qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwerty

uiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasd
fghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx
cvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq
Building Construction

wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui
CLADDING

opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg
hjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxc
vbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq
wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui
opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg
hjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxc
vbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq
wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui
ELA SHARMA

opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg
VEENA .S. NAMBOODIRI

LOVE CHOUDHARY

hjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbn
NIMME CYRIAC

mqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwert
yuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopas
Introduction 
Cladding is an all-encompassing term for the external skin of a building which
keeps out the weather and provides the building’s aesthetic effect. In low-rise
construction it may support its own weight but self-weight and wind loading are
normally transferred to the structural building frame. It may form the full
thickness of the vertical envelope of the building but can simply be the outer
layer with additional layers providing insulation and the internal lining. 
 

Principles of operation 
Apart from providing the external appearance of the building, the main function
of cladding is to protect the structure from the weather particularly rain. This
may be achieved in one of three ways as follows:

 Porous materials. Porous materials such as brickwork absorb water

during rain and subsequently dry out. If the wall is of sufficient thickness
and the permeability is reasonably low water will not penetrate during a
rainstorm. In modern construction a cavity is normally introduced into the
wall to provide an additional barrier to the passage of water.
 Sealed construction. Impermeable cladding materials will only permit the
passage of water at joints. Sealing the joints with gaskets or wet applied
sealants provides a continuous impermeable layer.
 Rainscreen. As its name suggests, the purpose of the outer rainscreen
panels is to shield the wall from direct rain. The joints between the
panels may allow some water to penetrate but an air gap and airtight
backing wall behind the panels combine to limit this penetration. This
may be achieved by the drained and ventilated method in which the air
gap is continuous and well ventilated to encourage drying out.
Alternatively the pressure equalised system may be used in which the
gap behind the panels is compartmentalised allowing the air to be
pressurised by the wind. The reduced pressure difference across the
panel joints limits water penetration.  

Description of main cladding types 

There are many types of cladding available, which are described below,
grouped according to type of construction. Some of the categories are clearly
defined but others cover a range of options and some variations could be
considered to fall in more than one category. The distinction between curtain
walling and some other cladding types is particularly blurred.
In some cases weather tightness will always be achieved using the same
method but in other cases apparently small changes to the design of the
cladding will change the cladding from a sealed façade to a rain screen. It is
necessary to appreciate the effect of such decisions on the design of both the
cladding and the supporting structure. 
 

Claddings to buildings can be considered under two classifications:

1. Claddings fixed to a structural backing.

2. Claddings to framed structures.

CLADDINGS FIXED TO A STRUCTURAL BACKING

materials used in this form of cladding are generally considered to be small

unit claddings and are applied for one of two reasons. If the structural wall is
unable to provide an adequate barrier to the elements. A covering of small unit
claddings will generally raise the wall's resistance to an acceptable level.
Alternatively small unit claddings can be used solely as a decorative feature,
possibly to break up the monotony of a large plain area composed of a single
material.

The materials used are tiles, slates, shingles, timber boarding, plastic boards
and stone facings. The general method of fixing these small units is to secure
them to timber battens fixed to the structure backing. Stone and similar
facings, however, are usually secured by special mechanical fixiNG.

Tile hanging

The tiles used in tile hanging can be ordinary roofing tiles or alternatively a tile
of the same dimensions. The tiles are hung and fixed to tiling battens. The
battens should be impregnated to prevent fungi and insect attack so that their
anticipated life is comparable to that of the tiles. Each tile should be twice
nailed to its support batten with corrosion resistant nails of adequate length.
The minimum lap recommended is 40 mm which would give a gauge of 112.5
mm using a standard 265 long tile.

A gauge dimension of 112.5 mm is impracticable and therefore a gauge of 110

mm would be usual.

It should be noted that if the structural backing is of timber framing a layer of

impervious felt should be placed over the framing immediately underneath the
battens to prevent any moisture which is blown in between the tiles from
having adverse effects upon the structure.

Timber cladding

Timber cladding are usually in the form of moulded or shaped boards fixed to
battens as either a horizontal or vertical cladding.

Timber claddings will require regular maintenance to preserve their resistance

to the elements. Softwoods are generally painted and and will need repainting
at intervals of 3 to 5 years according to the exposure. Hardwoods are
sometimes treated with a preservative and left to bleach naturally; the
preservative treatment needs to be carried out at 2 to 5 year intervals.
Western red cedar is a very popular wood for timber claading since it has a
natural immunity to insect and fungi attack under normal conditions.

