This paper was awarded in the II International Competition (1993/94) ”First Step to Nobel Prize

in Physics” and published in the competition proceedings (Acta Phys. Pol. A 88 Supplement,
S-49 (1995)). The paper is reproduced here due to kind agreement of the Editorial Board of
”Acta Physica Polonica A”.

EQUATION OF TIME — PROBLEM IN

ASTRONOMY
M. Müller
Gymnasium Münchenstein, Grellingerstrasse 5,
4142 Münchenstein, Switzerland

Abstract
The apparent solar motion is not uniform and the length of a solar day is not constant
throughout a year. The difference between apparent solar time and mean (regular)
solar time is called the equation of time. Two well-known features of our solar system
lie at the basis of the periodic irregularities in the solar motion. The angular velocity
of the earth relative to the sun varies periodically in the course of a year. The plane
of the orbit of the earth is inclined with respect to the equatorial plane. Therefore,
the angular velocity of the relative motion has to be projected from the ecliptic onto
the equatorial plane before incorporating it into the measurement of time. The math-
ematical expression of the projection factor for ecliptic angular velocities yields an
oscillating function with two periods per year. The difference between the extreme
values of the equation of time is about half an hour. The response of the equation
of time to a variation of its key parameters is analyzed. In order to visualize factors
contributing to the equation of time a model has been constructed which accounts for
the elliptical orbit of the earth, the periodically changing angular velocity, and the
inclined axis of the earth.
PACS numbers: 95.10.Ce

1. Introduction

1.1. The measurement of time

This paper deals with a problem of the astronomical measurement of time. Let us first
introduce some basic definitions. The natural unit of time is the rotation of the earth,
that is the apparent daily course of the sun. The length of time between two culminations
of the sun is called a solar day. The time-system based on this unit is called apparent solar
time. By this system, localities on a given meridian always have the same time-readings.
A comparison of a sundial with a mechanical clock shows that the solar day has a
variable length. Therefore, so-called mean solar time is commonly used. This is based
on a unit which is defined as the average of a solar day. The mean solar time has been
2 M. Müller

fixed in such a way that it does not deviate too much from the apparent solar time. The
deviations between apparent solar time and mean solar time are described by the equation
of time
equation of time = (apparent solar time) − (mean solar time).
The derivation, suitable approximations and relevant aspects of the equation of time are
discussed in this paper. The derivation does not account for minor effects due to the
gravitational fields of the moon and the planets. In principle, therefore, a comparison of
the results of such an idealized equation of time with the actual observations can be used
to estimate the magnitudes of these effects. Furthermore, parameters of the orbit of the
earth, such as its eccentricity, can be verified or calculated. It should be mentioned that
the equation of time was very important for navigation in earlier times.
1.2. The periodicity in the solar motion
Two well-known features of our solar system are at the basis of the variations in the
apparent motion of the sun:

1. According to Kepler’s second law, the angular velocity of the earth relative to the
sun varies throughout a year.

2. Equal angles which the sun in its apparent movement goes through in the ecliptic
do not correspond to equal angles we measure on the equatorial plane. However,
it is these latter angles which are relevant for the measurement of time, since the
daily movement of the sun is parallel to the equatorial plane (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Apparent path of the sun in a geocentric view. At the perihelion, the sun
runs faster than at the aphelion. Equal angles β on the plane of the ecliptic do not
correspond to equal angles γ on the equatorial plane. In this figure there is β1 = β2
but γ1 < γ2 .
THE EQUATION OF TIME — A PROBLEM IN ASTRONOMY 3

2. The variable angular velocity of the earth

2.1. Kepler’s laws

Kepler’s first law tells us that all planets are moving in elliptical orbits around the
sun, whereby the latter is positioned at one of the two focal points. Kepler’s second law
— the so-called law of areas — describes the velocity of the planets. The area swept out
per time interval is constant (= dA/dt).
Hence, during the time period t the radius vector from the sun to the earth sweeps
out an area of
dA πab t
t =t = πab (1)
dt T T
(a, b — axes of the ellipse, T — duration of a revolution).
Let us now derive the angular velocity of the earth as a function of time. The angle
covered by the earth after leaving the perihelion is called “true anomaly”, denoted here
with R (see Fig. 2). Let us imagine a “mean earth” which has also a revolution time T and

