DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

3.Considerations in Geometric Design of Highways

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to
 Explain the factors and criteria to be considered in
geometric design, cross-sectional elements according to
ERA (2013).
 Compute stopping and passing sight distances

Contents
♠ Introduction
♠ Design controls and criteria
♠ Highway cross-sectional elements
♠ Sight distance
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By Mubarek Z.
 INTRODUCTION

 Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of

the road through the terrain is designed to meet the
needs of the road users.
 The principal geometric features to be designed are :
 Road cross-section: Considering future traffic volume
and existing terrain condition as well as land use of the
road of adjoining areas the cross-sectional elements are
designed. Then a cross-sectional drawing showing lane
width, shoulder width, crown/cross slope, drainage
ditch, side and back slope, etc. is drawn
 Horizontal alignment: Plan view drawing of the road
showing tangents and curves in between the tangents
 Vertical alignment: Profile drawing of the road showing
vertical grades, parabolic curves as well as cross
drainage structures such as culverts, bridges if any.
 Intersection and interchange layout if any.

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 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

 Theelements of design are influenced by a wide

variety of design controls, engineering criteria, and
project specific objectives which include
 Functional classification of the road
 Nature of terrain

 Design traffic volume and composition

 Traffic capacity

 Design speed

 Density and character of adjoining land use

 Economic & Environmental Considerations

 Road users characteristics

 Vehicle size and performance

 Level of service to be provided or achieved

 Available fund

 Safety, etc.
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BY Mubarek Z.
A. ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION (OR ROAD HIERARCHY)

Roads generally serve a multitude of purposes:

• As through route - for long distance traffic
• As local route – for local traffic
• In urban and rural areas – as urban roads/rural
roads
• For fast and slow vehicles – 2 wheels to 10+
wheels
• As servicing/access roads
• For use by pedestrians
• For parking areas
• For Street Vendors, etc

Explain the effects of using a given road for various

purposes such as for those mentioned above?

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A. ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION (OR ROAD HIERARCHY)

RATIONALE FOR A HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM

 Mixed of uses of roads Reduces SAFETY, EFFICIENCY,
and CAPACITY
 Hence a hierarchical road system is necessary
 Roads are therefore classified according to
their respective functions in terms of the
character of the services they are providing

BY Mubarek Z.
 A. ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION …

OBJECTIVES IN SETTING A HIERARCHY

 To obtain best use of an existing network

 To ensure that each type of traffic is using the most
appropriate route
 To minimize the risk to users and to the natural
built environment
 To ensure better management, maintenance regimes
and design policies
 To ensure funding for routes is targeted
appropriately
 To offer network users a choice for how to travel

BY Mubarek Z.
A. ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION…
URBAN ROAD HIERARCHY
(MOST FREQUENTLY USED IN CITY ROAD NETWORK)

Characteristics

Primary Distributor Fast moving long distance

• design standard, …

through traffic, No frontage

development and pedestrians
District Distributor
capacity,
• speed,

Local Distributor
Lower

Slow moving vehicles,

Delivery vehicles, Frontage
Access Roads development, Walking, No
•

through vehicle movement …

Movement is up/down the hierarchy

BY Mubarek Z. 7
A. ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION…
Hierarchy according to
AASHTO

MOBILITY & ACCESSIBILITY

 Mobility refers to the ability to move between different activity sites

 If a facility could move people and goods very fast then that facility provides
very high mobility
 Accessibility refers to the number of activity sites connected by the
facility
 If a facility provides connection to large number of residences, commercial
places and industrial places then it provides very high accessibility
 Mobility and accessibility are inversely related.
A. ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION…
HIERARCHY OF ROADS (AACRA, 2003)
 The functional road hierarchy is determined by
grouping roads according to the character of service
they provide.
 The hierarchy resulting from
this approach includes the

BY Mubarek Z.
following:
 Controlled access arterial
roads including freeways
(traffic movement
function)
 Sub-arterial roads (largely
traffic movement function)
 Feeder roads (traffic,
transition and access
function)
 Local roads (largely 9
property access function)
(AACRA, 2003)
A. ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION…
ROAD HIERARCHY (THE ETHIOPIAN WAY)
Function Included Design
Characterstics Standard
classification
Roads linking centers of international importance and DC4, DC5, DC6,
Trunk roads roads terminating at international boundaries and DC7 & DC8
having a design traffic at mid-life: 150<AADT< 15,000.

