AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL.

39(1) 2006

REHABILITATION OF PROBLEM SOILS THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL

FRIENDLY TECHNOLOGIES - II: ROLE OF SESBANIA (SESBANIA ACULEATA)
AND GYPSUM

MIRZA B. BAIG, M. SHARIF ZIA

Abstract

The effect of sesbania green manure and gypsum application (0, 50, 75 and 100 percent of gypsum requirement) on
rice was investigated in a field study on a sodic soil at the Saline Agriculture Research Station, Sadhuke, Lahore,
Pakistan. Sesbania was grown for two months and then incorporated into the soil as green manure. Gypsum was
applied before the sowing of sesbania. Basmati 385 was used as the test variety of rice.
Sesbania green manuring significantly increased the number of productive rice tillers. Although paddy and straw
yields were also increased (13.1 and 14.2 percent respectively), the differences were statistically not significant.
Productive tillers, paddy and straw yield were significantly increased by gypsum application. Differences in paddy
yield due to 75 and 100 percent gypsum application rate were not significant indicating that gypsum applied at low
rates was just as effective as high rates. Green manuring significantly increased N utilization by both grain and
straw but did not impact P uptake. The application of gypsum significantly increased the N and P uptake; the
differences between 100 and 75 percent gypsum requirement (GR) treatments were not significant, but were
significantly higher than the 50 percent gypsum requirement (GR) rate.

Key words: Reclamation, Environmental friendly, Agroforestry, Gypsum and Salinity, Sesbania
aculeata

INTRODUCTION Although many sodic and saline-sodic soils of Pakistan

contain lime (CaCO3) at varying depths (Choudhry,
To meet the food, fiber and fuel demands of a growing 1972), this source of calcium generally remains
population, tremendous pressure is being put on the ineffective in soil exchange reactions with Na +1 due to
presently available land resources. Of the world's its negligible solubility. Chemical amendments can
cultivated lands, more than 7 percent (1.5 x 109ha) are attack the problem in two ways. First, gypsum or
sufficiently affected by salts to reduce the agronomic calcium chloride applications supply soluble calcium
potential of these areas (Mudie, 1974). Considerable directly (Oster, 1982; Frenkel et al., 1989; Ghafoor et
progress has been made in the past few decades in al., 1990; Arora and Singh, 1981). Second, the native
reclamation of some of these soils. Unfortunately, about insoluble calcium can be solubilized by addition of
3 percent of the world's land surface (2.3 x 108 ha) is calcium, sulfuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid (Ghafoor
dominantly saline, saline-sodic, or sodic soils (Dudal and Mohammed, 1981; Ahmad et al., 1986), sulphur
and Purnell, 1986). In Pakistan, land degradation (Chaudhry et al., 1982), or iron and aluminum sulphates
resulting from soil salinity, sodicity or a combination of (Chand et al., 1977). Application of these amendments
both is a major impediment to economic utilization of followed by leaching can ameliorate saline-sodic soils.
land resources under arid and semiarid climatic However, the initial cost of these amendments restricts
conditions (Ahmad et al., 1990). There are several their potential use, especially by farmers with limited
practical methods for reclaiming these salt-affected funds (Ahmad et al., 1990; Bajwa et al., 1991).
soils. However, the usefulness of each method depends The application of gypsum will increase soil porosity
on several considerations. and reduce surface crusting (Chartres et al., 1985;
Saline soils are usually reclaimed by ponding water on Greene et al., 1988; Southard et al., 1988). Gypsum can
the soil and removing the leached salts to a sink also increase soil permeability (Chartres et al., 1985;
(drainage or groundwater). But reclaiming saline-sodic Hussain et al., 1988; Frenkel et al., 1989) and improve
soils requires removal of sodium (Na +1) from the soil's the chemical properties of saline-sodic soils (Bajwa and
cation exchange sites, usually by treatment with calcium Josan, 1989; Carter and Pearson, 1989). However, most
(Ca 2+), and leaching of the replaced Na+1 out of the root of these effects are limited to shallow depths.
zone by percolation (Ghafoor, 1984; Ahmad et al., The cation exchange between Ca and exchangeable Na+
1990). Because of its low cost, general availability, and can take place only in solution. In fine-textured soils,
rich supply of Ca 2+, gypsum is the most extensively the slow infiltration and flow of water in the soil slows
used agent in reclamation of saline-sodic soils (Oster, the exchange process. Mixing of gypsum throughout the
1982; Ghafoor, 1984; Bajwa and Josan, 1989). soil layer speeds the exchange process (Oster, 1982;

