Top 10 Learning Theories (MindTools.com) levels within a pyramid.

These are physiological, safety, social,

esteem, and self-actualization.
1. Behaviorism
Based on the principle of stimulus-response, behaviorism 6. Experiential Learning
assumes the learner is passive, merely responding to external David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984. From
stimuli. “Learning” is evidenced by a change in the learner’s this, he developed his learning styles inventory.
behavior. Kolb’s experiential learning theory operates on two levels – a
External stimuli cause all behavior. So behavior can be four-stage cycle of learning and four separate learning styles.
explained without considering internal mental states or Much of Kolb’s theory focuses on the learner’s internal
consciousness. cognitive processes.
The learner begins as a “clean slate.” Subsequent behavior is In his view, learning involves acquiring abstract concepts that
shaped by positive (applying a stimulus) or negative can be applied flexibly in a range of situations. In his theory,
(withholding a stimulus) reinforcement. Any reinforcement the impetus to develop new concepts is provided by new
increases the probability that the previous behavior will be experience.
repeated, while punishment reduces the probability that the
previous behavior will be repeated. 7. ARCS
A design theory developed by Dr John M Keller, ARCS is a
2. Cognitivism mnemonic that stands for Attention, Relevance, Confidence,
Cognitivism believes that the mind’s “black box” needs to be and Satisfaction. ARCS is a problem-solving approach to
opened and understood. It views the learner as an information designing learning environments that stimulate and sustain
processor – somewhat like a computer. During the 1960s, students’ motivation to learn. In two parts, the ARCS model is
cognitivism, which focuses on exploring mental processes a set of categories representing the components of motivation,
such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem solving, followed by a systematic design process to create appropriate
replaced behaviorism as the dominant learning theory. motivational enhancements for learners. ARCS is also claimed
Cognitivists see knowledge as symbolic mental constructions, – and acclaimed –by humanists, so it could also be seen as
or “schema.” Learning is a change in the learner’s schema. part of humanism (see above).

3. Constructivism 8. ADDIE
Constructivism – which is allied to social and situational ADDIE is a mnemonic that stands for the five stages of
learning theories – views learning as an active process in instructional design: Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement,
which learners build information to create subjective and Evaluate. ADDIE is a high-level framework that helps
representations of objective reality. These representations are provide context for what an instructional designer does.
subjective because new information is always linked to
people’s prior knowledge. 9. Elaboration theory
Reacting against the didactic approaches of behaviorism and Like other design theories and models, Charles Reigleuth’s
programmed instruction, constructivism argues that learning is elaboration theory (published in 1979) tries to bridge theory
an active, contextualized process, comprising building – not and practice in education, aiming to reveal the relationships
acquiring – knowledge. Personal experience, allied to ideas between educational theory, designed learning programs, and
about the learner’s environment, helps build that knowledge. practice.
Learners constantly test these ideas through social negotiation Reigleuth’s view is that content that must be learned should be
and, since everyone’s an individual, each person approaches organized in an order from the simple to the complex – while
building knowledge differently, and interprets it differently. providing a meaningful context within which to integrate
subsequent ideas. Elaboration theory proposes seven major
4. Humanistic learning theory strategy components: an elaborative sequence, learning
Allied to motivational learning theories, humanism views prerequisite sequences, summary, synthesis, analogies,
learning as a personal act that contributes to fulfilling a cognitive strategies, and learner control.
person’s potential. Championed by such learning theorists as
Abraham Maslow, humanism has given us the term “self- 10. Bloom’s Taxonomy
actualization” as well as the concept of the teacher as Bloom’s Taxonomy is a way of classifying thinking according to
facilitator. six cognitive levels of complexity. This hierarchical model
Like cognitivism, humanism emerged in the 1960s. It focuses argues that Knowledge, Comprehension and Application are
on human dignity, freedom and potential. One of its central more “basic” than Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation.
pillars is the assumption that people act with “intentionality” These six steps can be seen as a stairway that learners are
and values. This contrasts with behaviorism, which says that encouraged to ascend to achieve a higher level of thinking.
all behavior is the result of applying consequences. The Once a learner has mastered a higher level of thinking, then
humanist view also opposes cognitive psychology’s belief that she is said to have mastered the lower levels.
discovering knowledge and constructing meaning is central to First published in 1956, Bloom’s Taxonomy’s six steps have
learning. been updated to meet 21st century demands. They’re now said
A key humanist view is that it’s vital to see the learner as a to be: Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing,
whole person, especially as he or she grows and develops Evaluating, and Creating.
over his lifespan.