Fig. 2. Angles R, M and E at a specific time point. The affinity factor between the
elliptical orbit and the circle going through the perihelion and the aphelion is given
by b/a. As the angular velocity of the “real earth” and the“mean earth” are both
constant, the ratio between the two hatched areas is the same as between the areas of
the circle and the ellipse, viz., 1 : b/a.
4 M. Müller

is running at a constant speed on a circular orbit with the sun at its centre. This “mean
earth” would cover an angle, called “mean anomaly” (M ), in the same period of time as
the true earth covers the angle R. In Fig. 2, M is drawn from the centre of the ellipse.
The orbit of the “mean earth” is the circle through the perihelion and the aphelion. The
“mean earth” starts from the perihelion at the same time as the true earth. Since the
angular velocity of the “mean earth” is constant and its revolution lasts one year (T ), M
satisfies the simple equation
t
M = 2π , (2)
T
where t is the time span after passage through the perihelion. It is very useful to define
a third angle as a link between M and R (see Fig. 2). The perpendicular drawn from the
position of the true earth (E) onto the major axis intersects the circle, that is the orbit
of the “mean earth”, at the point A. The angle PZA is called eccentric anomaly (E) and
was introduced by Johannes Kepler [1]. It can be used to calculate the area of elliptic
sectors.
We get the following relations from Fig. 2
b b
√
EB a
AB a sin E b sin E 1 − e2 sin E
tan R = = = a = = , (3)
SB ZB − ZS a cos E − ea a cos E − e cos E − e
s v
1 (cos E − e)2 cos E − e
u
u
cos R = =t 2 = , (4)
1 + tan2 R 2 2
(cos E − e) + (1 − e ) sin E 1 − e cos E
s s v
R 1 − cos R 1 − e cos E − cos E + e u (1 + e)(1 − cos E)
u
tan = = =t
2 1 + cos R 1 − e cos E + cos E − e (1 − e)(1 + cos E)
s s s
1+e 1 − cos E 1+e E
= = tan . (5)
1−e 1 + cos E 1−e 2
Let us write Eq. (5) with
s
1−e R E
≡ cos α, ≡ y, ≡ x,
1+e 2 2
tan x tan x
 
tan y = ⇔ y = arctan . (6)
cos α cos α
The differentiation of Eq. (6) yields
dy cos α cos α
= 2 =
dx 2
1 − sin α cos x 1 − sin2 α (1+cos
2
2x)

2 cos α
= = f (x). (7)
1+ α − sin2 α cos 2x
cos2
Since this expression is a periodic function of x it can be expanded into a Fourier series
dy cos α
f (x) = =
dx 1 − sin2 α cos2 x
= a0 + a1 cos x + b1 sin x + . . . + an cos nx + bn sin nx + . . . , (8)
where
1 Z 2π 1 Z 2π dy 1 Z 2π
a0 = f (x)dx = dx = dy = 1 (9)
2π 0 2π 0 dx 2π 0
THE EQUATION OF TIME — A PROBLEM IN ASTRONOMY 5

and
1 Z 2π 1 Z 2π
an = f (x) cos nxdx, bn = f (x) sin nxdx for n > 0. (10)
π 0 π 0
Replacing sine and cosine by the complex exponential function yields
 
1 Z 2π cos α einx + e−inx
an =   dx
π 0 1 + cos2 α − sin2 α e2ix +e−2ix
2
 
i I cos α z n/2 + z −n/2
= dz
π −2z (1 + cos2 α) + sin2 α (z 2 + 1)
 
i I cos α z n/2 + z −n/2
=  2
 dz with z = e2ix . (11)
π sin2 α z 2 − 2 (1+cos
sin2 α
α)
z+1
The contour of integration is twice the unit circle. The denominator has the roots
2 2
1 − cos α α 1 + cos α α
 
2
N1 = = tan , N2 = = cot2 . (12)
sin α 2 sin α 2
Now, Eq. (11) can be written in the form
 
i I
cos α z n/2 + z −n/2
an =  dz
sin2 α z − tan2 α z − cot2 α
 
π
2 2
   
n/2 −n/2
i I cos α z + z 1 1
=  −   dz
2 2 α 2 α
π sin α tan 2 − cot 2 z − tan2 α2 z − cot2 α2
 
i I  n/2  1 1
=− z + z −n/2   −   dz. (13)
4π z − tan2 α2 z − cot2 α2
As commonly known, it is
(
I Z e4iπ 0 for p 6= −1,
p p
z dz = z dz = (14)
e0 4iπ for p = −1.