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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 39(1) 2006

Frenkel et al., 1989). If the soil profile permeability is changes occur during the release of organic carbon and
low or a water-restricting layer exists, mixing of exudates (Dormaar, 1988; Treeby et al., 1989). Changes
gypsum will not be effective unless sodium is removed in soil pH (Liu et al., 1989; Youssef and Chino, 1989),
laterally. the addition of organic matter and nutrients (Lal et al.,
To monitor leaching effectiveness during the 1979; Yamoah et al., 1986), and the increased
reclamation process, soil samples can be taken dissolution of lime in presence of CO 2 evolved from
periodically and analyzed. Also, salt-sensors can be decomposition of organic matter and plant root
used to monitor salt movements in the profile (Hoffman, respiration (Gupta and Karan, 1985; Gupta et al., 1988)
1981), but are not useful in describing soil chemical are additional soil alterations.
properties, such as sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and Only a limited amount of work demonstrates that crops
pH. Many previous studies involved with reclamation of can change the chemical properties of saline-sodic soils
saline-sodic soils have been done in laboratories with during reclamation. The effects of chemical
closely defined physio-chemical properties, mostly of amendments like gypsum and the deep-rooted crops like
the surface soil layer. Only limited field data are sesbania alone or in combination for reclamation of
available on downward removal of excess sodium. This saline-sodic soils have not been widely studied,
latter aspect is addressed in the current field study. particularly in Pakistan. The present study focuses on an
Water flow in soils occurs mostly in macro pores that effort to rehabilitate salt- affected soils through
are > 1 mm in diameter (Bouma et al., 1977; Germann biological and chemical means, and to devise an
and Beven, 1981; Meek et al., 1989). Fine-textured soils appropriate and economical technology for increasing
have more total pore space but have fewer macro pores yields from these problem lands.
than do coarse-textured soils. The salts held in micro In this experiment, the cumulative effects of gypsum
pores remain largely immobile under steady-state application and sesbania green manure on rice
conditions, because micro pores take little part in water production on a saline-sodic soil under a rice-wheat
flow (Gish and Jury, 1983). One economical way to rotation were investigated.
increase the proportion of macro pores in the soil profile
is through growing of deep-rooted crops, such as alfalfa MATERIALS AND METHOHDS
(Medicago sativa) and bahiagrass (Pospalum notatum)
(Charles and Sickle, 1984; Angers and Mehuys, 1988; The Study Site
Meek et al., 1990). Unfortunately, alfalfa does not have The study was conducted on the Saline Agriculture
high tolerance of salts (Ilyas, 1990). Among the salt- Research Station, Sadhuke, Punjab, Pakistan, located 30
tolerant plants, sesbania (Sesbania aculeata) can kilometers north of Lahore. The arid and continental
successfully colonize problem soils. Sesbania is climates are characterized by hot and dry summers,
considered an integral component of agro forestry maximum temperature 41oC, and cold winters with
systems and is an effective element in reclamation temperatures dropping to 12.2oC. The mean annual
strategies if used as green manure (Evans and Rotar, rainfall ranges between 325 and 755 mm, of which 75
1987; Ahmed, 1991; Baig et al. 2005 a; Baig et al. 2005 percent is received during the monsoon months (July -
b). September). The rainfall is less than potential
Plants can also change the chemical properties of saline- evapotranspiration (Map 1).
sodic soils (Ahmad et al., 1990; Ahmed, 1991). These

Map1.1.: : Major rice production zones of Pakistan

Map.

