BIOLOGY STUDENTS’ COMPANION RESOURCES SB015

BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 9.0 : REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT
SUBTOPIC : 9.1: Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) State and define the terminologies involved in gamete formation in flowering plants.
b) Explain the development of a pollen grain and formation of male gamete
c) Explain the development of ovule, embryo sac and formation of female gamete
d) Explain double fertilization in the formation of seed

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
i) Male gamete:
a)
Terminologies ✔ microsporangium / pollen sac:
involved in - A reproductive structure in heterosporous plants that
gamete
produces microspores
formation in
flowering plants ✔ microsporocyte / microspore mother cell:
- A diploid cell in plants that divides by meiosis to give
rise to four haploid microspores.
✔ microspore:
- A haploid spore in heterosporous plants that develops
into male gametophyte
✔ tetrad:
- A group of four haploid cells form at the end of the
second division of meiosis
✔ pollen grain / male gametophyte:
- sperm producing structure
✔ generative cell, tube cell:
- generative cell divides by mitosis to form two haploid
sperm nuclei / male gametes.
- tube cell control the growth of the pollen tube to the
ovule.
ii) Female gamete:

✔ megasporangium:
- A structure in heterosporous plants that produces
megaspores.
✔ megasporocyte / megaspore mother cell:
- Cell within megasporangium that undergoes meiosis to
produce 4 haploid megaspores.
✔ megaspore:
- A spore from a heterosporous plant that develops into a
female gametophyte.
✔ female gametophyte / embryo sac:
BIOLOGY STUDENTS’ COMPANION RESOURCES SB015
- Multicellular female gametophyte in the ovule of
flowering plants consisting of eight haploid nuclei
which are antipodal cells, polar nuclei, egg cell and
synergid cells.
✔ antipodal cell:
- The three haploid cells in the mature embryo sac of
flowering plants that are situated at the opposite end of
micropyle.
✔ polar nuclei:
- Two haploid nuclei in the center of the embryo sac of
flowering plants. These nucleus fuse with a male gamete
nucleus to form a triploid endosperm nucleus.
✔ egg cell:
- The mature female reproductive cell in plants that will
form zygote after fertilization.
✔ synergid cell:
- The two nuclei in the embryo sac of flowering plants
that are closely associated with the egg cell.

i. Pollen grain forms in the anther (sporangium)

b) ii. Each anther contains four pollen sacs (microsporangia)
Development of iii. Each pollen sac contains numerous diploid microspore
a pollen grain mother cell (microsporocytes)- 2n
and formation of iv. Microsporocyte undergoes meiosis
male gamete v. produce 4 haploid microspores (tetrad) - n
vi. Each microspore undergoes mitosis producing two cells:
✔ Generative cell
• Will form 2 male gametes or sperms
✔ Tube cell
• Will develop into pollen tube
vii. Microspore develops into immature male gametophyte or
immature pollen grain
vi. Pollen grains:
Extremely small and surrounded by 2-layered wall:
-Exine : Tough outer coat, thick and sculptured
-Intine : Thin and smooth
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i. Ovules (megasporangia) attach to ovary wall via funicle.

c) ii. Each ovule contains a single diploid megaspore mother cell
Development of (megasporocyte)
the ovule, iii. A diploid megaspore mother cell (megasporocyte) divide
embryo sac and by meiosis
the formation of – Producing four haploid megaspores
the female iv. Three of the megaspores (n) degenerate
gamete
– Only 1 surviving megaspore will develop into
embryo sac
v. Megaspore divides mitotically 3 times without cytokinesis
– Producing an embryo sac with 8 nuclei
– 4 nuclei located at chalaza end
– Another 4 nuclei located at the micropyle end
vi. 1 nucleus from each end moves to the middle of the
embryo sac
vii. Both nuclei combine to form single diploid nucleus (2n)
– Polar nuclei
viii. 6 nuclei remain at both ends of the embryo sac
ix. 3 nuclei at micropyle end:
i. 1 nucleus will become egg cell
ii. 2 remaining nuclei become synergids cell that
flank the egg cell
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x. 3 nuclei at chalaza end become antipodal cells
xi. Cytoplasmic division separates the nuclei into 7 cells

