Resource Management

4th Year Civil Engineering

Deep Excavation & Earth Retention Systems

Dr. Hesham Osman

Types of Excavations Methods

3 Top Down Construction

Retention System Depends On:
 Proximity to Buildings
 Type of Soil
 Water Table Level
 Temporary or Permanent
 Contractor Preference
 Cost - KEY Consideration
Uniform slope & stepped excavations. Used when
adequate space is available on site
Excavation in Clay
(A Cohesive Soil)
Benched Excavation
CONSTRUCTION
SITE/EXCAVATION SUPPORT
Types of Slop Support/Shoring
Systems/Retaining Walls
1. Diaphragm Walls
2. Sheet Piles
3. Contiguous Piles
4. Secant Piles
5. Soldier Beam and Lagging/Berlin Walls
6. Soil Nailing
7. Others Retaining Walls, Interlock Blocks, earth
reinforcements
DIAPHRAGM WALLS
Diaphragm Wall Overview
 The term refers to a reinforced concrete
wall constructed below ground level
utilizing the slurry method of trench
stabilization.
 A trench with the width of the intended
thickness of the concrete wall is
excavated.
 As the digging progresses, the excavated
material is immediately and continually
replaced by a bentonite slurry mix.
Diaphragm Wall Overview
 The lateral pressure created by the slurry prevents the sides of the trench
from collapsing. After he trench is excavated to its final depth, caged
reinforcement is lowered through the slurry.
 Concrete, placed by the tremie
method, fills the trench from the
bottom up, displacing the lighter
weight bentonite slurry which is
pumped away.
 Once the concrete cures and the
wall attains its intended strength,
the soil is excavated from on side
and lateral bracing is installed,
making the wall a temporary, and
then later a permanent retaining or
foundation wall.
Common Applications
 Subway stations
 Quays / Docks
 Deep basements
 Depressed highways
 Pump stations (circular)
Advantages of Diaphragm Walls
 Compared to other commonly used earth retaining systems
(e.g. soldier piles, sheet piling, etc..) they can be an integral
part of the permanent structure. This attribute contributes to
their time and cost efficiency.
 Other advantages include:
 They are rigid
 They can be made watertight
 Ability to support substantial vertical and lateral loads
 Installed without very little vibration
Bentonite Slurry
 The bentonite or drilling mud clays are generally
formed from volcanic mineral (montmorillonite)
clays
 The name comes from the mining area of Fort
Benton Wyoming
 The bentonite is supplied to the site in a
powdered form. When added to water in its dry
powder form the bentonite is blended to form a
viscous (thick and sticky) fluid.
 When the clay particles are thoroughly mixed
and hydrated or soaked, this causes the particles
to bond to each other evenly and swell to form a
gel. If the bentonite is left to stand for a period of
time it forms a gel or bonding of the swollen clay
particles.
Bentonite Slurry
 One could imagine a freshly mixed jelly poured into a
mould which then gains strength over a period of time.
 However, bentonite once in motion again reverts back
to its fluid state a process that can be repeated
indefinitely (thixotropy)
 Bentonite is sensitive to many chemicals and has
different qualities when blended with each. Just raising
or lowering the pH (acidity/alkalinity) can cause the
thickening of the fluid till it becomes almost a solid, or
on the other hand it can be made to separate into a
sludge on the bottom of the tank with clear water on
top.
 By manipulating viscosity the designer of the mix can
suspend particles e.g. sand in the mud. Further into
construction concrete is used to displace the bentonite.
Bentonite Quality Control
 Control of density by the mud balance
 Control of viscosity by the March funnel
 Sand control by the sand content tube
 Filtration property and filter cake property control by the
filter press

Too Thick Too Thin

•Trapping bentonite pockets •Insufficient ability to support

within concrete sides of excavation
•Poor flow of concrete
•Water seepage between panels
Construction of Guide Walls
 Pair of concrete walls are constructed to:
 Establish the location of the diaphragm
walls and ensure proper alignment during
excavation
 Prevent to top of the excavation from
falling in
Excavation Process
Direct Circulation Reverse Circulation
 Soil excavated by clamshell and  Soil excavated with slurry trench
disposed of cutter (hydromill)
 Bentonite continuously pumped  Excavated soil conveyed to the
to replace excavated material surface through the drill stem
with the aid of direct suction
 Continuous recirculation of
drilling fluid after separation
using shaker screen or desanders
 Excavation Equipment