Plastic boards are a substitute for timber and are fixed in a similar manner.

Stone cladding

Stones like marble, quota and slate owing to its smooth surfaces are
frequently used in exteriors as well as interiors of the buildings.The availability
of these stones in various shades, the possibility of fine polishes that the
surfaces take up and the possibility of cutting the stone makes it a fine
cladding material.

The marble slabs generally 15-20 cm thick are fixed on concrete or masonry
surfaces introducing a gap of 12 to 25 mm to keep the vibrating surfaces
away. Plaster of paris pads are positioned in such a manner that the joints in
the slabs do not move above the pads. The two adjacent slabs in vertical
course are joined to each other by means of copper cramps of hooks 3mm
dia. The slabs are secured in position by brass cramps turned at 120 to fill into
the groove. Rich mortar pads instead of plaster of paris of 1 cement, 2 sand
are used and also the air gap is filled in with mortar.

CLADDINGS TO FRAME STRUCTURES

The methods available to clad a frame structure are extensive and include
panels of masonry constructed between the columns and beams, light infill
panels of metal or timber, precast concrete panels and curtain walling which
completely encloses the structure.

Brickwork cladding

Application- Multi storey buildings, where a traditional facade is required.

Brickwork movement- to allow for climatic changes and differential movement

between the cladding and main structure, a 'soft' joiint (cellular polyethylene,
cellular polyurethane, expanded rubber or sponge rubber with polysulphide or
silicon pointing) should be located below the support angle. vertical movement
joints may also be required at a maximum of 12m spacing.

Lateral restraint- Provided by normal wall ties between inner and outer leaf of
masonry, plus sliding brick anchors below the support angle.

Profiled metal systems :

Profiled metal sheeting has traditionally been considered as a relatively cheap
form of cladding for agricultural and industrial buildings. More recently with a
wider range of colours and profiles becoming available its use has been
extended to include retail, office, leisure and education buildings. Guidance on
the use of profiled metal is given in BS 5427.

Profiled sheets of aluminium or galvanised steel may be used in various ways

as follows:

 The simplest form is a single uninsulated skin supported on cladding

rails spanning between the main structural columns.
 For most structures it will be necessary to incorporate insulation and this
can be accommodated by using two skins of metal sheeting separated
by a spacer bar and with insulation in the resulting cavity, as shown

 The need for sheeting rails and spacer bars can be eliminated by using
liner trays which span between columns providing both the internal lining
and support for the outer sheets. The liner trays can also be filled with
insulation.

 Composite panels can be formed from two metal skins separated by a

layer of rigid insulation. Mineral wool can be bonded to the skins with
adhesive while polyurethane (PUR) or polyisocyanurate (PIR) foams can
either be bonded with adhesive or extruded between the skins, and
autohesively bonded to them under expansion. The panels are
supported on sheeting rails and fixed together at the edges only, relying
on composite action between the skins and the core to prevent flexing of
the panel between the fixing points. The edge joints may be formed by
lap joints where the metal sheet overhangs the insulation along one
edge or by tongue and groove joints as shown
 .

Systems typically use profiled sheets having a cover width of between 600 and
1000mm, and a length of at least 2m.  The depth of the corrugations ranges
from 7mm to 120mm, and the wavelength/pitch from 30 to 350mm.  The
spacing of fixings depends upon the wind load and flexibility of the sheet (e.g.
depth of profile) and pitch (of roof cladding), but fixings are typically made
every 250-300mm along the spacers.  A maximum fixing spacing is suggested
as being 450mm.  Aluminium has a much higher coefficient of thermal
expansion than steel and the thermal movement of aluminium sheets must
either be allowed for in the end lap joint design or controlled by limiting the
length of sheets.

The simplest fixing technique is to use self-drilling, self-tapping screws with

integral sealing washers through the valley of the profile and into the spacer.
However, the fixings can also be made through the crown of the profile, in
which case an additional spacer may be used to prevent the profile from being
distorted and the need for an excessively long fixing.  To join and seal the
sheets together, stitching fixings are used along the side and end overlaps,
and these may again be at the peak or trough of the profile.

A more sophisticated technique is to use a form of hidden fixing.  This is

common with standing seam systems, which also tend to have much
shallower corrugations between the seams.  Standing seam sheets lock into
fixing brackets which are fitted along the spacers, and overlap the
neighbouring sheet.  Because these systems are designed to hide the fixings,
the sheets will be narrower, and there will not be any intermediate fixings.