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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 39(1) 2006

Chemical Composition of the Experimental Soil Statistical Analysis

The soils of the experimental site belong to the major Data were analyzed statistically by using analysis of
group of alluvium of the Indus Plain, characterized as variance (ANOVA) based on completely randomized
fine loamy, mixed, thermic, Typic Natrustalf. Soil block (CRB) design. Treatment differences were
characterization was done before the start of the determined using Duncan's Multiple Range Test
experiment. Results of a chemical analysis of soils from (DMRT) (Duncan, 1955). The SAS program (SAS
the experimental site are shown in Table 1. The soil is Institute, 1985) was used to analyze the data and to
alkaline, calcareous and saline-sodic in nature. It is compare means at 0.05 alpha level.
extremely deficient in nitrogen and organic matter.
Potassium and micronutrients are sufficiently present in RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
the soil.
Effect of Sesbania and Gypsum on Rice Yield
Experimental Design and Treatments Sesbania green manuring significantly increased the
paddy and straw yields by 13.1 and 14.2 percent,
The study was organized in a completely randomized respectively (Table 2). Sesbania green manuring also
block design using three replications of the following significantly increased the number of productive tillers.
treatments: Dargan et al. (1975) in an alkali (sodic) field experiment
T1 No green manure & no gypsum application (control). with sesbania found that with no addition of fertilizer N,
T2 No green manure + gypsum application @ 50 % of incorporation of a 65-days-old sesbania crop as green
gypsum requirement (GR). manure increased yields of rice from 2.64 t/ha to 5.64
T3 No green manure + gypsum application @ 75 % of GR. t/ha. Similarly, Khind et al., (1987) reported that
T4 No green manure + gypsum application @ 100% of GR. sesbania helped in reclamation of sodic soil by lowering
T5 Green manuring with sesbania & no gypsum application.
T6 Green manuring with sesbania + gypsum application @
the adverse effects of Na, which helped improve soil
50 % of GR. physical conditions leading to better crop productivity.
T7 Green manuring with sesbania + gypsum application @ Unlike chemical fertilizers, there is also a relatively
75 % of GR. prolonged (one to three weeks) availability of N from
T8 Green manuring with sesbania + gypsum application @ sesbania to crops (Bhardwaj and Dev, 1985). These
100 % of GR. factors may have caused increased yields in this study.
Sesbania was grown for two months and then Gypsum application significantly increased productive
incorporated as green manure into the soil with a tillers, straw and paddy yields (Table 2). However, the
rotavator. The gypsum requirement (GR) was differences in paddy and straw yield between treatments
determined by Schoonover's method described by U. of 100 and 75 percent of gypsum requirement were not
S. Salinity Lab (1954) in Hand Book 60. significant. Ahmad et al. (1990) evaluated sesbania,
Calcium+Magnesium were determined by titration with gypsum and other reclaments on a saline-sodic field.
standard versinate solution and Na +1 flame They reported that sesbania and gypsum produced grain
photometrically, to calculate sodium adsorption ratio yields of 3788 kg/ha and 3677 kg/ha, respectively,
(SAR), following the procedures, outlined by U. S. which were higher than other treatments. Puddling and
Salinity Lab. Staff (1954). Agricultural grade gypsum flooding is also known to reduce the harmful effects of
powder (passed through a 70 mesh sieve and having sodicity and lower pH. These existing soil conditions
90% purity) was applied before the sowing of sesbania have probably contributed the beneficial effects of
to ensure better growth of the green manuring crop. gypsum and may have produced the non-significant
Rice (variety Basmati 385) was transplanted after the differences between the gypsum level treatments of 75
incorporation of sesbania and grown to maturity. percent and 100 percent of GR requirement.
Nitrogen and phosphorus were applied at the rates of 80
and 50 kg/ha, respectively. Two thirds of the N and all Effect of Sesbania and Gypsum on Nitrogen
of the P were applied as basal doses before sesbania was Concentration in Rice
planted. The remaining N was applied at panicle A significant effect of green manuring and gypsum
initiation. Data on number of productive tillers, and on application on N concentration in rice grain and straw
paddy and straw yields were recorded at the time of rice was recorded (Table 3). The greatest increases in N
harvesting. Plants were chemically analyzed for N and P concentration, however, were in observed in areas
in the laboratories of the Land Resources Research receiving GM and gypsum at the rate of 100 percent
Institute at National Agricultural Research Center, gypsum requirement. Although Singh et al. (1988)
Islamabad, Pakistan, following procedures described by observed losses of N from sesbania green manure under
Prevel et al. (1987). Nitrogen and phosphorus uptake in flooded and waterlogged conditions and ultimate low N
straw and grain were determined by multiplying the concentrations, similar effects did not occur here.
concentration of the element by its respective yield.