5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

This hierarchy grew from Maslow’s quest to understand what
motivates people. In 1943, Maslow said that people are
motivated to achieve certain needs. Having fulfilled one need,
they seek to fulfill the next one, and so on.
The most widespread version of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
includes five motivational needs, often depicted as hierarchical
Teaching and Learning Theories (tomprof.stanford.edu) Experiential learning

Behaviorism Experiential learning is about the learner experiencing things

for themselves and learning from them. Kolb (1984) proposed
Behaviorism assumes a learner is essentially passive, and will a four stage model known as the experiential learning cycle. It
be shaped through positive or negative reinforcement. is a way by which people can understand their experiences
Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior. Skinner and, as a result, modify their behavior. It is based on the idea
(1974) believed that behavior is a function of its consequences, that the more often a learner reflects on a task, the more often
i.e. learners will repeat the desired behavior if positive they have the opportunity to modify and refine their efforts. The
reinforcement is given. The behavior should not be repeated if process of learning can begin at any stage and is continuous,
negative feedback is given. Giving immediate feedback, i.e. there is no limit to the number of cycles which can be made
whether positive or negative, should enable your learners to in a learning situation. This theory suggests that without
behave in a certain way. Positive reinforcement or rewards can reflection, people would continue to repeat their mistakes.
include verbal feedback such as That’s great, you’ve produced
that document without any errors or You’re certainly getting on * Concrete experience is about experiencing or immersing
well with that task, through to more tangible rewards such as a yourself in the task and is the first stage in which a person
certificate at the end of the programme, or a promotion or pay simply carries out the task assigned. This is the doing stage.
rise at work.
* Observation and reflection involve stepping back from the
Cognitivism task and reviewing what has been done and experienced. Your
values, attitudes and beliefs can influence your thinking at this
Cognitivism focuses on what happens in the mind such as stage. This is the stage of thinking about what you have done.
thinking and problem-solving. New knowledge is built upon
prior knowledge and learners need active participation in order * Abstract conceptualization involves interpreting the events
to learn. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an that have been carried out and making sense of them. This is
indication of what is taking place in the learner’s mind. the stage of planning how you will do it differently.
Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as a computer:
information comes in, is processed, and learning takes place. * Active experimentation enables you to take the new learning
and predict what is likely to happen next or what actions should
Constructivism be taken to refine the way the task is done again. This is the
redoing stage based upon experience and reflection.
Constructivism is about learning being an active,
contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than Humanism
acquiring it. The learner brings past experiences and cultural
factors to a current situation and each person has a different Humanism is an approach that believes learning is seen as a
interpretation and construction of the knowledge process. personal act to fulfill potential. Humanists believe that it is
necessary to study a person as a whole, particularly as they
Vygotsky’s (1978) theory is one of the foundations of grow and develop over their lifetime. Rogers (1983) and others
constructivism. It asserts three major themes. developed the theory of facilitative learning based on a belief
that people have a natural human eagerness to learn and that
1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process learning involves changing your own concept of yourself. This
of cognitive development. Vygotsky felt social learning theory suggests that learning will take place if the person
precedes development and stated: Every function in the child’s delivering it acts as a facilitator. The facilitator should establish
cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, an atmosphere in which her learners feel comfortable, are able
and later, on the individual level; first, between people to discuss new ideas and learn from their mistakes, as long as
(interpsychological) and then inside the child they are not threatened by external factors.
(intrapsychological) (Vygotsky, 1978 page 57).
Pedagogy and andragogy
2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers
to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability Formal teaching is known as pedagogy, where the teacher
level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, directs all the learning. Informal teaching is known as
process, or concept. The MKO is normally the teacher, or an andragogy, where the learner is the focus, for example, via
older adult, but the MKO could also be a peer, a younger group work and discussions. Pedagogy does not always allow
person, or even information from the internet. for individual knowledge to be taken into account and often
focuses on teaching the same topic at the same time to all
3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is learners. Knowles et al. (2005) initially defined andragogy as
the distance between a learner’s ability to perform a task under the art and science of helping adults learn. An andragogical
adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and their ability approach places more emphasis on what the learner is doing.
to solve the problem independently. According to Vygotzky, You can include your learners’ experiences and knowledge by
learning occurs in this zone. involving them whenever possible, and building upon what they
already know and what interests them. Learners can also learn
Think of these themes as: from their peers’ knowledge and experiences, as well as from
you.
1. what the learner can do
Pragmatism
2. what the learner can do with help from others
John Dewey (1859-1952) believed that formal schooling was
3. what the learner can’t do yet but will attempt to do falling short of its potential. He emphasized facilitating learning
through promoting various activities rather than by using a
 traditional teacher-focused method. He believed that learners is linked to knowledge, thus mental representations are
learnt more from guided experiences than from authoritarian subjective.
instruction. He subscribed to a pragmatist theory which placed  
the learner as the focus rather than the teacher. Dewey argued Humanism
that learning is life, not just preparation for life. Using different  Founders and proponents: Abraham Maslow, Carl
delivery approaches, combined with practical activities, will Rogers, others.
help reach the different learning preferences of the individuals  Basic idea: Learning is a personal act to fulfill one’s
you are teaching. potential.
 Learner viewed as: One with affective and cognitive
Sensory theory needs.
 Emphasis on the freedom, dignity, and potential of
Laird (1985) suggests that learning occurs when the senses of humans.
sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste are stimulated. This is  Learning is student-centered and personal, facilitated
easy if you are teaching a practical session, but not so if you by teachers, with the goal of developing self-actualized people
are teaching a theoretical subject. However, if you are willing to in a cooperative, supportive environment.
try something different, you can make your sessions really
interesting and memorable. Whenever possible, link theory to
practice, and use practical activities based around the subject
and the areas of interest of your learners. If you can make your
session fun and interesting, relating to all the senses, it will
help your learners remember the topics better. Don’t forget two
other senses you can use as a teacher: a sense of humor and
common sense.