Therefore, we can develop the fractions of the integrand (13) into convergent series and
go on calculating only with terms of the form g(α)/z, because all other terms contribute
zero to the integral. !i
∞
1 1X tan2 α2
= , (15)
z − tan2 α2 z i=0 z
∞ i
1 αX α

2
− α = tan z tan2 . (16)
z − cot2 2
2 i=0 2
The integrand (13) becomes
 
∞ 2 α i ∞ 
! i
i  n/2  1X tan α α
z + z −n/2  + tan2 z tan2
X
2
− . (17)
4π z i=0 z 2 i=0 2

Expressions in z1 = z −1 only result if the exponent n2 is an integer. Consequently, the

integral is zero if n is odd, that is, an vanishes if n is odd. an = 0 for odd n. If n is even
6 M. Müller

we get the coefficient of 1/z in the integrand as the sum of two expressions, each from
one of the two series
i 1 α α α i 1 α
 
− tann + tan2 tan−2+n =− tann . (18)
4π z 2 2 2 2π z 2
The integration of this term yields
Z e4iπ
i n α 1 i α α
an = − tan dz = − tann 4iπ = 2 tann (19)
2π 2 e 0 z 2π 2 2
α
⇒ an = 2 tann for even n > 0. (20)
2
The coefficients bn can be obtained similarly. If n is odd, bn disappears. If n is even, one
has to write instead of Eq. (18)
1 1 α 1 α
 
− tann − tann = 0. (21)
4π z 2 z 2
Consequently, the Fourier series only consists of cosine terms with an even coefficient in
the argument
∞
dy α
tan2i cos 2ix,
X
=1+2 (22)
dx i=1 2
∞
α sin 2ix
tan2i
X
y =x+ + const. (23)
i=1 2 i
In Eq. (5), we have to set
q q
1−e 1−e
1− 1−2 + 1−e
s
1−e α 1 − cos α 1+e 1+e 1+e
cos α ≡ → tan2 = = q = 1−e
1+e 2 1 + cos α 1 + 1−e 1 − 1+e
1+e
√ √
1 + e + 1 − e − 2 1 − e2 1 − 1 − e2
= =
1+e−1+e e
 
e2 e4
1− 1− 2
− 8 e e3
≈ = + . (24)
e 2 8
With R(E = 0) = 0 we get
∞
!4
X e e3 sin iE
R=E+2 +
i=1 2 8 i

e3 e2 e3
!
≈E+ e+ sin E + sin 2E + sin 3E. (25)
4 4 12
The angle E is so useful because the area swept out by the radius vector from the sun
to the earth in the time span t can be calculated easily by using the affinity between the
circle and the ellipse
b
F = elliptic sector SEP = (sector ZAP − triangle ZAS),
a
!
b E ZS AB b E 2 aea sin E
 
F = areacircle − = a −
a 2π 2 a 2 2
THE EQUATION OF TIME — A PROBLEM IN ASTRONOMY 7

b E 2 e sin E ab
 
= a − a2 = (E − e sin E). (26)
a 2 2 2
On the other hand, the law of areas implies
t t M ab
F = πab, or with M = 2π one gets F = . (27)
T T 2
The comparison with Eq. (26) yields

E = M + e sin E (28)

Equation (28) is called Kepler’s equation. It is not possible to solve this equation for
E in closed form. Therefore, the position of the earth — given by E — can only be
approximated as a function of time. The “reversion theorem” of Lagrange allows us to
expand any function in E into a series in e and M . Its basis is an equation in the form

z = y + xf (z). (29)

According to Lagrange, any function g(z) can be expanded into a series depending on x
and y:
x2 ∂ n 0 o
0
g(z) = g(y) + xg (y)f (y) + g (y) [f (y)]2
2! ∂y
x3 ∂ 2 n 0 3
o
+ g (y)[f (y)] + ... (30)
3! ∂y 2
In the case of Kepler’s equation (28), we set

z = E, y = M, x = e, f (z) = sin E, f (y) = sin M, g(z) = z. (31)

