targeted end user
Extra features supported
Product support information
Execution of training plan
Proper training should be given to the end user top get them acquainted with the new
product.
Product installation
Install the product as per the installation document to ensure that it is fully functional.
Product post Implementation Review

After the product launch, a post implementation review is done to test the success of
the product.

(g)SupportThe support phase deals with the operational and maintenance of the
product in the production environment. Bugs in the product may be observed and
reported. The support phase ensures that the product meets the user needs and it
continues functioning in the production environment. Activities involved under
support are
Setting up of a dedicated support wing: Involves providing 24 x 7 supports for the
product after it is launched.
Identify Bugs and Areas of Improvement: Identify bugs and take measures to
eliminate them.

(h)UpgradesDeals with the development of upgrades (new versions) for the

product which is already present in the market. Product upgrade results as an output of
major bug fixes. During the upgrade phase the system is subject to design modification
to fix the major bugs reported.

(i)Retirement/DisposalThe retirement/disposal of the product is a gradual

process. This phase is the final phase in a product development life cycle where the
product is declared as discontinued from the market.
The disposal of a product is essential due to the following reasons
Rapid technology advancement
Increased user needs

2. Assembly language is introduced for providing mnemonics or symbols for the

machine level code instructions. Assembly language program is consisting of
mnemonics that is translated into machine code. A program that is used for this
conversion is known as assembler.
Assembly language is also called as low-level language because it directly works with
the internal structure of CPU. For programming in assembly language, a programmer
must have the knowledge of all the registers in a CPU. Different programming
languages like C, C++, Java and various other languages are called as high-level
languages because they are not dealing with the internal details of CPU.

o Editor Program : At first, we use an editor for type in a program. Editors like
MS-DOS program that comes with all Microsoft operating systems can be used
for creating or edit a program. The editor produces an ASCII file. The ?asm?
extension for a source file is used by an assembler during next step.
o Assembler Program: The "asm" source file contain the code created in Step 1.
It is transferred to an 8051 assembler. The assembler is used for converting the
assembly language instructions into machine code instructions and it produced
the .obj file (object file) and .lst file (list file). It is also called as source file
because some assembler requires that this file must have "src" extension.
o Linker Program: The linker program is used for generating one or more object
files and produces an absolute object file with an extension "abs".
o OH Program: The OH program fetches the "abs" file and fed it to a program
called "OH". OH is called as object to hex converter it creates a file with an
extension "hex" that is ready for burn in to the ROM.
 Unit – 5
1. An emulator is a hardware device or software program that enables one computer
system (also known as a host) to imitate the functions of another computer system
(known as the guest). It enables the host system to run software, tools, peripheral
devices and other components which are designed for the guest system.
Following are the components:-
a)CPU Emulator The CPU emulator is often the most complicated part of an
emulator. Many emulators are written using "pre-packaged" CPU emulators, in order
to concentrate on good and efficient emulation of a specific machine. The simplest
form of a CPU emulator is an interpreter, which is a computer program that follows the
execution flow of the emulated program code and, for every machine code instruction
encountered, executes operations on the host processor that are semantically equivalent
to the original instructions. This is made possible by assigning a variable to each
register and flag of the simulated CPU. The logic of the simulated CPU can then more
or less be directly translated into software algorithms, creating a software re-
implementation that basically mirrors the original hardware implementation.
b) Input/output (I/O) Most emulators do not emulate the main system bus; each I/O
device is thus often treated as a special case, and no consistent interface for virtual
peripherals is provided. This can result in a performance advantage, since each I/O
module can be tailored to the characteristics of the emulated device; designs based on a
standard, unified I/O API can, however, rival such simpler models, if well thought-out,
and they have the additional advantage of "automatically" providing a plug-in service
through which third-party virtual devices can be used within the emulator. A unified
I/O API may not necessarily mirror the structure of the real hardware bus: bus design
is limited by several electric constraints and a need for hardware concurrency
management that can mostly be ignored in a software implementation.
Even in emulators that treat each device as a special case, there is usually a common
basic infrastructure for:
managing interrupts, by means of a procedure that sets flags readable by the CPU
simulator whenever an interrupt is raised, allowing the virtual CPU to "poll for
(virtual) interrupts"
writing to and reading from physical memory, by means of two procedures similar to
the ones dealing with logical memory (although, contrary to the latter, the former can
often be left out, and direct references to the memory array be employed instead)
c) Memory subsystem It is possible for the memory subsystem emulation to be
reduced to simply an array of elements each sized like an emulated word; however,
this model fails very quickly as soon as any location in the computer's logical memory
does not match physical memory. This clearly is the case whenever the emulated
hardware allows for advanced memory management (in which case, the MMU logic
can be embedded in the memory emulator, made a module of its own, or sometimes
integrated into the CPU simulator). Even if the emulated computer does not feature an
MMU, though, there are usually other factors that break the equivalence between
logical and physical memory: many (if not most) architectures offer memory-mapped
I/O; even those that do not often have a block of logical memory mapped to ROM,
which means that the memory-array module must be discarded if the read-only nature
of ROM is to be emulated. Features such as bank switching or segmentation may also
complicate memory emulation. As a result, most emulators implement at least two
procedures for writing to and reading from logical memory, and it is these procedures'
duty to map every access to the correct location of the correct object.