Paradigms - Learning Theories

(https://www.learning-theories.com/paradigms)

Learning theories tend to fall into one of several perspectives

or paradigms, including behaviorism, cognitivism,
constructivism, and others. Here are some of the basic ones:

Behaviorism
 Founders and proponents: John B. Watson in the
early 20th century. B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, and others.
 Basic idea: Stimulus-response. All behavior caused
by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be
explained without the need to consider internal mental states
or consciousness.
 Learner viewed as: Passive, responding to
environmental stimuli.
 Behavior may result in reinforcement (increased
likelihood that behavior will occur in the future); or punishment.
 
Cognitivism
 Founders and proponents: Replaced behaviorism in
1960s as dominant paradigm. Noam Chomsky.
 Basic idea: Mental function can be understood
 Learner viewed as: Information processor
 Cognitivism focuses on inner mental activities —
opening the “black box” of the human mind. It is necessary to
determine how processes such as thinking, memory, knowing,
and problem-solving occur. People are not “programmed
animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people
are rational beings whose action are a consequence of
thinking.
 Metaphor of mind as computer: information comes in,
is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes.
 
Constructivism
 Founders and proponents: John Dewey, Jean Piaget,
Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, others.
 Basic idea: Learning is an active, constructive
process.
 Learner viewed as: Information constructor.
 People actively construct or create their own
subjective representations of objective reality. New information