E turns out as
e2 ∂ e3 ∂ 2
E = M + e sin M + (sin2 M ) + 2
(sin3 M ) + . . .
2 ∂M 6 ∂M
e2 e3
= M + e sin M + sin 2M + (3 sin 3M − sin M ) + . . . (32)
2 8
To be able to express R in Eq. (25) as a function of M , we also have to expand the sine
functions of E, 2E and 3E as far as needed

E−M e e2
sin E = = sin M + sin 2M + (3 sin 3M − sin M ) + . . . (33)
e 2 8
sin 2E = sin 2M + e sin M 2 cos 2M + . . .
= sin 2M + e(sin 3M − sin M ) + . . . (34)
sin 3E = sin 3M + . . . (35)
Replacing the functions in E of Eq. (25) with these formulas in M , we obtain

e3 e2 e3
!
R≈E+ e+ sin E + sin 2E + sin 3E
4 4 12

e3 e2 e3
!
= M + 2e + sin E + sin 2E + sin 3E
4 4 12
8 M. Müller

5 1 13
 
≈ M + 2e sin M + e2 sin 2M + e3 − sin M + sin 3M + e4 . . . (36)
4 4 12
In this series, we have only taken into account terms up to third power of e. (This
approximation is already very accurate, for e is about 0.0167.) The angular velocity of
the earth can now be obtained as the first derivative of R with respect to time
dR dR dM 2π dR
ω(t) = = =
dt dM dt T dM
2π 5 1 13
  
≈ 1 + 2e cos M + e2 cos 2M + e3 − cos M + cos 3M . (37)
T 2 4 4
This function is plotted in Fig. 3. It is mainly determined by the first variable term of the
series (2e cos M ). The factor 2π/T is the mean angular velocity. The deviations amount
to about ±3.5% (≈ 2e).

Fig. 3. The angular velocity of the earth as a function of time. On average it is about
2π/365.25 per day or 360/365.25 ◦ /day = 0.986 ◦ /day.

3. The inclined plane of the ecliptic

3.1. The earth in space

Since the equation of time is to be examined during a year, the earth can be supposed
to always have the same direction in space, i.e., we will not take into account precession
and nutation.
We can describe the direction of the axis of the earth with two angles. The first is the
angle between the axis and the norm of the orbit (ε). The second is the angle P formed
by the major axis of the orbit and the projection of the axis of the earth onto the plane of
the orbit (see Fig. 4). At present, ε measures about 23.45◦ , P is about 12.25◦ . (P is also
the angle which is covered by the earth between the beginning of winter (21st December)
and the arrival of the earth at perihelion (2nd January).)
THE EQUATION OF TIME — A PROBLEM IN ASTRONOMY 9

Fig. 4. The angle P and the inclination of the axis of the earth at the winter solstice.

3.2. The projection of ecliptic angles onto the equatorial plane

The angles which the sun appears to cover relative to the earth are equal to those the
earth actually covers relative to the sun. Since the corresponding angles parallel to the
equatorial plane are needed for the measurement of time, the ecliptical angles have to be
projected onto the equatorial plane. This results in angle widening or shortening. For an
infinitesimally small angle the projection factor (the deformation factor) is determined
by the angle parameters ϕ and ε in Fig. 5, which represents the geocentric view. ϕ is
measured from the winter solstice.
We get the following relations from Fig. 5:

tan ϕ = cos ε tan ϕp , tan(ϕ + ω) = cos ε tan (ϕp + ϕp ) . (38)

The projection factor f for a small angle can be calculated as a function of ϕ and ε:
h i  
 arctan tan(ϕ+ω) − arctan tan ϕ 

p
ω

cos ε cos ε
f (ϕ) = lim = lim . (39)
ω→∞ ω ω→0  ω 

Using the series (22) derived in Sec. 2.1 (ε ≡ α), we get an approximation which converges
very quickly
ε
f (ϕ) = f (R + P ) = 1 + 2 tan2 cos 2(R + P )
2
ε ε
+2 tan4 cos 4(R + P ) + 2 tan6 cos 6(R + P ) + . . . (40)
2 2
The projection factor f is plotted as a function of time in Fig. 6. This graph resembles
a cosine function since it is mainly determined by the first variable term of the approxi-
mation. The amplitude of the variation (2 tan2 2ε ) amounts to 8 12 % and, thus, is greater
than that of the angular velocity (compare with Fig. 3).
10 M. Müller

Fig. 5. Geocentric view of the projection. In a short time interval, the sun has covered
the angle ω. ω p is the orthogonal projection of ω.