Kelly Frame

‘Hang Grab’
Reverse Circulation
Reinforcement Cages
 Manufactured on site and into 3 dimensional steel cages.
 Installed by cranes and lowered into the trench through
the slurry
 Large cages need to maintain a certain degree of rigidity
sometimes bulkheads are used
 For deep walls cages are lowered in sections and
connected over the excavation using mechanical couplers
of splicing
 Use of spacers is common to ensure adequate cover
Concrete Pouring
 Using the Tremie method described earlier
 Should be done as soon as possible after
installing reinforcement to enable better removal
of bentonite film around the bars and provide
better bonding with the concrete
 At the top end of the wall concrete is usually
contaminated by slurry resulting in inferior
quality concrete that may have to be removed
and re-poured.
Wall Bracing System
 In some cases, the diaphragm
wall needs to be supported
against the lateral earth
pressure, hydrostatic pressure
and surcharge loads by a
bracing system
 Tie back anchors
 Cross-lot bracing
Tie Back Systems
 Provides clear and unobstructed area
in front of wall
 Requires area behind wall to be
available (easement must be created
if private property)
Bracing Systems
 Effective with two parallel walls that are
relatively close to each other
 Both sides of the excavation should be
subject to the same lateral forces
 Constrains the excavations area

 In some cases bracing can be

accomplished by the permanent
structure itself (e.g. floor slabs)
Other types: Precast Concrete Diaphragm
Walls
 After excavation, precast (and usually
prestrssed) concrete panels are inserted using
a crane.
 Panels rest on a bedding of tremie concrete at
the trench bottom. They can also be supported
on the guide walls
 Thickness of panel is 15-25cm less than trench
 Once panel is properly positioned a bentonite
cement mix is pumped to the bottom of the
trench
 After excavation the cement bentonite mortar
is scarped off the sides of the wall
 Adv: Quick, fare face wall
 Disadv: Shipping and handling panels
SHEET PILES
Supports for deep excavations
 Sheet piles
 Interlocking vertical steel sheets driven into soil prior
to excavation
 Lower part of sheet remains buried, providing
cantilever
 Deep excavations must be braced (> 15 ft.)
Steel Sheeting Interlock
Profile of steel sheet piles
Most Common
Tips for installation
 Always set-up a template system
 Rule of thumb: Crane Boom length should be twice that
of the sheets
 Drive the Sheets with the "male" interlock leading in
order to avoid soilplugs
 If the "female" interlock must lead, place a bolt or other
object at the bottom to avoid debris filling the slot
 Align and plumb the first two sheets and drive carefully
and accurately
 Drive sheets in pairs when possible placing the hammer
in the center of the pair
Issues with sheet piles
Issues/Disadvantages Advantages
 Cannot be used in stiff soils or in  Sheet pile sections can be reused
presence of rocks and boulders on other projects
 Careful installation to ensure  Relatively light weight
perfect verticality  Usually provide good protection
 Limited strength of this steel against water seepage if installed
sections means that depths are properly
limited. For larger depths (>5-  Sheets are 12m in length. Can be
7m) bracing must be used. extended by welding or bolting
 Cannot be used as part of
permanent structure
 Vibrations during installation
may impact neighboring
structures
SECANT PILES
Secant piles
Secant Pile Construction Sequence
Secant Pile wall
without tieback
system

Secant Pile wall

with tieback
system
BERLIN WALLS
Solder Beam & Lagging
Connection of lagging to soldier piles
SOIL NAILING
Soil Nailing
 earth retention
technique using
grouted tension-
resisting steel
elements (nails)
 Drilled Holes

Anchors
(tendons)

Soil Nailing a Bank

Anchor Drill
Hole Drilled, Tendon Installed & Grouted
Bank Requiring a Retention System
Drainage
Mats
Cemetitious Coating being Installed over Reinforcing Mat
Anchor Plate Installed & Tendon Stressed
Selection Criteria
Sheet Pile Berlin Walls Diaphragm Secant Piles
walls
Can be used as part of No No Yes Sometimes - May
permanent basement require final
structure finishing

Water tightness High - if Low High High

installed
properly
System can be reused Yes Yes No No

Requirements for Medium Low High Medium

specialized equipment
Typical Depths 12-20m 8-15m Up to 40m 15-20m
COFFERDAMS
 What is a cofferdam?
 Temporary enclosures to keep out water so
as to permit dewatering and the
construction of a temporary structure in
the dry
 Commonly used in the construction of
bridge piers, intake structures, pump
houses, etc….
 Cofferdams involve the interaction of the
structure, soil and water. Loads include
hydrostatic forces and dynamic forces due
to currents and waves
Typical Cofferdam Arrangement
Cofferdam without seal:
Used when bottom layer is
impermeable and/or dewatering
well below excavated bottom is
possible