Secret fix cladding systems offer greater weathertightness reliability and final
appearance due to the absence of fixings that penetrate through the outer
sheet. 
 

Small cladding panels 

Cladding panels vary widely in size and materials used. This section describes
cladding panels that are too small to span between the main structural framing
members and are either supported by a backing wall or secondary framing
members.

Small overlapping units such as tile hanging and weatherboarding have not
been included in this category. Most of the cladding panels described in this
section may be fixed with sealed joints but may also be used as rainscreen
panels. The method of achieving weathertightness will affect the design of
both the cladding and the supporting structure.

These materials are most likely to be used for commercial buildings although
they may also be used for over-cladding existing structures including blocks of
flats.

Various forms of cladding panel which can be supported on timber battens or

metal rails are available. This method requires a backing wall to support the
fixing rails and it will usually be necessary to incorporate insulation in the wall,
generally in the cavity between the cladding panel and supporting wall. This
form of cladding may be used for new construction but is particularly suitable
for upgrading existing buildings.

For new construction the supporting rails can be made of heavier section so
that they can span between floors. This allows the use of a lightweight internal
lining.

Panels may be fixed to the supporting rails using screws, rivets, structural
adhesive, a screw-fixed pressure plate, or the edges of the panels may be
folded, punched and hung onto pins through the supporting rail.

A range of materials may be used for the cladding panels as follows

 Fibre cement sheets are manufactured in thicknesses between 5 and

10mm and in sizes up to 1220mmx3050mm. Both cellulose and glass
 fibres may be used and a wide range of finishes is available including
untreated, various types of paint and resin bonded aggregate. Sheets
are normally supplied to site ready cut to size and with predrilled fixing
holes. Similar panels may be manufactured using fibre reinforced
calcium silicate, resin laminate and glass reinforced polyester.
 Panels may be made from both aluminium and steel sheet and may be
given increased stiffness by folding the edges or adding stiffeners either
within or at the back of the panel.
 Thin composite metal panels may be formed from two layers of
aluminium separated by a layer of polyethylene giving an overall panel
thickness of 3 to 8 mm. The composite action of the layers gives a
stronger panel than the aluminium alone. Panels can be used as flat
sheets but can be bent to form curved panels or folded to form sharp
corners if the inner layer of aluminium is first cut along the line of the
fold.
 Thick composite panels may be formed from aluminium or steel strip
separated by a core of insulation. These panels differ from those
produced from profiled metal in that they are manufactured as
rectangular panels and may have flat faces. The edges of the panels
may incorporate grooves to facilitate fixings, which can then be hidden
by gaskets. Alternatively a pressure plate fixing system can be used.

Stone has traditionally been used as masonry to form an external facing

material for buildings but is now being increasingly used as a non loadbearing
cladding as a result of developments in stone processing which allow stone to
be cut into thin panels.

Stone types used for cladding are granites, marbles, hard limestones, slates,
quartzites, limestones and sandstones that offer a range of colours and
surface textures with good durability. Stone is covered in detail in 
 

 
Large cladding panels 
Cladding panels with sufficient strength to span between discrete fixing points
on the main building frame, often as storey height panels, may be
manufactured from reinforced concrete or as pre-assembled curtain wall.
Glass fibre reinforced polyester and glass fibre reinforced cement were
introduced in the 1960s and 1970s respectively but have now largely fallen out
of use. Some composite metal panel systems may be used to span
horizontally between columns and strictly fall into the group but in other
respects are as described above.
Precast concrete can be used to produce loadbearing cladding panels but they
are normally non-load bearing. Guidance on their use is given in BS 8297.

Precast concrete cladding systems come in three forms:

 Small units supported on brackets and used to fill gaps between

conventional glazing systems,
 Larger mullion and spandrel units which ‘cloak’ the structural frame
members, often to form a window opening within each bay.  Units are
normally supported on bearing pads on the concrete floor slab, with
packing shims providing vertical adjustment.  Horizontal restraint and
adjustment is provided by angle brackets and adjustable bolts,
 Full bay-width, storey-height panels with cast (‘punched’) window
openings.  Panels are of a sufficient size and stiffness to be able to span
horizontally or vertically between structural frame members without
requiring any intermediate support.

Panel-to-panel joints are either weather sealed with single or double wet-
applied seals or left open (but baffled to prevent direct water ingress).Concrete
panels/units can be produced with a variety of smooth and coarse finishes or
faced with factory-set natural stone, clay brick or tiling systems. They can also
be made from carefully selected materials to give the appearance of stone. 
 