Fig. 6. The projection factor as a function of time. The maxima are at the solstices,
the minima at the equinoxes.

The extremes are situated at the beginning of the seasons. At the summer and winter
solstice, the sun reaches, respectively, its highest and lowest position. Here, an ecliptic an-
gle is stretched maximally. At the vernal and autumnal equinox, the sun stands vertically
above the equator. Here, ecliptic angles are shortened maximally.
THE EQUATION OF TIME — A PROBLEM IN ASTRONOMY 11

4. The calculation of the equation of time

4.1. Derivation of a more accurate approximation

In order to calculate the equation of time we need the projection of the true anomaly
Rp as a function of time
Z " ∞
#
p
Z
p
Z X ε
2i
R = dR = f (R+P )dR = 1+2 tan cos 2i(R+P ) dR (41)
i=1 2
∞
1 ε
tan2i
X
=R+ sin 2i(R + P ) + const. (42)
i=1 i 2
The constant term will be determined later. Let us replace R by M with Eq. (36)
5 1 13
 
R = M + 2e sin M + e2 sin 2M + e3 − sin M + sin 3M . . . (43)
4 4 12
Thus, Rp becomes a function of M and hence of time.
5 1 13
 
p
R = M + 2e sin M + e2 sin 2M + e3 − sin M + sin 3M + . . .
4 4 12
2 ε 5
 
+ tan sin 2(M + P ) + 2 2e sin M + e2 sin 2M
2 4
1 13
  
3
+e − sin M + sin 3M + . . .
4 12
1 ε 5
 
+ tan4 sin 4(M + P ) + 4 2e sin M + e2 sin 2M
2 2 4
1 13
  
+e3 − sin M + sin 3M + . . .
4 12
1 6 ε 5
 
+ tan sin 6(M + P ) + 6 2e sin M + e2 sin 2M
3 2 4
1 13
  
+e3 − sin M + sin 3M + . . . + . . . + const. (44)
4 12
The expansion of the sine functions yields
ε
Rp ≈ M + tan2 (1 − 4e2 ) sin 2(M + P ) + 2e sin M
2
ε ε
−2e tan2 sin(M + 2P ) + 2e tan2 sin(3M + 2P )
2 2
1 ε 5 ε
+ tan4 sin 4(M + P ) + e2 sin 2M − 2e tan4 sin(3M + 4P )
2 2 4 2
ε 13 ε
+2e tan4 sin(5M + 4P ) + e2 tan2 sin(4M + 2P )
2 4 2
1 ε
+ tan6 sin 6(M + P ) + const. (45)
3 2
The equation of time is defined by
equation of time = “true equatorial sun angle”
– “mean equatorial sun angle” (geocentric view)
= −(true projected anomaly – mean anomaly) (46)
(heliocentric view)
= M − Rp .
12 M. Müller

Fig. 7. The determination of the constant of integration Rp − M = P p − P .

Let us now determine the constant of integration. A commonly used definition implies
that the “mean sun” arrives at the vernal equinox at the same time as a “dynamic sun”
that runs in the ecliptic at a constant speed and leaves the perihelion at the same time as
the real sun (see [2]). Because of this definition the angles of the two regularly running
suns to the vernal equinox are always equal. Consequently, the angle P between the
perihelion and the direction earth–winter solstice in Fig. 7 is equal to the angle of the
“dynamic sun” on the equator to the projected winter solstice direction. The constant of
integration can now be determined if we examine the passage through the perihelion (see
Fig. 7):
Z P
M − Rp = P − P p = P − f (ϕ)dϕ
0
∞ ∞
!
Z P ε 1 ε
2i
tan2i sin 2iP.
X X
=P− 1+2 tan cos 2iϕ dϕ = − (47)
0 i=1 2 i=1 i 2
If we set t = 0 in Eq. (44) we will find that the constant of integration vanishes. Now we
can calculate the coefficients in Eq. (45) with ε = 23.45◦ and e = 0.0167. Finally we get

equation of time = M − Rp ≈ −591.7 sin 2(M + P ) − 459.6 sin M

+19.8 sin(M + 2P ) − 19.8 sin(3M + 2P ) − 12.8 sin 4(M + P )