Link roads Roads linking centers of national or international DC3, DC4, DC5,
importance and that have 75 – 10,000 mid-life AADT. DC6, & DC7

Main Access Roads linking centers of provincial importance and DC2, DC3, DC4, &
their mid-life AADTs between 25-1,000 . DC5
roads
Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to DC2, DC3, & DC4
Collector roads a more important center, or to higher class roads and
their mid-life AADTs between 25-300 .

Feeder roads Any road link to a minor center such as market and Basic access, DC1,
local locations with mid-life AADT between 0-150. DC2,& DC3
Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high
speeds ( 120 km/hr is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are
generally provided with grade separations at intersections. Parking, loading and 10
unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic is not allowed on expressways.
Freeways: Freeways are access-controlled divided highways. Access is controlled
through the use of interchanges
TABLE 2.1: ROAD CLASSIFICATION, AADT, CARRIAGE WIDTHS AND DESIGN SPEEDS (ERA,2013)

BY Mubarek Z.
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 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Definition:
The position or the layout of the highway on
the ground is called alignment.
For the sake of simplicity, alignment design is
performed in the following sequence:
Digital terrain modelling(DTM)

Horizontal alignment design

Vertical alignment design

Phasing of alignments

Design of furnishings or traffic 12

control devices
Mubarek Z.
REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL ALIGNMENT
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Definition: The position or the layout of the highway on the ground is called alignment.
For the sake of simplicity, alignment design is performed in the following sequence:
Horizontal alignment design  Vertical alignment design  Phasing of alignments  design of
furnishings or traffic control devices

 Horizontal alignment consists of straight paths (tangents) and

horizontal curves
© Centerline (CL) alignment : horizontal alignment drawn to be the center line of

the highway. CL alignment determines the amount of cut and fill, cross-section
details, drainage design, construction costs and environmental impacts.

© Offset alignments: Horizontal alignments drawn at any offset distance from CL

alignment

 Vertical alignment consists of tangents (grades) and vertical

curves of the highway. It is usually designed following the
preparation of profile of the highway along the centerline

 Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to increase in13
cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the road side.

Mubarek Z.
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B. NATURE OF TERRAIN (TERRAIN CLASS)

 Terrain has the greatest effect on road costs

therefore it is not economical to apply the same
standards in all terrains. Fortunately drivers of
vehicles are familiar with this and lower standards
are expected in hilly and mountainous terrain.
 Terrain Class needs to be established before a road
is designed hence it needs to be defined
independently of the alignment that is finally
selected for the road. It is determined by counting
the number of 5-metre contours crossed by a
straight line connecting the two ends of the road
section in question according to the following
definitions(ERA,2013):

BY Mubarek
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Z.
 B. TERRAIN CLASS … AS PER ERA (2013):
Terrain Number of Transverse Description of the terrain
class 5-metre ground
contours slopes (%)
per km
Flat 0-10 <3 • Flat or gently sloped areas which offers little
obstacles to the construction of a road,
• continuously unrestricted horizontal and
vertical alignment

Rolling 11-25 3-25 • Rolling, hilly or foothill areas generally rise

and fall moderately and where occasional steep
slopes are encountered, resulting in some
restrictions in alignment
Mount- 26-50 25-50 • Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and
ainous river gorges. This class of terrain imposes
definite restrictions on the standard of
alignment obtainable and often involves long
steep grades and limited sight distance
Escarp- >50 >50 • Extremely mountainous area where switchback
ment roadway sections are used or side hill
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transverse sections which cause considerable
earthwork quantities.
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Mubarek Z.
B. TERRAIN CLASS …
TERRAIN CLASS(ERA,2013)…

BY Mubarek Z.
A) Flat B) Rolling

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C) Mountainous Escarpment
 C. TRAFFIC VOLUME AND COMPOSITION

 Traffic data indicates the service for which the road

is being planned and directly affects the geometric
elements such as width, alignment, etc,
 Traffic volume – AADT, ADT, PHV, DHV
 Directional distribution – the percentage of traffic volume
flowing in each direction
 Traffic composition – the percentage of different types of
vehicles in the traffic stream – different types of vehicles
are converted into passenger car unit to design a road
width
 Traffic projection – using the design period of a road (5-20
years)a reliable traffic projection should be made
considering the following elements

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BY Mubarek Z.
C. TRAFFIC VOLUME AND COMPOSITION…
 Traffic projection (cont’d.):–
 Current traffic – currently using the existing road
 Normal traffic growth – anticipated growth due to population
growth or change in land use
 Diverted traffic – traffic that switches to a new facility from near
by roads
 Converted traffic – traffic resulting from changes of mode