Double Fertilization:
(d) -The Union of two sperm cells with different nuclei of the female
Double gametophyte.
fertilization in
the formation of i. Pollen grain landed on stigma
seed ii. At the time of pollination, the pollen grain typically
consists of only tube cell and generative cell.
iii. It then absorbs water and germinates by producing a
pollen tube (a long cellular protuberance that delivers
sperm to the female gametophyte).
iv. The nucleus of generative cell divides by mitosis and forms
2 male gametes/sperms
v. The tip of the pollen tube grows towards the micropyle
vi. In response to chemical attractants produced by the
synergids.
vii. Pollen tube enters the embryo sac through the micropyle.
viii. Tube nucleus degenerates and tip of the tube burst
ix. Releasing male gametes into embryo sac
x. 1 sperm(n) fertilizes the egg(n) to form zygotes (2n)
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xi. Another sperm(n) combines with the polar nuclei(2n)
forming a triploid endosperm nuclei (3n)
After fertilization:
i. Primary endosperm nucleus (3n) undergoes mitosis
repeatedly
ii. Forming multinucleated mass
iii. Becomes multicellular after membrane formed
between the nuclei due to cytokinesis
- Function: supply nutrients to the developing embryo
iv. The fertilized egg develops into embryo through
several stages

Double Fertilization
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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 9 : REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT

SUBTOPIC : 9.2 Human Reproductive System : Male

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Overview male reproductive organ (testes) and the structure of spermatozoa
b) Explain the structure of spermatozoa.
c) Explain the role of hormones in spermatogenesis.
d) Explain the stages in spermatogenesis and its hormonal control.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
i. Human reproductive system consists of:
a) Male A pair of primary reproductive organs, or gonads.
reproductive ✓ Male gonad : testis produces sperm
organ (testes) ✓ Female gonad: ovary produces ovum
and the
structure of Male Reproductive Organ: Testes (singular: testis) or male gonads consist
spermatozoa of many highly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubule (site of sperms
production).
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

b) Structure of
spermatozoa

Structure Characteristics
of sperm

Head • Composed of a haploid nucleus and contain

compacted chromatin consisting of 23
chromosomes.

Acrosome • Located at the tip of head

• Consist of special vesicle that contain
hyaluronidase enzyme that help the sperm
penetrate an egg.

Neck • Short and have one pair of centriole

Midpiece • Contains a central, filamentous core and

many mitochondria organized in a spiral.
• Mitochondria provide ATP for the lashing
movement of the tail

Tail • The sperm flagellum and move the sperm to

the ovum for about 1- 4mm/minute.
• Contain 9+2 arrangement of microtubules
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

c) Role of
hormones in Hormone Function
spermatogenesis
Gonadotropin-Releasing • Stimulate anterior
Hormone (GnRH) pituitary gland to secrete
Follicle – Stimulating
Hormones (FSH) and
Luteinizing Hormone
(LH)

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) • Stimulates Leydig cells to

secrete testosterone

Follicle-Stimulating • Promotes
Hormone (FSH) spermatogenesis by
stimulating Sertoli cells
to synthesize Androgen
Binding Protein (ABP)
• Stimulate Sertoli cells to
secrete inhibin

Testosterone • Stimulates Primary Sex

Characteristics :
– Growth of
reproductive organs
– Spermatogenesis

• Stimulates Secondary
Sex Characteristics :
– Growth of facial and
body hair
– Muscle development
– Voice deepening

Inhibin • Reduce / inhibit FSH

secretion

i. Hormonal control of spermatogenesis involves negative feedback

mechanism.
ii. At puberty, hypothalamus begins to secrete Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone (GnRH)
iii. GnRH stimulates anterior pituitary gland to secrete FSH and LH.

• LH
– Stimulates Leydig cells to secrete testosterone - which then
enters the seminiferous tubule
– Secrete small quantities of many other hormones and local
regulators including oxytocin, renin and angiotensin,
corticotropin – releasing factor, growth factors and
prostaglandins.
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
– These signals coordinate the activity of reproduction with
growth, metabolism, homeostasis and behavior.