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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 39(1) 2006

Effect of Sesbania and Gypsum on Nitrogen Uptake Differences between the 75 and 100 percent of gypsum
in Rice requirement (GR) treatment were not significant (Table
Nitrogen uptake in grain, straw and grain+straw was 6). In several field studies, gypsum improved the
significantly increased with sesbania green manuring chemical properties of saline-sodic soils by lowering
(Table 4). The process of puddling in transplanted rice exchangeable sodium, reducing electrical conductivity,
probably allows for more and thorough incorporation of and lowering pH of the root zone (Chauhan and
green manure in the soil. The significant increase in N Tripathi, 1983; Hussain et al., 1988; Bajwa and Josan,
uptake in rice could be attributed to continuous, 1989; Carter and Pearson, 1989; Ahmad et al., 1990).
prolonged and greater accumulation of N in the soil. However, the effectiveness of the amendment appears to
Similar results have been reported by Panda et al. be dependent on the amount of gypsum added, and the
(1991) under different climatic and soil conditions. amount and chemical composition of irrigation water
Nitrogen uptake in grain and straw was also applied (Oster, 1982; Hoffman, 1986). Low response
significantly increased with the application of gypsum among the treatments can be attributed to the difference
(Table 4). The highest uptake resulted from the 100 in rates of gypsum applied and the use of brackish
percent GR treatment. However, the differences irrigation water in this study. The data show that
between 50 and 75 percent gypsum requirement (GR) gypsum could not completely offset the deleterious
were greater than differences between 75 and 100 effects of Na when used at 50 percent GR. The findings
percent. It is obvious from the data that application of are in agreement with those of several workers
lower levels of gypsum requirement resulted in much (Ghafoor, 1984; Ghafoor et al., 1990; Ahmad et al.,
less Na replacement from the exchange complex than at 1990).
the higher levels.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Effect of Sesbania and Gypsum on Phosphorus
Concentration in Rice Based on the results obtained in this study the following
There was no significant effect of green manuring on P conclusions are drawn:
concentration in rice grain and straw (Table 5). This 1. The study shows that sesbania green manuring
non-significant effect due to addition of green manuring significantly improves problem soils in Punjab by
may be because alkaline calcareous soils in general ameliorating the physical and chemical properties of
(Chhabra et al., 1981) and rice soils in particular already the soil. These properties also improve N and P
contain high amounts of available P (Zia, 1990). nutrition of the following rice crop.
Phosphorus concentration in rice grain was significantly 2.Sesbania and rice crops help to balance nutrient
enhanced due to gypsum application at the 75 percent supply, protect leaching and act as a buffer against
and 100 percent GR levels (Table 5). There were, salinity/sodicity by lowering pH.
however, no significant differences in P concentration in 3. Maximum increases in paddy (75 percent) and straw
both grain and in straw between control and 50 percent yield (66 percent) were obtained when gypsum was
GR application and between the 75 and 100 GR levels. applied at the 75 and 100 percent GR rate.
Gupta et al. (1988) have shown that level of electrolyte, 4. Gypsum significantly enhanced N and P uptake.
sodium saturation, pH, and the presence of alkalinity However, N and P utilization were significantly lower
causing anionic species together or in combination at the 50 percent GR application compared to higher
enhance release of P from calcareous sodic soils. The rates. Therefore, higher rates of gypsum application
data suggest that non-significant differences among the seem appropriate and are recommended, based on
treatments may result from an increase in soluble P due detailed soil analyses to determine the needed
to flooding. The statistically significant difference amendments.
between control and the highest levels of gypsum 5. To propagate the amendment idea among common
requirement clearly demonstrates the usefulness of farmers, the economic and biologic factors need to be
gypsum in increasing P concentration in rice. analyzed. Farmers with the poor resources would
adopt the practices having less initial cost but more
Effect of Sesbania and Gypsum on Phosphorus net returns in a short rather than long term.
Uptake in Rice 6. The combination of sesbania green manure and
Phosphorus uptake in both rice grain and straw was gypsum at moderate levels physically and chemically
significantly affected by sesbania (Table 6). Meelu et al. improve problem soils, achieve sustainability, and
(1991) reported increased utilization of P from the soil improve optimum net returns in the long run.
supplies by the crop due to sesbania application;
perhaps more utilization from the reserve sources may
be due to sesbania decomposition. Gypsum application
significantly increased the P uptake in grain, straw,
grain+straw at all levels of application. However, the
increase at the 50 percent gypsum requirement (GR)
level was not as great as at 75 and 100 percent levels.