 
Fully supported metal sheeting 
Copper and lead sheeting may be used for cladding but are expensive and
hence only used to a limited extent where required for appearance on prestige
buildings. Due to its weight and low strength lead must be fully supported,
usually by plywood boards. Due to its cost, copper is used in thin sheets that
also need continuous support.
 

Curtain walling 
Curtain walling is a form of vertical building enclosure which supports no load
other than its own weight that of ancillary components and the environmental
forces which act upon it. Although the term is sometimes restricted to metal
framed curtain walls, the above definition embraces many different
construction methods and materials including non-loadbearing precast
concrete. 
 
Description of curtain walling types 
The classification of types of curtain walling varies but the following terms are
commonly used:

 Stick
 Unitised
 Panellised
 Spandrel panel ribbon glazing
 Structural sealant glazing
 Structural glazing

Stick system curtain walling 

The general arrangement of a stick system curtain wall is shown as

Horizontal and vertical framing members (‘sticks’) are normally extruded

aluminium protected by anodising or powder coating, but may be cold-rolled
steel (for greater fire resistance) or aluminium clad with PVC-U.  Members are
cut to length and machined in the factory prior to assembly on site as a kit of
parts: vertical mullions, which are fixed to the floor slab, are erected first
followed by horizontal transoms, which are fixed in-between mullions. 
Mullions are typically spaced between 1.0 and 1.8m centres.  Into the
framework are fitted infill units, which may comprise a mixture of fixed and
opening glazing and insulated panels (which may have metal, glass or stone
facings).  These units are typically sealed with gaskets and retained with a
pressure plate, screw-fixed every 150-300 mm, although hammer-in structural
gaskets are used for some stick systems.  The pressure plate is generally
hidden with a snap-on cosmetic cover cap or overlapping gaskets.  The screw
fixings can be exposed by removing the cover, which is typically produced in
six metre lengths for vertical framing elements.  Fixings must be secured to
the correct torque to retain the glazing/infill panels and to ensure proper
compression of the gaskets for weather sealing.

Stick curtain walling is very common and versatile and can be used for
anything from ‘glass towers’ tens of storeys high to single storey shop fronts.
Because of the number of joints in stick curtain walling it is generally very good
at accommodating variability’s and movement in the building frame. It is also
suitable for irregular shaped buildings. Assembly is slow compared with pre-
assembled systems and performance (e.g. weather tightness) is dependent on
knowledgeable installers who are familiar with the assembly and sealing
procedures for the particular system. Some pre-assembly of stick curtain wall
frames is possible by the use of ‘ladder frames’.

Many manufacturers (systems suppliers) produce standard stick systems. 

Insulated panels, usually designed for the project, may be faced with anything
from aluminium or steel sheet, to glass or expensive stone composites.  Some
companies produce project-specific bespoke systems - either designing frame
profiles from scratch for each job, or using standard details for some parts of
the frame and simply altering some small aspect to give the appropriate
structural properties or appearance.  The type, complexity and budget of the
project will normally determine whether a standard (i.e. ‘off-the-shelf’) or
bespoke curtain wall is used.

Stick system curtain walling may be erected in one of three sequences:

 Stick system wall, method 1.

  Stick system wall, method 2.

 Stick system wall, method 3.

Unitised curtain walling 

Unitised systems comprise narrow, storey-height units of steel or aluminium
framework, glazing and panels pre-assembled under controlled, factory
conditions, Mechanical handling is required to position, align and fix units onto
pre-positioned brackets attached to the concrete floor slab or the structural
frame.  Unitised systems are more complex in terms of framing system, have
higher direct costs and are less common than stick systems.  The smaller
number of site-sealed joints in unitised curtain walling simplifies and hastens
enclosure of the building, requires fewer site staff and can make such systems
cost effective.  If construction joints interlock consideration must be given to
how damaged units could be removed and replaced.  The reduced number of
site-made joints compared with stick systems, generally leads to a reduction in
air and water leakage resulting from poor installation. 
 

Panellised curtain walling 

Panellised curtain walling comprises large prefabricated panels of bay width

and storey height, which connect back to the primary structural columns or to
the floor slabs close to the primary structure Fixing the panels close to the
columns reduces problems due to deflection of the slab at mid span, which
affect stick and unitised systems.Panels may be of precast concrete or
comprise a structural steel framework, which can be used to support most
cladding materials (e.g. stone, metal and masonry).  Structural steel panellised
walls are known as ‘truss walls’ in North America. Aluminium or galvanised
steel skins are generally fixed to the frame with insulation in the cavity. The
wall construction is then completed by a plasterboard lining and external
cladding.Joints may comprise gasketted interlocking extrusions, gaskets
between separate extrusions or wet applied sealant.