• FSH
– Stimulates Sertoli cells to synthesize Androgen Binding
Protein (ABP)
– ABP binds to testosterone and promotes spermatogenesis

iv. Two negative – feedback mechanisms control sex hormone in males:

• Testosterone
– Regulates blood levels on GnRH, FSH and LH through
inhibitory effects on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
gland.
– Inhibits LH secretion (-ve feedback)
– Acts on the hypothalamus
• inhibit secretion of GnRH and LH
– Acts directly on the anterior pituitary gland
• Inhibit secretion of LH
• Inhibin
– a hormone produced by Sertoli cells,
– acts on the anterior pituitary gland to
• reduce FSH secretion
BIOLOGY STUDENTS’ COMPANION RESOURCES SB015
MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
d) Stages in Spermatogenesis begins during puberty
spermatogenesis • Occurs in the seminiferous tubule of testes
and its • Takes approximately 74 days
hormonal i. Begins with the differentiation of primordial germ cells(2n) into
control. spermatogonia(2n) (“sperm seed”) in embryonic testes
ii. Spermatogonia are located near the outer wall of the seminiferous
tubules
iii. During puberty
✓ Each mitotic division of spermatogonium give rise to 2
daughter cells
• Type A
• Type B
✓ Type A , spermatogonia remains at the basement membrane
to maintain the germ cell line
✓ Type B spermatogonium pushed towards the lumen and
differentiate into primary spermatocyte (2n)
iv. Each primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I to produce 2 haploid
secondary spermatocytes.
v. Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis II to form 2
spermatids (n).
vi. Thus, each primary spermatocyte forms four spermatids through
meiotic division
vii. Spermatids are rounded cells
– Non-motile
– Undergoes a process known as spermiogenesis
– the maturation of spermatids into mature, motile spermatozoa
• Elongates
• discards excess cytoplasmic to become lighter
• developing tail
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

Spermiogenesis
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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 9 : REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT
SUBTOPIC : 9.2. Human Reproductive System - Female
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
e) Overview female reproductive organ (ovary) and the structure of secondary oocyte.
f) Explain the structure of the secondary oocyte.
g) Explain the role of hormones in female reproductive cycle.
h) Explain the stages in oogenesis.
i) Explain female reproductive cycle and its hormonal control:
i. Ovarian cycle
ii. Uterine/menstrual cycle

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
• The female gonads are a pair of ovaries that flank the uterus.
e) • The outer layer of each ovary is packed with follicles,
Female • each consisting of an oocyte, a partially developed egg, surrounded by a
reproductive group of support cells.
organ (ovary) • The surrounding cells nourish and protect the oocyte during much of the
and the formation and development of an egg.
structure of • During a typical 4 - week menstrual cycle, one primary follicle containing
secondary a primary oocyte develops and matures releasing secondary oocyte in a
oocyte process called ovulation.
• After ovulation, the residual follicular tissue grows within the ovary
forming a mass called the corpus luteum (“yellow body”)
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
• Secondary oocyte consists of :

f) Structure of
secondary
oocyte

✓ Granulosa cells :
- Are secretory cells in Graafian follicle surrounds the oocyte
forming corona radiata.
- Supply nutrients to the developing oocyte.
✓ Zona pellucida:
- A layer of glycoprotein that surrounds the plasma membrane
of a mammalian egg cell.
- It’s develop as a jelly coat.
✓ First polar body:
- One small cell that is produced during the
development of an oocyte (in the first of meiotic division)
and finally degenerates

Hormones involved:

Hormone Secreted by Function

Gonadotropin- Hypothalamus Stimulates anterior

g) Releasing pituitary gland to
Role of Hormone (GnRH) secrete FSH and LH
hormones in
female Stimulates follicle
reproductive Follicle- development
cycle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH)

- Assist FSH in
Luteinizing stimulating the
Hormone (LH) Anterior pituitary follicles.
gland - Stimulates
ovulation.
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
- Stimulates the
development of
corpus luteum.
Estrogen Ovaries Repairing and
(developing thickening the
follicles) and endometrium wall
Corpus luteum

Progesterone Corpus luteum Thicken and

maintain the
thickening of
endometrium wall
/ double thickening
of endometrium wall

• The development of mature oocytes in the ovaries starts during

embryonic development
h)
• Primordial germ cells differentiate into oogonium
Stages in
oogenesis • Oogonium undergoes mitosis
• Producing lots of oogonia
• or differentiates to form primary oocyte (2n)
• Oogonia increase in size and become primary oocytes
• Each primary oocyte starts meiosis but stop at Prophase I
• Enter resting phase until puberty
• During puberty
– Primary oocytes (2n) complete Meiosis I
- Secondary oocyte proceeds with Meiosis II but remains in
metaphase II until fertilized
- If fertilization occurs, secondary oocyte become ovum.