An in-circuit emulator (ICE) is a hardware device that plugs into the CPU socket of a
computer. The advantage of using an ICE is that various portions of the system
memory may be re-mapped, complex breakpoints can be used and an execution trace
history can be collected. All this can be done at or near real-time execution speed.

2. Testing is a testing process for checking functional and non-functional attributes of

both software and hardware in an embedded system and ensuring that the final product
is defect free.
Embedded Software testing checks and ensure the concerned software is of good
quality and complies with all the requirements it should meet. Embedded software
testing is an excellent approach to guarantee security in critical applications like
medical equipment, railways, aviation, vehicle industry, etc. Strict and careful testing
is crucial to grant software certification.
In Embedded Testing, the following activities are performed:
1. The software is provided with some inputs.
2. A Piece of the software is executed.
3. The software state is observed, and the outputs are checked for expected
properties like whether the output matches the expected outcome, conformance to the
requirements and absence of system crashes.
Debugging is the process of eliminating the bugs/errors in software. The software
written to run on embedded systems may contain errors and hence needs debugging.
However, the difficulty in case of embedded systems is to find out the bug/ error itself.
This is because the binary image you downloaded on the target board was free of
syntax errors but still if the embedded system does not function the way it was
supposed to be then it can be either because of a hardware problem or a software
problem. Assuming that the hardware is perfect all that remains to check is the
software. The difficult part here is that once the embedded system starts functioning
there is no way for the user or programmer to know the internal state of the
components on the target board. The most primitive method of debugging is using
LEDs. This is similar to using a printf or a cout statement in c/c++ programs to test if
the control enters the loop or not. Similarly an LED blind or a pattern of LED blinks
can be used to check if the control enters a particular piece of code.
 CASE STUDY
Q. Design an embedded system for an Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine.
Outline the concept of ACVM. Briefly discuss about its features and
specifications.
An ACVM contains a Coin insertion slot and Keypad (on the top of the machine) to
insert the coin according to the possible denomination like 2, 5 rupees. Then after the
coin is inserted, the system directs each coin to the particular port like port 2 and port 5
(coin sorter). It also contains an LCD unit on the top of the machine to display menus,
text entered into the ACVM and pictograms, welcome, thank and other messages.
Graphic interactions are also available on this machine. The displays in the ACVM
also show the current time and date. The delivery slot in the ACVM is used to collect
the chocolate and coins (if refunded). The internet connection port is provided so that
the owner can know the status of the ACVM sales from a remote location. The block
diagram of an ACVM is shown in Figure 1 given below.