Cofferdam with seal:

Concrete seal ‘plug’ placed prior to
dewatering to seal off water, resist
uplift pressure and serves as a slab
to act against inward movement of
sheet piles
Cellular Cofferdams
Used to dike off relatively large areas where
the use of internal bracing and/or tiebacks is
unsuitable

Constructed by driving interlocking sheet piles

to form a closed cell that is filled with granular
material

Fill material develops tensile forces in the

sheet pile ring

Performance depends on internal shear

strength of fill, its friction against sheet piles
and the tensile interlocking of sheet piles

Practical for dewatered depths up to 25m.

They form a continuous gravity wall and
create large pressures on soil beneath. Best
used when founded on rock and dense sands
Double-walled Cofferdams
 Used in deep and large areas
 Creates a single sandwiched
structure between sheet piles and
fill material
Advantages of Cofferdams
 Allow excavation and construction
of structures in otherwise poor
environment
 Provides relatively safe environment
to work
 Contractors typically have design
responsibility
 Steel sheet piles are easily installed
and removed
 Materials can typically be reused on
other projects
Cofferdam Construction Sequence – 1

Pre-dredge to remove soft sediments and to level the area of the cofferdam

Notes:
1- Pre-dredging is usually more cost effective that post dredging in spite the large amounts of
excavated material
2- When pre-dredging all the way to final grade, outward pressure of tremie concrete on sheet
pile must be considered. In some cases backfill outside the sheet piles is required prior to
concrete pouring
3- Pre-dredging will stir up bottom sediments  ecological csniderations
Cofferdam Construction Sequence – 2

Install temporary support piles and set prefabricated bracing frame on support piles
Typical Cofferdam Bracing Frame
Cofferdam Construction Sequence – 3

3.1 Set sheet piles starting at all four corners and meeting at the center of each side
3.2 Drive sheet piles to grade
Cofferdam Construction Sequence – 4
4.1 Excavate inside the grade or slightly below
grade, while leaving the cofferdam full of water

4.2 Drive piles

4.3 Place rock fill as a leveling and support course

4.4 Pout tremie concrete

Questions:
How would you excavate inside the cofferdam (a)?
What is the purpose of piles (b)?
 Cofferdam Construction Sequence – 5
5.1 Dewater

5.2 Construct new structure

5.3 Flood cofferdam

5.4 Remove sheet piles and

bracing

5.5 Backfill
 Notes and observations on cofferdam
construction – Weak Soil
 Cofferdam construction in weak clay
and mud:
 Inadequate passive soil resistance may cause
sheet piles to fail (or require the use of heavy
or long sheet piles that will increase the
cost). This is a common problem with
shallow cofferdams in weak soils
 In this case an economical solution is to pre-
dredge below grade and dump an artificial
layer of sand and gravel to help develop
lateral support for the sheet piles
 Notes and observations on cofferdam
construction – Weak Soil
 Cofferdam construction in weak clay and mud:
 In the case where pre-dredging and dumping of sand/gravel layer cannot be completed,
this layer can be ‘injected’ using a sand drain under air pressure
 Notes and observations on cofferdam
construction – Bracing Frames
 Forces on bracing frame: Structural design of frame
needs to consider the following loads:
 Wales: Dead load (bending VL plane), Lateral load (bending
HL plane), axial load
 Struts: Dead load (bending VL plane), axial load
 Field welding is not preferred due to moisture and poor
working conditions. Assembling frame is by bolts to
allow easy removal
 Initial space frame assembly takes place on barge or
onshore skidways
 For heavy frames, the use of tubular closed sections
may allow the frame to become buoyant. This reduces
the need for large barge cranes to place frame into
cofferdam.
 Notes and observations on cofferdam
construction – Concrete Seal
 Purpose of the seal is:
 Prevent upward flow of water
 Act as a lower strut (support) for the sheet piles
 Provide a dead weight that resists the uplift due to the differential head
 Provide support for the subsequent construction of the permanent structure
 Underwater concrete is placed by:
 Tremie pipe method
 Grout intruded aggregate method
 Typical underwater concrete mix :
 Cement 320-350 kg/m3
 PFA (pozzolan) 80 – 100 kg/m3
 Water reducing admixture
 Plastizing admixture
 Retarding admixture
 W-C ratio 042 to 0.45
Notes and observations on cofferdam
construction – Underwater Concrete Pipe
 Read pages 7.24 – 7.33