The advantages of using panellised systems stem from the high utilisation of
factory prefabrication, which allows better control of quality and rapid
installation with the minimum number of site-sealed joints.  However to be cost
effective a large number of identical panels is required.Panellised systems are
less common and more expensive than unitised construction.  The size and
weight of panels is limited by the practicalities of manufacture, handling,
storage, transport and erection.Some authors do not differentiate between
unitised and panellised systems, but panellised construction may have
significant internal steel structure to support the extra weight, or may consist of
precast concrete panels with openings for windows. 
 

Spandrel panel ribbon glazing 

Spandrel panel ribbon glazing is a long or continuous run of vision units fixed
between spandrel panels supported by vertical columns or the floor slabs, .

Glazed areas may comprise:

  Several standard windows fixed together on site by joining mullions,
 Pre-glazed, bay width, factory-assembled frames, or
 Individual framing sections and glass infill panels which are site
assembled.

Ribbon glazing is often used in conjunction with spandrel panels, that is,
horizontally spanning prefabricated or precast concrete units.  It may also be
used with spandrels comprising upstand walls faced with rainscreen panels.
Care needs to be taken when detailing interfaces with adjacent elements.

Ribbon glazing/spandrel panel construction generally results in buildings

having a horizontal banded or strip appearance. 
 

Structural sealant glazing 

Structural sealant glazing is a form of glazing that can be applied to stick
curtain wall systems and windows, particularly ribbon glazing. However it can
also be used in unitised and panellised systems.  Instead of mechanical
means (i.e. a pressure plate or structural gasket), the glass infill panels are
attached with a factory-applied structural sealant (usually silicone) to metal
carrier units which are then bolted into the framing grid on site.  External joints
are weathersealed with a wet-applied sealant or a gasket,.

These walls are attractive to architects as they offer a smooth or semi-smooth

facade.
Structural sealant glazing has been used in the USA for around 30 years
where it was initially site applied direct to the framing.  However, this is no
longer acceptable due to difficulties of application and replacement and all
structural silicone joints are now made in a factory.

Glass replacement/resealing must be undertaken in a controlled environment

using the correct materials.  All elements used in the construction must be
compatible with the silicone sealant.

Structural sealant glazing systems can have sealant on two opposite sides or
on all four-sides with or without the weight of glass supported mechanically. 
Generally, the glass is mechanically supported to reduce the size of the
sealant bead.

Structural sealant glazing can be used to create a building exterior that is free
from protrusions, but the framing system will be visible at night when backlit. 
Structural sealant glazing is more widely used on ‘prestige’ buildings and may
be produced as a standard system, or on a project-by-project customised
basis.  The framing members are often more widely spaced than for traditional
stick systems.Any of the previous types of curtain walling and ribbon glazing
could incorporate structural silicone glazed elements. 
 

Structural glazing - bolted assembly 

Sheets of toughened glass are assembled with special bolts and brackets and
supported by a secondary structure, to create a near transparent facade or
roof with a flush external surface.
A multitude of discreet or prominent secondary structures can be designed
(e.g. space frame, rigging or a series of mullions) which support the glazing
through special brackets.  The joints between adjacent panes/glass units are
weathersealed on site with wet-applied sealant.  

Structural glazing - suspended assembly 

Here the glass is fixed together with corner, rectangular, patch plates and the
whole assembly is then either suspended from the top or stacked from the
ground and wet-sealed on site, 

Suspended glazing systems utilise the minimum amount of framing for a given
glass area and are used as glazing features on prestige buildings, but also for
prestige atria on otherwise simple buildings.

Glass fins may be used to brace the assembly.  In some designs a light truss
stabilises the wall and transfers wind loading, while the weight of the glass is
transferred through the corner plates and suspension system 
 
Curtain walling applications 
Stick curtain walls are used on larger office developments but may also be
used on some low-cost office or industrial units, typically for one small part,
such as an entrance.  Unitised or panellised curtain walling systems are
generally adopted where the additional expense of factory assembly is
compensated by faster installation. They are only economic where a large
number of similar units or panels is required. The highest-cost bespoke curtain
walling systems will generally only be used on prestige buildings, large or
small.
Choice of curtain wall type is never straightforward.  Dominant factors are:

 Cost
 Appearance
 Timescale
 Access limitations

The lowest cost is often achieved with a standard aluminium-framed stick

system.  Generally, costs increase with complexity, although factory assembly
also increases costs.  Increasing the number of non-standard items will
increase cost, not only due to the additional ‘material’ cost but also due to
additional design work required to integrate the component(s) within the
system and possibly because of the need for project testing.