Figure 1. Block Diagram of ACVM.

ACVM Specifications
ACVM Hardware
The heart of an ACVM is a Microcontroller or ASIP (Application Specific Instruction
Set Processor). A RAM is used for storing temporary variables and the stack, and a
ROM for application codes, and the RTOS codes for scheduling the tasks. It also has
flash memory for storing user preferences, contact data, user address, a user date of
birth, user identification code and answers to frequently asked questions (FAQs).
Timer and Interrupt controller are also needed to control the process of ACVM. It has
a TCP/IP port (Internet broadband connection) to the ACVM for remote control and
for providing the system status reports to the owner. It also has an ACVM specific
hardware and a power supply.
ACVM Software
Software is required to handle the following:
Read input from keypad, display text/graphics, control coins reader, and control
delivery port (to deliver the chocolate). In addition to these, we also need the TCP/IP
stack communication for remote control, and an RTOS (say, MUCOS), to run the
ACVM software.
ACVM Requirements
The purpose of ACVM is to build a system from which children can automatically
purchase the chocolates, and the payment is by inserting the coins to the appropriate
denomination coin-slot.
Inputs Coin slot to insert the coins of different denominations and the keypad to
enter the user commands.
Signals, events and Notifications An interrupt is generated at each port after the coin
is received in the coin slot. Each port interrupt starts an Interrupt Service Routine
(ISR), which increases value of amount collected by corresponding rupees (1, 2, 5 or
10). A notification is generated for each selection in the menu.
Outputs The display is used to show the GUIs, time and date, advertisements,
welcome and thanks messages. Chocolate and signal (IPC) to the system that subtracts
the cost from the value of amount collected.
Functions of the system:
A child (user) sends commands to the ACVM using a GUI (graphic user interface).
GUI consists of the LCD and keypad units. At first, the child inserts the coins (
Task_Collect through Port_Collect) for the cost of chocolate and the machine delivers
the chocolate in the delivery slot. If the coins are not inserted as per the cost of
chocolate for a reasonable amount of time, then all coins are refunded (Task_Refund
through Port_Refund). If the inserted coins amount is more than the cost of chocolate,
the excess amount is refunded along with chocolate (Task_ExcessRefund through
Port_ExcessRefund). If the chocolate is of different rupees, then the port is assigned to
each rupee, and then the interrupt is sent to the corresponding port (Task_ReadPorts
through Port_Read). After that chocolate is delivered through the delivery slot
(Task_Deliver through Port_Deliver). The coins for the chocolates purchased collect
inside the machine in a collector channel (Task_Collect), so that owner can get the
money, again through appropriate commands using the GUI (Task_Display). USB
wireless modem enables communication through Internet to the ACVM system owner.
Design metrics
The design of the system is measured in terms of four design metrics and are explained
as follows
● Power Dissipation: Maximum (tolerance) amount of heat it can generate while
working as required by mechanical units, display units and computer system.
● Performance: Based on assumption, one chocolate will be delivered in two minutes
and 256 chocolates before next filling of chocolates into the machine.
 ● Process Deadlines: Machine waits for maximum 30s for the coins and it should
deliver the chocolate within 60s.
● User Interfaces(UI): Graphics at LCD or touchscreen display on LCD, and
commands by children or machine owner through fingers on keypad or touch screen,
form the UI in the ACVM.
Apart from these metrics, the manufacturing and engineering cost is also considered
for the design metrics.
Test and validation conditions
The test and validation conditions are expressed to check whether all user commands
function correctly and all the graphic displays and menus appear as per the program.
Then each task should be tested with test inputs, and it should be tested for 60 users
per hour.
Basic system of ACVM
The flow diagram of an ACVM is shown in figure 2. ACVM system consists of a slot
into which a child inserts the coins for buying the chocolate. Whenever a coin is
inserted, a mechanical system directs each coin of value Rs 1 or 2 or 5 to port -1, port -
2, port -5 respectively. When a port is receiving a coin, the port generates an interrupt.
The interrupt signal is sent by the corresponding read ports for reading the coin value
at the ports and also to increase the amount of chocolate. The machine should have an
LCD, keypad and touchscreen. Let the interface port be called port-display. The time
and date appear in the LCDs right-hand bottom side. ACVM has a port-deliver where
the buyer collects the chocolate from the bowl. The customer also receives the full
refund or excess amount at the bowl. It should also be possible to reprogram and
relocate the codes in the system ROM or flash ROM whenever the following happens:
a) The price of chocolate increases.
b) The messages lines or menus need to be changed.
c) Machine features change.