 Change of destination traffic – traffic that has changed to different

destination due to new or improved transport and not changes in
land use
 Development traffic – traffic due to improvement on adjacent land
development that would have taken place had the new or improved
road not been constructed
 Induced traffic – traffic that did not previously exist in a any form
but results when new or improved transport facilities are provided

BY Mubarek Z. 22
D. DESIGN SPEED
 The speed that a driver adopts on a road depends on:
 Physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings
 Weather conditions in the area
 Presence of other vehicles and the nature of these vehicles, and

 Speed limitations placed upon the vehicles either by law or by

mechanical devices fitted in vehicles
 Design speed is the max safe speed selected for designing
specific section of road considering the terrain, land use,
classification of the road, etc.
 Design speed is as a function of Design class DC, terrain
class for rural roads and urbanization
(see Table 2.1 shown on slide no.11)
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BY Mubarek Z.
E. DESIGN VEHICLE
 The size of the largest vehicle that is expected to use the road
dictates many aspects of the geometric design. Such vehicles must
be able to pass each other safely and to negotiate all aspects of the
horizontal and vertical alignment. Thus the vehicle
characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to
weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path during
turn, vehicle height and width. The road elements affected include the
maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
Trucks of different sizes are usually used for different road
standards- the driver of a large 6-axle truck would not expected to
be able to drive through roads of the lowest standards(ERA,2013).

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BY Mubarek
Z.
E. DESIGN VEHICLE…

FIGURE 5-2: DIMENSIONS AND

TURNING RADIUS PATH FOR
SINGLE UNIT BUS (DV3) (ERA,
2013)

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BY Mubarek Z.
 ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION
 Principal elements
 Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use
by moving traffic, including
traffic lanes,
auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration
lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays
and lay-bys.
 Shoulders
 Marginal elements include
 Median (for divided roads) and roadside barrier
 Curbs
 Gutters
 Guard rails
 sidewalks,
 Side slopes, Back slopes (both shows earthwork profile)
 Cross or crown slopes
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BY Mubarek Z.
 ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION…

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 BY Mubarek Z.
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Figure F-6(a): DC6 Paved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section(ERA, 2013)
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Figure F-6(b): DC6 Paved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross-
Section(ERA,2013)
Figure F-10: Undivided Two lane (Wereda seat) Typical Town section(ERA,2013)

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Figure F-11: Divided Two lane (Zonal seat) Typical Town section (ERA,2013)
ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION

 Width of travel lanes

 Usually vary from 3 to 3.65 m, but occasionally 2.7 m lane
width is used in urban areas where the traffic volume is low
and there is extreme right-of-way constraints.
 On two way two lane rural roads, accident rate for large
trucks increases as the traveled way decreases from 6.5 m
 The capacity decrease significantly as the lane width decrease
from 3.0 m
 Standards for carriageway widths are shown in
Table 2.1 of ERA(2013) for all road design
standards see above.

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BY Mubarek Z.
 ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION…
 Shoulders
 A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the
carriageway for
 the accommodation of stopped vehicles;
 traditional and intermediate non-motorised traffic, animals,
and pedestrians;
 emergency use;
 the recovery of errant vehicles; and
 Lateral support of the pavement layers.
 Shoulder width
 Shoulder widths for the different design standards, terrain type, and
urban/rural environment are shown in Table 2.2 of ERA(2013)
 On paved roads, shoulders vary from a minimum of 0.5m up to 3.0m
depending on the terrain and design classification.
 In urban areas an additional lane usually called parking lane with a
width of 3.5m is provided in place of shoulder.
 Shoulders should be flush with the edge of the traveled lane and be
sloped to facilitate drainage (2-4 % if paved, 4-6 % if not paved) 32

BY Mubarek
Z.
 ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION…
 Median – section of divided road that separates lanes in the
opposite directions.
 Its functions are:
Provide recovery area during emergency


 Provide stopping area for left and U-turning vehicles

 Provide refuge for pedestrians

 Reduce headlight glare

 Median can be either raised, flush or depressed

 Median width vary between 0.6m up to 5 m or more depending on the
availability of right-of-way

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BY Mubarek Z.
ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION…
 Median barrier – a longitudinal structure used to prevent an errant
vehicle from crossing the portion of a divided highway separating
the traveled way for traffic in the opposite directions. It is a
physical barrier such as a guardrail.
 Roadside barrier – protect vehicles from causing hazards onto
roadside and shield pedestrians
 Curbs – raised structures used mainly on urban roads to delineate
pavement edge and pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used:
 To control drainage
 Improve aesthetic