OOGENESIS
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

• Ovarian Cycle:
i) - Follicular phase : Day 1 – Day 13
Female - Ovulation : Day 14
reproductive - Luteal phase : Day 15-28
cycles and its • Menstrual/Uterine Cycle:
hormonal - Menstruation / Menstrual flow phase : Day 1 – Day 5
control - Proliferative phase : Day 6 – Day 14
- Secretory phase : Day 15 – Day 28

• Regulated by positive-negative feedback mechanism

• Ovarian cycle hormones controls the uterine cycle endometrial growth
and loss
• The first day of menstruation is designated day 1 of the new uterine
and ovarian cycle.
• By linking the ovarian and uterine cycles, hormone activity
synchronizes ovulation with the establishment of uterine lining that can
support embryo implantation and development.
• Follicular phase correspond with menstrual flow phase and
proliferative phase
• Luteal phase correspond with secretory phase

i. Ovarian Ovarian Cycle

Cycle
Follicular phase (Day 1-13)

• The follicular phase begins at puberty

• When the hypothalamus gland release or secrete Gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH)
• GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete (Follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• FSH stimulates the development of primary follicle to become
secondary follicle/ mature follicle
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
• The developing / growing follicles secretes estrogen
• There is a slow rise of estrogen secreted during the follicular phase
• The low level of estrogen at early stage causes negative feedback to the
hypothalamus to keep the level of FSH and LH low
• in order to prevent the development of other follicles
• Secretion of estrogen by the growing follicle increases as the follicle
grows bigger
• In the later part of the phase, high level of estrogen exerts a positive
feedback on hypothalamus gland to secrete GnRH
• GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete high level of FSH
and LH
• High surge of LH matures the follicle to become Graafian follicle and
primary oocyte completes Meiosis 1 to become secondary oocyte and
first polar body
• LH stimulates ovulation by maturing the developing / secondary follicle

Day 14 (Ovulation)

• Graafian follicle ruptures / bursts

• Ovulation occurs, secondary oocyte is released
• The remaining follicle tissue is known as corpus luteum

Luteal phase (Day 15-28)

• LH stimulates the formation, development and maintain the corpus

luteum.
• Under continued influence of LH, the corpus luteum secretes estrogen
and progesterone
• As levels of progesterone and estrogen rise, they exert negative
feedback to the hypothalamus gland and anterior pituitary
• so less GnRH is secreted and inhibiting the secretion of FSH and LH
• in order to prevent maturation of another egg when a pregnancy may be
underway
• without the maintenance of LH or if fertilization does not occur, corpus
luteum begins to degenerate / disintegrate
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
• causing the concentration of estrogen and progesterone to decline,
endometrium lining collapsed, shed and menstruation begins
• Low concentration of estrogen and progesterone will cause the
hypothalamus to be free from the negative feedback effect
• The hypothalamus gland begins to secrete GnRH that stimulates the
anterior pituitary gland to secrete FSH and LH in order to stimulate the
growth of new follicles in the ovary and a new ovarian cycle begins.

ii. Uterine /
Menstrual
Cycle
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

Uterine / Menstrual Cycle

• The menstrual cycle begins at puberty

Menstruation / Menstrual flow phase (Day 1-5)

• High level of progesterone and estrogen rise exert negative feedback to

the hypothalamus gland
• so less GnRH is secreted and inhibiting the secretion of FSH and LH
• without the maintenance of LH or if fertilization does not occur, corpus
luteum begins to degenerate / disintegrate
• causing the concentration of estrogen and progesterone to decline
• The drop in the ovarian hormone levels causes arteries in the
endometrium to constrict
• Deprived of its circulation. endometrium lining collapsed, disintegrate,
shed and menstruation begins
• Low concentration of estrogen and progesterone will cause the
hypothalamus to be free from the negative feedback effect
• FSH and LH secretion is no longer inhibited thus allowing another
menstrual cycle to begin
• Continued with Proliferative Phase

Proliferative Phase (Day 6 – 14)

• Low level of estrogen and progesterone after the corpus luteum

disintegrates causes the hypothalamus gland to be released from
negative feedback and stimulates it to release or secrete Gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH)
• GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete (Follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• FSH stimulates the development of primary follicle to become
secondary follicle/ mature follicle
• LH indirectly stimulates estrogen production by the developing follicle
• The developing / growing follicles secretes estrogen
• During proliferative phase estrogen repairs or thickens the endometrium
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
• The endometrium is supplied with a network of blood vessels
• Secretion of estrogen by the growing follicle increases as the follicle
grows bigger
• In the later part of the phase, high level of estrogen exerts a positive
feedback on hypothalamus gland and anterior pituitary gland GnRH
• Hypothalamus secrete GnRH that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland
to secrete high level of FSH and LH
• High surge of LH matures the follicle to become Graafian follicle and
primary oocyte completes Meiosis 1 to become secondary oocyte and
first polar body