Figure 2. Basic System of an ACVM

With respect to the hardware the following will be required. The 8051 can be used as
the microcontroller and MUCOS the RTOS used in the ACVM. ACVM specific
hardware is required to sort the coins of different denomination using coin sorter and
the main Power supply needed is 220V 50Hz or 110V 60Hz. Internal circuits need a
supply of 5V 50mA for electronics and 12V, 2A for mechanical systems. By
programming the 8051 timer, the 1s resolution timer is obtained. Flash memory of
ROM and RAM is used for storing the temporary variables and stack. 8 MB ROM is
needed for application codes and RTOS codes.

Q. Design an embedded system for a simple digital camera. Briefly explain about
its features and specifications.
Specifications
i)CCD Array
 Camera records the pictures using a charge coupled devices (CCD) array.
 The array consisting of large number of horizontal rows and vertical columns of
CCD cells for the picture
 A number of CCD cell unexposed to the picture in each row of cells but those
used for off-set corrections in the each-row output from the picture cells.
ii) Camera Picture resolution
 2592 x 1944 pixels, there are 2592 x 1944 = 5038848 set of cells.
 Each set of pixel has three cells, for the red, green and blue components in a
pixel.
  Each cell gets exposed to a picture when shutter of camera opens on a user
command.
iii) Controllers, LCD display, Switches and buttons
 A set of controllers to control shutter, flash, auto focus and eye-ball image
control.
 LCD display for graphics and GUI
 Switches and buttons for inputs at camera.
 User gives commands for switching on the camera, flash, shutter, adjust
brightness, contrast, color, save and transfer.
 When a button for opening the shutter is pressed, a flash lamp glows and a self-
timer circuit switches off the lamp automatically.
iv) Picture transfer Ports
 JPEG file for a picture can be copied or transferred to a memory stick using a
controller
 Sony memory stick Micro (M2) size 15×12.5×1.2 mm, flash memory of 2 GB
and 160 Mbps data transfer rate.
 A picture jpg can be copied to a computer connected through USB port
controller.
Requirements
i) Purpose
 Digital recording and display of pictures
 Processing to get the pictures of required brightness, contrast and color.
 Permanent saving of picture in file in a standard format at a flash-memory stick
or card
 Transfer files to a computer and printer through a USB port
ii) Inputs
 Intensity and color values for each picture horizontal and vertical rows and
columns of pixels in a picture frame.
 Intensity and color values for unexposed (dark) area in each horizontal rows and
columns of pixels.
 User control inputs
iii) Signals, Events and Notifications
 User commands given as signals from switches/buttons
iv) Outputs
  Encoded file for a picture
 Permanent store of the picture at a file on flash memory stick
 Screen display of picture from the file after decoding
 File output to an interfaced computer and printer.