 Are classified as
 Barrier curbs – relatively high designed for preventing vehicles from
leaving the toad
 Mountable curbs – are designed so that vehicles can cross them

BY Mubarek Z. 34
ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION…

 Gutters – drainage ditches located on the pavement side of a

curb to provide the principal drainage facility for the highway
 Guard rails – longitudinal barriers on the outside of sharp
curves at sections with high fills (greater than 2.5 m)

 Side walks – provided on urban or rural roads

 When pedestrian traffic is high along main or high speed roads
 When shoulders are not provided on arterials even when pedestrian

traffic is low
 In urban areas, sidewalks are provided along both sides of streets to

serve pedestrians access to schools, parks, shopping centers, and

transit stops.

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ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION…

 Cross-slopes – to enhance the flow of surface water

 2- 3% for paved roads and 4-6% for unpaved roads.
 Side slopes – provided for stability of earthworks; the slope
varies depending on the material type, height of fill/cut/. See
Table 6.1 of ERA(2013) as shown next slide.
 Right-of-way – the total land area required/reserved/ for the
construction of the roadway
 To accommodate all the elements of the road cross-section
 Planned widening of the road

 Public utility facilities that will be installed along the highway

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BY Mubarek Z.
ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION…

Figure 6-1: Designation of Roadside Regions (ERA, 2013)

Table 6-1: Slope Ratio Table -Vertical to Horizontal (ERA, 2013)

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 ELEMENTS OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION…
ROADSIDE DITCHES
 The choice of side drain cross-section depends on the required hydraulic
capacity, arrangements for maintenance, space restrictions, traffic safety and
any requirements relating to the height between the crown of the pavement
and the drain invert.
 Under normal circumstances the adoption of a trapezoidal cross-section will
facilitate maintenance and will be acceptable from the point of view of traffic
safety. The minimum recommended width of the side drain is 500mm. This
shape has high flow capacity and, by carefully selecting the gradients of its side
slopes, it will resist erosion.If V-shaped ditch is to be used, the minimum depth
should be 0.6m in mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere.
The side slope and back slope of ditches should generally be no less than 1:2;
however, these slopes should conform to the slopes given in Table 6.1.
 Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black
cotton soils. Where this is not possible, they should be kept at a minimum
distance of 4-6 m from the toe of the embankment, dependent on functional
classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in Figure 6.2.

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BY Mubarek Figure 6-2: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils(ERA, 2013)
Z.
SIGHT DISTANCE
 Sight Distance is the distance visible to the driver of a vehicle a head
of him. For safe traffic operations, the following basic design
requirements are to be analyzed.
 Stopping sight distance: The distance a vehicle requires
to stop safely is called the stopping sight distance.
 For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of
sufficient length so that drivers can control the operation of their
vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an unexpected object on
the traveled way. The stopping sight distance length should be met in all
travel ways for the considered design speed.
 Passing sight distance
 Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight distance to enable
drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers,
without risk of accident. Two-lane rural highways should generally
provide such passing sight distance at frequent intervals and for
substantial portions of their length. 39
 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE(SSD)
• Stopping sight distance is the total distance traveled by a given vehicle
before stopping during three time intervals
• the time to perceive the hazard
• the time to react
• the time to stop the vehicle

• during the first two intervals, the vehicle travels at full speed, during the
third interval, its speed is reduced to zero, and must happen before hitting
an object or vehicle ahead.
• Reaction distance , Dr = 0.278 V*t
2
•Braking distance, Db  V
254 f  g 
Db = braking distance and Dr= Reaction distance
V = initial velocity when brakes are applied (km/hr)
t = driver perception-reaction time(sec), generally taken to be 2.5 sec
40
f = longitudinal coefficient of friction between tyres and roadway
g = grade (decimal) and (downhill grade is negative)
BY Mubarek Z.
 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE(SSD)…
SSD = Stopping Sight Distance (meter)
= Distance traveled during perception/reaction time + Braking
Distance

V2
SSD  0.278 V * t 
254 f  g 
Note:
1. Safe SSD on upgrades is shorter than on downgrades
2. Min. SD should be adjusted where steep grades and high
speed occur in combination
Example: A vehicle travelling at speed of 120km/hr is approaching
down grade of 10% meanwhile the deriver suddenly sees an
animal on his way. Determine the total distance travelled by the
vehicle if the deriver decided to stop safely. Use longitudinal
coefficient of friction, f=0.28, perception/reaction time, t=2.5
second 2
120
SSD  0.278 *120 * 2.5   398.02m
2540.28  0.1
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BY
Mubarek Z.
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE(SSD)…
ERA(2013), SUGGESTED A TYPICAL VALUES OF SSD AND PSD FOR
DIFFERENT DESIGN SPEEDS AS SHOWN IN THE TABLE BELOW