−4.8 sin 2M + 0.9 sin(3M + 4P ) − 0.9 sin(5M + 4P )
−0.5 sin(4M + 2P ) − 0.4 sin 6(M + P ) [s]. (48)
At present, the angle P measures about 12.25◦ .
Figure 8 shows the equation of time for a whole period of one year. In winter, the
value of the equation of time decreases mostly because the angular velocity of the earth
and the projection factor reach their maximum. The opposite holds true between the
passage through the aphelion and the beginning of autumn. Afterwards, the equation of
time itself reaches an extreme value. In the time span between those extrema, especially
in summer, the lower angular velocity and the greater projection factor compensate each
other.
Figure 9 (taken from [2]) shows the observed phenomenon of the equation of time. In
intervals of ten days, a picture of the sky was taken at 8.14 (mean solar time). If the sun
moved at a constant speed through the sky, all pictures of the sun would lay on a straight
line that would be perpendicular to the daily path of the sun. In winter and in summer,
THE EQUATION OF TIME — A PROBLEM IN ASTRONOMY 13

Fig. 8. The equation of time with its two main terms. The difference between the
maximum in October (≈ 16 min) and the minimum in February (≈ −14 min) is about
half an hour.

Fig. 9. The analemma (after [2]).

the sun has not reached as far as one would expect (it is below the “average line” (2)).
Therefore, the value of the equation of time is negative (see Fig. 8). On the other hand,
the sun advances faster from April to June and at the end of the year (it is above the
“average line”) and the value of the equation of time is positive. These variations produce
the form of a stretched and inclined “eight” in the picture.
4.2. The equation of time as a function of its parameters
The equation of time is determined by the following parameters:

• the eccentricity of the orbit of the earth

• the angle between the ecliptic and the equatorial planes

14 M. Müller

• the angle P between the winter solstice and the perihelion relative to the sun
or: the time span ∆t from the beginning of winter to the passage through the
perihelion

The last two parameters change gradually by nutation and precession. It is therefore
interesting to examine the influence of each parameter. Figures 10–12 show how the
equation of time changes when one parameter is varied.
1. parameter: the eccentricity. If e = 0 a regular variation results that is caused by
the inclination of the ecliptic plane. The deviations of the apparent solar time from the
mean solar time increase with growing e in winter and autumn. Thus, the yearly variation
becomes dominant. Since at the perihelion and aphelion the equation of time is only a
function of the ecliptic inclination and the angle P , all plots have the same value at these
two points.
2. parameter: the inclination of the ecliptic. ε = 0 yields a plot which is symmetric to
the passage through the aphelion. The greater ε the more dominant the variation with a
period of half a year. All plots have four common points at the beginning of each season,
for the equation of time depends only on the two other parameters there (eccentricity
and P ). As the projection from the ecliptic plane onto the equatorial plane does not
change the polar angle relative to the winter solstice, ε does not influence the value of the
equation of time at the beginning of a season.
3. parameter: the time interval between the beginning of winter and the passage
through the perihelion. If ∆t = 0 the two main variations vanish both at the beginning
of winter and summer (because winter begins when the earth passes the perihelion; the
aphelion is the summer solstice). Therefore, the resulting function is symmetric and the
extreme values are in autumn and winter. If ∆t increases, the two components tend to
compensate each other in winter whereas the negative value in summer begins to dominate.

Fig. 10. 1. parameter: the eccentricity. + + + e = 0.000, ◦ ◦ ◦ e = 0.005,

2 2 2 e = 0.010, • • • e = 0.015, × × × e = 0.020.
THE EQUATION OF TIME — A PROBLEM IN ASTRONOMY 15

Fig. 11. 2. parameter: the inclination of the ecliptic. + + + ε = 0◦ , ◦ ◦ ◦ ε = 8◦ ,

2 2 2 ε = 16◦ , • • • ε = 24◦ , × × × ε = 32◦ .