Secretory phase (Day 15-28)

• Graafian follicle ruptures / bursts, ovulation occurs and secondary

oocyte (n) is released
• LH stimulates the formation, development and maintain the corpus
luteum.
• During secretory phase the corpus luteum secretes estrogen and
progesterone
• Progesterone continues development and maintenance of the
endometrium wall
• The arteries enlarged, endometrial gland grows and the endometrium
wall thickens as preparation for implantation of zygote
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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 9 : REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT

SUBTOPIC 9.3 : Fertilization and Foetal Development

LEARNING OUTCOMES.
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
a) Explain the stages that lead to fertilization.
b) Define embryogenesis.
c) State developmental stages from zygote to the formation of morula, blastocyst and gastrula through
cleavage.
d) Define organogenesis.
e) State the organ formed from each germ layers during organogenesis
MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
➢ Fusion of sperm and ovum
a) Stages that • Occurs in the Fallopian tube
lead to • Sperms can live up to 72 hours
fertilization • Secondary oocytes will live up to 24 hours after ovulation
• Occurs in 4 stages:
i. Capacitation
ii. Acrosomal reaction
iii. Fusion of sperm head membrane and oocyte
iv. Cortical reaction

Capacitation : sperm activating process.

• Occurs during the first 6 hours after sperms enter the female reproductive
tract.
• Several changes in the outer surface of the sperm occur:
✓ Removal of glycoprotein layer,
✓ Removal of cholesterol,
✓ Removal of plasma protein
• Effects of capacitation:
✓ Increase sperm motility
✓ Removal of glycoprotein allows sperm-egg binding
✓ Lost of cholesterol increase membrane fluidity
• Easier to release hydrolytic enzymes
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

Acrosomal Reaction

• Before sperm reaches the secondary oocyte,

– It moves through the layers of granulosa cells (corona radiata) by
lashing their tails and reach zona pellucida
• Sperm heads bind to the receptors on zona pellucida
– triggers the acrosome to burst, releasing hydrolytic enzyme named
hyaluronidase enzyme
• hyaluronidase digest a path through zona pellucida to the surface of
secondary oocyte.

acrosomal vesicle hydrolytic enzyme

Fusion of Sperm Head Membrane and Oocyte

• Membrane proteins of the sperm bind to receptors on the secondary oocyte
membrane
• The two membrane fuse
– Releasing the sperm’s nucleus and centrosome into the cytoplasm
▪ Centrosome organizes microtubules array
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Cortical Reaction
• Immediately after sperm penetration,
– Lysosome near the secondary oocytes membrane known as cortical
granules release enzymes into zona pellucida via exocytosis
▪ Destroy the sperm receptor
• These enzyme will thicken and harden the zona pellucida forming
fertilization envelope
• The entry of sperm triggers the completion of meiosis II of secondary
oocyte to become ovum
• At this stage, the nuclei of the sperm and ovum is known as pronuclei
• Fusion of male pronuclei and female pronuclei produce a diploid zygote.

b) • Definition: Process of formation and development of embryo until birth

Embryogenesis • Occurs during pregnancy in humans
– The condition of carrying one or more developing embryos in the
uterus.
– Starts with conception and ends with birth
– Averages 266 days (38 weeks) from conception
• Pregnancy is divided into 3 trimester
– Each of about 3 months duration
• Embryonic development involves three stages:
a) Cleavage
b) Gastrulation
c) Organogenesis
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

c)
Developmental
stages from
zygote to the
formation of
morula,
blastocyst and
gastrula
through
cleavage

Cleavage
• Shortly after fertilization,
– Zygote undergoes cleavage
– First cleavage occurs within 24 hours after fertilization
• Number of cells increase but the embryo doesn’t increase in size
• Mitosis continues forming a blastocyst
– A hollow ball of cells with fluid-filled cavity called blastocoel
– Outer layer of the blastocyst - trophoblast
– Cells differentiate at one point forming the inner cell mass
• Zona pellucida disintegrate
– Blastocyst enlarges
• Implantation
– Occurs around 7 days after fertilization
• Trophoblast secretes enzymes
– Break down molecules of the endometrium
– Extends finger-like projections into the surrounding maternal
tissue called chorionic villi to anchor to the endometrium and
absorb nutrient
• The endometrium is in secretory phase
• Blastocyst receives nourishment from the endometrial glands for
about 2-4 weeks
• Then taken over by placenta
• Inner cell mass forms 2 layers of cells
– Hypoblast
– Epiblast
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