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Press Inc., New York.

Corresponding author:

Prof. B. Baig Mirza

Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad,
Pakistan
E-mail: [email protected]

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Tab. 1. : Chemical analysis of the soil used in the amendment study

Parameter Surface soil Sub soil

(0-15 cm) (15-30 cm)
pH 8.4 8.8
ECe (dS m-1) 8.5 7.8
SAR 49.5 40.5
OM (%) 0.65 0.51
CaCO3 (%) 0.80 1.30
Ca (%) 0.22 0.20
Total-N (%) 0.07 0.07
NH4-N(mg/kg) 5.33 7.03
NO3-N(mg/kg) 0.59 0.46
P (mg/kg) 6.06 5.96
K (mg/kg) 190.00 170.00
Fe (mg/kg) 22.70 17.89
Cu (mg/kg) 2.69 2.33
Mn (mg/kg) 2.10 1.17
Zn (mg/kg) 1.17 1.20

Tab. 2. : Effect of sesbania and gypsum application on rice yield

Gypsum Productive tiller/plant Paddy yield (t/ha) Straw yield (t/ha)

level No GM GM Mean No GM GM Mean No GM GM Mean
0 0.07 10.07 9.07d 1.76 2.30 2.03c 2.26 3.00 2 .63c
50 9.47 10.87 10.17c 2.46 2.71 2 .58b 3.09 3.30 3.20b
75 9 .67 12.53 11.10b 3.06 3.38 3.22a 3 .54 4 13 3.83a
100 9.80 13.13 11.49a 3.08 3.34 3.23 a 3.75 4.00 3.87a
Means for GM 9.25b 11.66a 2.59b 2.94a 3.16b 3.61a
* Means sharing the same letter are statistically not different at p 0.05
** No GM = Sesbania was not added
*** GM = Sesbania was added

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Tab. 3. : Effect of sesbania and gypsum on nitrogen concentration in rice

N concentration in grain (%) N concentration in straw (%)

Gypsum level No GM GM Mean No GM GM Mean
0 0.957 0.96 0.958c 0.383 0.413 0.398c
50 0.91 1.043 0.977c 0.453 0.467 0.460b
75 0.993 1.073 1.033b 0.453 0.487 0.470b
100 0.97 1.887 1.429a 0.47 0.533 0.502a
Means for GM 0.958b 1.241a 0.440b 0.475a
* Means sharing the same letter are statistically not different at p 0.05
** No GM = Sesbania was not added
*** GM = Sesbania was added

Tab. 4. : Effect of sesbania and gypsum application on nitrogen uptake by rice

N uptake by grain N uptake by straw Total uptake by grain +straw

Gypsum
(kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha)
level
No GM GM Mean No GM GM Mean No GM GM Mean
0 16.79 21.91 19.35d 9.06 12.4 10.73d 25.85 34.31 30.08c
50 22.32 28.46 25.39c 13.99 15.25 14.62c 36.32 43.71 40.18b
75 30.34 32.83 31.58b 16.75 20.08 18.42b 47.1 56.24 51.00a
100 29.52 36.17 32.84a 17.62 21.36 19.47a 47.44 57.53 51.32a
Means for
24.74b 29.84a 14.36b 17.27a 38.68b 47.11a
GM

* Means sharing the same letter are statistically not different at p 0.05
** No GM = Sesbania was not added
*** GM = Sesbania was added

Tab. 5. : Effect of sesbania and gypsum application on phosphorus concentration in rice

Gypsum P concentration in grain (%) P concentration in straw (%)

level No GM GM Mean No GM GM Mean
0 0.29 0.297 0.295b 0.157 0.147 0.152ab
50 0.30 0.3 0.300b 0.147 0.147 0.147b
75 0.35 0.342 0.344a 0.16 0.163 0.162a
100 0.35 0.34 0.346a 0.153 0.163 0.158a
Means 0.323a 0.320a 0.154a 0.155a
for GM

* Means sharing the same letter are statistically not different at p 0.05
** No GM = Sesbania was not added
*** GM = Sesbania was added

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