Fig. 12. 3. parameter: the time interval between the beginning of winter and the
passage through the perihelion. + + + ∆t = 0 days, ◦ ◦ ◦ ∆t = 20 days, 2 2 2 ∆t =
40 days, • • • ∆t = 60 days, × × × ∆t = 80 days.
16 M. Müller

5. Construction of a model
As one might have some difficulty in imagining the matters treated herein concern-
ing the solar system we decided to construct a model which illustrates the preceding
explanations.
5.1. The orbit of the earth
As to the revolution of the earth, the following points have to be taken into account:

1. The orbit of the earth has to be elliptical and the sun should be in a focus of the
ellipse.

2. The speed of the earth in its revolution is higher at the perihelion than at the
aphelion.

Because of the first feature, the earth cannot be fixed to an arm as it is mostly seen in
other models.
A simple solution for this problem is to run a vertical axis (which represents the earth)
in an elliptic orbit by two elliptical hollow tracks in parallel planes.
This axis is pushed by a horizontal stick but it is not fixed to it. Thus, the distance
between the axis and the rotary centre of the pushing stick can vary. If this stick turns
regularly, the speed of the axis in the hollow tracks is not constant; when the distance
between the rotary centre and the axis increases, the axis will be pushed at a higher speed.
These considerations serve to find a solution for the second point. We need a higher
speed at the perihelion than at the aphelion. Therefore, the rotary centre of the pushing
stick has to be placed further away from the perihelion than from the aphelion (see
Fig. 13).

Fig. 13. The pushing stick in four positions.

5.2. The rotation of the earth

The drive of the rotation of the earth has to be fixed since it will be connected to
the revolution drive. On the other hand, the earth (or rather the vertical axis) revolves
around the sun. So there has to be a flexible connection between the rotation drive and
THE EQUATION OF TIME — A PROBLEM IN ASTRONOMY 17

the axis in the hollow tracks. In our model, we use a chain for this purpose. In order to
use the chain always to its entire length we can take advantage of a special feature of the
ellipse.
The sum of the distances between the foci and any point on the periphery of the ellipse
is constant throughout. If we lead the chain around the foci to the axis in the hollow
tracks the chain will always be tight (see Fig. 14).

Fig. 14. The leading of the chain.

For the chain of the rotation drive, we have to put one axis into each focus. It will
make drive only one of these two axes. Now we have to decide where to place the rotary
centre of the revolution drive. In Fig. 14 you can see that it is only possible to place it into
the hatched area because otherwise it would interfere with the chain of the rotation drive.
Let us put the rotary axis at the most ideal place, that is the focus near the aphelion.
There, it also serves as an axis for a sprocket wheel of the chain. The revolution drive
being placed in this focus, the rotation drive has to be located in the other focus. (The
sprocket wheel at the focus of the revolution drive must not be fixed to the axis because
their rotary speeds are not equal.)
Both drives are connected with a transmission that realizes a ratio of approximately
1:300.
5.3. The tilt of the axis of the earth
With a universal joint, we fix a second, tilted axis to the vertical axis that revolves
around the sun. The inclined axis is held in its correct position (with a tilt of about 23.5◦ )
by a prop, which still allows the earth to rotate (see Fig. 15).

Fig. 15. Fixing of the axis of the earth in a position of a tilt of about 23.5◦ .
18 M. Müller

Fig. 16. Device for the right position of the axis of the earth.

The axis of the earth is fixed now with a tilt of about 23.5◦ , but it is able to swivel
round. Figure 16 illustrates how the prop can be controlled during a revolution so that
the special direction of the axis of the earth is always the same.
Figure 17 shows the entire model.

Fig. 17. The entire model.

References
[1] W. Schaub, Vorlesungen über sphärische Astronomie, Akademischer Verlag Geest
und Portig, 1950
[2] R. Sauermost, Lexikon der Astronomie: Die grosse Enzyklopädie der Weltraum-
forschung in zwei Bänden, Herder Verlag, Freiburg im Breisgau 1989/90
[3] Brockhaus Enzyklopädie in zwanzig Bänden, F.A. Brockhaus, Wiesbaden 1968