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 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR SINGLE LANE
ROADS (MEETING SIGHT DISTANCE)
 For single lane roads, adequate sight distances must be
provided to allow vehicles travelling in the opposite
direction to see each other and to stop safely if necessary.
 This distance is normally set at twice the stopping sight
distance for a vehicle that is stopping to avoid a stationary
object in the road. An extra safety margin of 20-30 metres is
also sometimes added. because of the very severe
consequences of a head-on collision and partly it is difficult
to judge the speed of an approaching vehicle, which could
be considerably greater than the design speed.
 However, single lane roads have a relatively low design
speed, hence meeting sight distances should not be too
difficult to achieve.

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BY Mubarek Z.
 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE(PSD)
• Minimum distance required to safely complete passing maneuver
on 2-lane two-way highway
• Allows time for driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle
and not cut off passed vehicle when upon return to lane
• Assumes:
1. Vehicle that is passed travels at uniform speed
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it
reaches passing section
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and
velocity of the passing vehicle is about 15km/hr greater than
that of the passed vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming
vehicle when the passing vehicle returns to its lane

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BY Mubarek Z.
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE(PSD)…

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 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE(PSD)…

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d1 = distance traveled during perception/reaction time and
distance traveled while accelerating to passing speed and
when vehicle just enters the left lane
at1
d1  0.278 * t1 * (V  m  )
where 2
t1 = perception/reaction time and the time for
acceleration, for example,70-85km/h, t1 =4 sec, for
100-110 km/h, t1 =4.5sec
V= average speed of passing vehicle, km/h,
m=relative speed of the passed and passing vehicles(km/hr).
According to AASHTO, the speeds of the overtaken
vehicles were approximately 15 km/h [10 mph] less than
the speeds of the passing vehicles.
a = average acceleration (km/hr/sec), for 70-110 km/h,
a =2.3 for speed 50 to 80 km/hr and 46
a =2.4 for speed of 80 to 110 km/hr
BY Mubarek Z.
 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE(PSD)…
d2 = distance traveled during overtaking time
t2= time when passing vehicle occupies the left lane, according to
AASHTO, t2=9.3 to 10.4 sec d 2  V *t 2
d3 = clearance distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing
vehicle at the moment the passing vehicle returns to the right lane.
Usually d3 varies b/n 30 and 100m.
Table 7-5: Clearance Distance (d3) for Different Ambient Speeds (ERA,2013)

d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during 2/3 of the time the

passing vehicle is in the left lane. (d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2 )

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Mubarek
 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE(PSD)…

EXAMPLE:
 For a design speed of 80 km/hr, determine the minimum
required passing distance by considering the all the AASHTO
recommended values
Solution: For V=80 km/hr,
 t1=4 sec, m=15km/hr, a=2.3km/hr/sec, t2=10.4 sec, d3=80m

at1
d1  0.278 * t1 * (V  m  )  0.278 * 4(80  15  (2.3 * 4 / 2))  77.4m
2
d 2  0.278 *V * t 2  0.278 * 80 *10.4  231.3m
d 4  2d 1 / 3  2 * 231.3 / 3  154.2m
 PSD=d1+d2+d3+d4 ; PSD=77.4+231.3+80+154.2=542.9m
compare this with the value of PSD given by Table 7-2 of
ERA(2013).
From Table 7-2: for V=80 km/hr ; PSD=545m, whereas PSD to avoid
overtaking maneuver=310m, SSD=180m, 48

BY Mubarek Z.
MINIMUM PROVISION OF PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
• An alternative design strategy is to base the passing sight
distances on providing enough sight distance for a vehicle to
safely abort a passing maneuver if another vehicle is
approaching. The recommended values are shown in the seventh
column of Table 7.2.
• Passing Sight Distance is a desirable requirement for two-way
single roadway roads. Sufficient visibility for passing increases
the capacity and efficiency of a road and should be provided for
as much of the road length as possible within financial limitations.
• Table 7.6 of ERA(2013) gives guide values for the extent to which
passing sight distance should be provided.

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READING ASSIGNMENT
• Vehicle performance in relation to speed & gradient
• Characteristics of drivers and pedestrians

HOW ARE THESE FACTORED INTO DESIGN?

Design criteria must be based on the capabilities

and limitations of most drivers and pedestrians.
Explain!

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BY Mubarek Z.