The importance of appearance will depend upon the desired image that the
building is to project.  A building situated in a highly visible or prestigious
location may demand the use of more expensive materials, perhaps stone-
faced insulated panels or a structural sealant or bolted glazing system with no
external protrusions to interrupt the facade.  A building facade may be
designed to compliment, or contrast with, the surrounding built environment.

Time-scale is important because there may be contractual limitations on the

time available for assembling the facade.  A site-assembled stick system has
the advantage that installation can start quickly, but it may then proceed more
slowly than with factory-assembled units.  However, systems requiring factory
pre-assembly must be carefully planned so that units are available when
construction of the facade is planned to start, but the units must not be
manufactured or delivered too soon or storage costs will be incurred.  Note
that whilst the smaller number of site-made joints in pre-assembled systems
simplifies installation and weatherproofing, far greater attention to the
manufacturing and erection tolerances of both structure and cladding is
required. 
Other factors that are important include the ease of maintenance. 
Replacement of a glazing unit in a ribbon glazing system might be undertaken
by a local glazier, whilst in a structural sealant glazing system this might
require a specialist contractor, maybe the original contractor.  Systems such
as structural glazing must be designed so that breakage of a glass unit does
not cause progressive failure of the facade. This may increase the cost of
these systems.

The architect may select several different types of curtain wall for a building -
for example ribbon glazing at the back of the building, a standard stick system
for the front of the building, and a prestige suspended glazing for the atrium. 
Efforts should be concentrated on the construction interfaces during the
design development and testing phases to reduce the risk of subsequent build
ability and performance problems. 
 

Masonry 
Masonry is the predominant form of wall construction for low rise housing and
is widely used in all types of building although on large structures it is often
used for small areas with less labour intensive cladding materials being used
for large areas of façade. The wide range of materials available means that it
can be suitable for both low-cost industrial buildings and prestige structures.

Masonry is a composite construction of individual brick or block units built up

in horizontal, overlapping layers (courses) and bonded and sealed with mortar
(sand, cement, and lime or plasticizer). Bricks may be manufactured from clay,
calcium silicate or concrete and blocks are normally concrete or stone.

Cavity wall construction is used almost without exception for external walls
because it provides an increased degree of thermal insulation and protection
against water penetration compared with a solid wall of the same overall
thickness. In modern construction the external leaf is normally a non load
bearing cladding 100mm thick and the units are chosen primarily for their
appearance, durability and cost. The load bearing structure may be a steel,
concrete or timber frame or an inner leaf of load bearing masonry.The inner
leaf of a cavity wall may consist of concrete blocks, concrete or an insulated
panel typically consisting of a timber frame with plywood or plasterboard
sheathing. Where masonry is used for the inner leaf the requirements for the
unit are normally low density (for insulation), adequate strength and low cost.
An inner leaf is typically 100mm thick but this may be increased to improve
insulation or strength.  Thermal insulation (typically mineral fibre quilt) is often
required within the cavity to comply with Part L of the Building Regulations.

In load bearing masonry and non-load bearing low rise construction the
masonry will support its own weight but the external leaf needs to be tied to
the inner leaf and structural frame to give it lateral stability. In non-structural,
multi-storey applications the weight of the masonry should be transferred to
the frame at each storey level. In the past this was often achieved by
supporting the wall directly on the floor with brick slips on the edge of the floor.
Current practice is generally to support the wall on metal angles. These should
be adjustable, particularly in the lateral direction to ensure alignment and
adequate bearing of each panel of masonry. 
 
Other types of cladding 
Weatherboarding and tile hanging are traditional forms of cladding which are
generally confined to housing. PVC and fibre cement panels are now available
as alternatives to timber for weatherboarding. Tile hanging may use traditional
clay or concrete tiles, or slates of natural stone or fibre cement.

Rendering may be used as a decorative or weatherproofing finish on masonry

walls but may also be used on a lightweight background. Traditionally this
would be wooden lath but this has now been replaced by metal mesh that may
either be expanded metal or a lightweight welded mesh. This form of cladding
is not widely used and is generally restricted to housing.

The cladding types described in this Section are established methods. New
systems or developments of existing systems using new materials are
continually being produced, a recent example being the use of titanium and
terracotta.