Functions of the system

 A color LCD dot matrix displays the picture before shooting enables manual
adjustment of view of the picture.
 For shooting a shutter button pressed, a charge-coupled device (CCD) array
placed at the focus generates a byte stream in output after operations by ADC on
analog output of each CCD cell.
 A file creates after encoding (compression) and pixel co-processing.
 The byte stream is preprocessed and then encoded in a standard format using a
CODEC.
 The encoded picture file saved for permanent record. A memory stick saves the
file.
 The file is used for display of recorded picture using a display processor and can
be copied or transferred to a memory stick and to computer or printer connected
through USB port.
 The LCD displays picture file after it is decoded (decompressed) using the
CODEC. Text such as picture-title, shooting date and time and serial number are
also displayed.
 USB port is used for transferring and storing pictures on a computer.
Alternatively, Bluetooth or IR port can be used for interfacing the computer

Design Metrics
 Power Dissipation: Battery operation. Battery recharging after 400 pictures
(assumed)
 Resolution: High-resolution pictures with options of 2592 x 1944 pixels =
5038848 pixels, 2592 x 1728 = 3.2 M, 2048 x 1536 = 3M and 1280 x 960 = 1M.
 Performance: Shooting a 4M pixels still picture in 0.5 s. 25 pictures per m
[Assumed]
 Process Deadlines: Exposing camera process maximum 0.1 s. Flash
synchronous with shutter opening and closing. Picture display latency maximum
0.5 s.
 User Interfaces: Graphic at LCD or touch screen display on LCD and commands
by camera user through fingers on touch screen and switches and buttons
  Engineering Cost: US$ 50000 (assumed)
 Manufacturing Cost: US$ 50 (assumed)

Test and validation conditions

 All user commands must function correctly
 All graphic displays and menus should appear as per the program.
 Each task should be tested with test inputs
 Tested for 30 pictures per m

Camera tasks
 Camera tasks are modeled by four class diagrams are divided
Picture_FileCreation, Picture_FileDisplay, Picture_FileTransfer and
Controller_tasks

File creation, display and transfer

 Digital camera file creation, display and transferring to printer, memory stick
and USB port can be modeled by the class diagrams of abstract class
Picture_FileCreation,
Picture_FileDisplay, and
Picture_FileTransfer

Task objects
 Instances of the classes
(i) ExposedArea_CCDBytesStream, DarkArea_CCDBytesStream,
Task_CCD Preprocessor,
Task_PictureProcessor and
Task_Encoding

Controller_Tasks
 Tasks_Initialization for initialization of tasks
 Tasks_Shoot for shooting task
 Initiates CCD processor (CCDP) to Initialize_Picture_FileCreation
 Initiate Picture_FileDisplay tasks, which run on initiation of display processor
(DisplP),
 Initiates ASIP memory save MemP,
 Initiates ASIP for printer PrintP
  Initiates ASIP for USB port (USB_P),
 Task_LightLevel for control level control
 Task_flash

Hardware architecture

Software architecture
We learnt,
 Camera tasks are modeled by four class diagrams are divided
Picture_FileCreation,Picture_FileDisplay,Picture_FileTransferandController_tas
ks
 Microcontroller and the several ASIPs are required for expected camera
performance.
 A microcontroller executes the Controller_Tasks. The controller tasks are the
following: (i) Task_LightLevel control (ii) Task_flash (ii) initialization of tasks,
(iii) shooting task,
 Single purpose CCD processor does Picture_FileCreation tasks, which execute
on a for the dark current corrections,
 Single purpose ASIP does the DCT compression, Huffman encoding, DCT
decompression, Huffman decoding and file save,
 Single purpose display processor (DisplP) initiates Picture_FileDisplay tasks,
which execute on decoded and compressed file image display after the required
file byte stream processing for shift or rotate or stretching or zooming or
contrast or color and resolution,
 Single purpose ASIP initiates memory stick save on notification from
Picture_FileTransfer file system object using a single purpose transfer processor
(MemP),
 Single purpose ASIP initiates printing on a notification from
Picture_FileTransfer using a single purpose print processor (PrintP),
 Single purpose ASIP initiates USB port controller on notification from
Picture_FileTransfer using a single purpose USB processor (USB_P).