Gastrulation
• Formation of gastrula (a three germ-layered embryo) from blastocyst
• Occurs after 15 days of fertilization
• Cells of the inner cell mass are rearranged to form 3 primary germ
layers:
a) Ectoderm
b) Mesoderm
c) Endoderm
• Trophoblast, the outer layer of blastocyst develops into four
extraembryonic membranes that surround the gastrula
• The extraembryonic membranes provide protection and nutrition to the
embryo

Organogenesis
• The process of organ formation from the three embryonic germ layers.
• Begins with the development of the nervous system by neurulation.
 Neurulation
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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
 The process by which neural plate develops into neural tube.
 Neural tube will develop into brain and spinal cord..

d)
Organogenesis

• The three germ layers will differentiate and develop into different organs
– Ectoderm
• Skin, nervous system, sensory organs
– Mesoderm
• Skeletal system, muscular system, circulatory system,
excretory system digestive system, reproductive system
– Endoderm
• Lining of digestive and respiratory tracts, urinary bladder

e) Organs
formed from
each germ
layers during
organogenesis
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BIOLOGY SCORE
CHAPTER 9 : REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT

SUBTOPIC : 9.4. Roles of hormones during pregnancy and parturition

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
a) Explain the roles of hormones during pregnancy:
i. Progesterone
ii. Estrogen
iii. human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
b) Explain the roles of hormones during parturition/birth process;
i. Progesterone
ii. Estrogen
iii. Oxytocin
iv. Prostaglandin

MAIN
IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY
POINT

Period of pregnancy or gestation

a)
Roles of
hormones
during
pregnancy
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Hormone Secreted by Function

Progesterone ✓ Corpus • Inhibits myometrium

luteum from contraction
conception
until first • Stimulates uterus
trimester enlargement
✓ Placenta from • Stimulates the growth of the
second mammary glands and breast
trimester enlargement
onwards • Inhibits LH and FSH
• Inhibits prolactin release

• Maintain the pregnancy

Estrogen ✓ Follicle cells :

follicle
development ● Stimulates the development
of the uterine wall
before
● Growth of mammary glands
fertilization
● Inhibits LH and FSH
✓ Corpus luteum : ● Inhibits prolactin release
from ● Increase sensitivity of
conception until myometrium to oxytocin
1st trimester
✓ Placenta : from
2nd trimester
onwards

Human ✓ Trophoblast / • Stimulates the corpus luteum

Chorionic chorion / to maintain the secretion of
Gonadotropin embryo estrogen and progesterone up
(hCG) to three month pregnancy.
• Produced in large quantities
▪ Some secreted in urine
▪ Detected during pregnancy
test
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• Parturition or birth is brought about by a series of strong rhythmic uterine
contractions
(b) • Involves positive feedback mechanism
Roles of • Occurs in 3 stages:
– Cervix dilation
hormones
– Expulsion : baby delivery
in – Placental delivery
parturition/
birth
process • Hormones involved:
Hormone Secreted by Function

Progesterone Placenta Level drops off at the

end of pregnancy
stimulates the
beginning of
contraction that will
lead to birth
Estrogen Placenta Triggers the formation
of oxytocin receptors on
the myometrium

Oxytocin Fetus and mother’s  Stimulates

posterior pituitary gland powerful
contractions by
the smooth
muscle of the
uterus.

 Stimulates the
placenta to
secrete
prostaglandin

Prostaglandin Placenta Enhance contractions of

smooth muscle of the
uterus


• Prostaglandin
– Regulatory molecules derived from modified fatty acids
– Plays a role in smooth muscle contraction

• During the last weeks of pregnancy,

– Estrogen concentration increase
BIOLOGY STUDENTS’ COMPANION RESOURCES SB015
– Triggers the formation of oxytocin receptors on the myometrium
• More sensitive to oxytocin
• During parturition, the physical and emotional stresses caused by the
uterine muscle contractions, stimulate MORE secretion of additional
oxytocin and prostaglandin (POSITIVE FEEDBACK) which in turn
stimulates further contraction.
BIOLOGY STUDENTS’ COMPANION RESOURCES SB015