1.

Introduction

DCS is a system of sensors, controls, and compatible computers that are distributed throughout the
plant. Each of these functions serves a unique purpose such as data acquisition, process control, and
data storage and graphical display. Each of these devices communicates with a single computer
through a local plant network - commonly referred to as a control network. Since the 'middle brain'
of a plant DCS makes automatic decisions based on production practices seeing them in real time
throughout the plant. For example, DCS at a power plant can automatically increase the production
capacity of multiple turbines to keep pace with the change in electricity demand during the hot
summer days and then decrease as outside temperatures cool overnight and seek to decrease.
While the PLC can adjust the performance of a single unit, DCS can make changes in each multi-
functional plant function.

Figure 1 : Layout of Distributed control system

2. How DCS is used?

While DCS is used in all process control industries to oversee complex production processes, they are
still widely distributed in large, sustainable production plants such as those in the petrochemical
industry, paper industry. With the help of DCS these and other structures can effectively integrate
changes efficiently using a single computer network. Orders from DCS are still distributed
throughout the plant and given to individual controls. Properly designed DCS can improve security
while also improving product efficiency.

3. Significance of DCS

A comparison of the two plants can help to show the importance of DCS. First, consider a small
municipal wastewater treatment plant that uses twelve controls. Engineering plant operators can
easily keep a close eye on the performance of a limited number of controllers. Next, consider a large
filter that uses 10,000 loops of high power and interaction. While linking control at the treatment
center is very simple, the task of setting up control in the filter area can be difficult without the use
of DCS. Over the years, the line between DCS and PLC has faded. While DCS has traditionally been
the only solution to the safe and effective safety of all plants, advances in skills performance have
allowed PLC to quickly take on greater responsibility. In the coming years it can be expected that the
PLC and DCS will continue to exchange.

4. Parts of a DCS

The Distributed Control System continues to communicate processes in process management

applications receiving instructions from the operator. It also assists dynamic set-up points with the
opening and closing of operator-controlled valves. The human interface (HMI) interface, faceplates,
and the trend display provide effective monitoring of industrial processes.

4 Basic Elements of Distributed Control System

Engineering PC or controller

This controller is an administrative control over all the controls that run on delivery. Algorithms for
controlling and configuring various devices are developed in this control. Network communication
between processing and PC engineering can be done with simple or unwanted fixes.

Distributed controller or Local control unit

It can be placed near to field devices (sensors and actuators) or certain locations where these field
devices are connected via the communication link. It receives the instructions from the engineering
station like set point and other parameters and directly controls field devices.

It can sense and control both analog and digital inputs/outputs by analog and digital I/O modules.
These modules are extendable according to the number of inputs and outputs. It collects the
information from discrete field devices and sends this information to operating and engineering
stations.

Operating station or HMI

It is used to monitor entire plant parameters graphically and to log the data in plant database
systems. The trend display of various process parameters provides effective display and easy
monitoring.

These operating stations are of different types such as some operating stations (PCs) used to
monitor only parameters, some for only trend display, some for data logging, and alarming
requirements. These can also be configured to have control capabilities.

Communication media and protocol

Communication media consists of transmission cables to transmit the data such as coaxial cables,
copper wires, fiber optic cables and sometimes it might be wireless. Communication protocols
selected depend on the number of devices to be connected to this network.

For example, RS232 supports only for 2 devices and Profibus for 126 devices or nodes. Some of these
protocols include Ethernet, DeviceNet, the foundation filed bus, Modbus, CAN, etc.

In DCS, two or more communication protocols are used between two or more areas such as
between field control devices and distributed controllers and another one between distributed
controllers and supervisory control stations such as operating and engineering stations.
 5. Features of DCS

5.1 To handle complex processes:

In the factory automation structure, PLC-Programming Logic Controller is used to control and
monitor the process parameters at high-speed requirements. However, due to the limitation of a
number of I/O devices, PLCs cannot handle complex structures.

Hence DCS is preferred for complex control applications with more number of I/O’s with dedicated
controllers. These are used in manufacturing processes where designing of multiple products are in
multiple procedures such as batch process control.

5.2 System redundancy:

DCS facilitates system availability when needed by redundant features at every level.

Resuming the steady-state operation after any outages, whether planned or unplanned is somewhat
better compared to other automation control devices.

Redundancy raises the system reliability by maintaining system operation continuously even in some
abnormalities while the system is in operation.

Figure 5.2: System Redundancy

5.3 A lot of Predefined function blocks:

DCS offers many algorithms, more standard application libraries, pre-tested and pre-defined
functions to deal with large complex systems. This makes programming to control various
applications being easy and consuming less time to program and control.

Figure 5.3: Predefined Function blocks

5.4 Powerful programming languages:

It provides more number of programming languages like a ladder, function block, sequential, etc for
creating custom programming based on user interest.

5.5 More sophisticated HMI:

Similar to the SCADA system, DCS can also monitor and control through HMI’s (Human Machine
Interface) which provides sufficient data to the operator to charge over various processes and it acts
as the heart of the system. But this type of industrial control system covers large geographical areas
whereas DCS covers the confined areas.

DCS completely takes the entire process plant to the control room as a PC window. Trending,
logging, and graphical representation of the HMI’s give an effective user interface. Powerful alarming
system of DCS helps operators to respond more quickly to the plant conditions.

Figure 5.5 : Sophisticated HMI

5.6 Scalable platform:

The structure of DCS can be scalable based on the number I/O’s from small to large server systems
by adding more clients and servers in the communication system and also by adding more I/O
modules in distributed controllers.

5.7 System security:

Access to control various processes leads to plant safety. DCS design offers a perfect secured system
to handle system functions for better factory automation control. Security is also provided at
different levels such as engineer level, entrepreneur level, operator level, etc.

6. Transmitters

6.1 Liquid Level Transmitters

As the name suggests, a level measurement transmitter is an instrument providing continuous level
measurement. It can be used to determine the level of liquid or bulk-solid at a particular time. Levels
of media such as water, viscous fluids, and fuels, or dry media such as bulk solids and powders can
be measured using the transmitter.
Level measurement transmitter are used in a myriad of applications that require level measurement
within containers or tanks. These transmitters often find their application in material handling,  food
and beverage, power, chemical, and water treatment industries.

Working Principle of Level Transmitters

The working principle of level transmitters mentioned above varies according to their underlying
principle. For instance, capacitance level transmitters operate through a capacitor, hydrostatic level
 transmitters depend on the pressure of a fluid in a storage container for level measurement, while
ultrasonic level transmitters convert the distance travelled by an ultrasonic wave to determine the
level, and so on. However, all these level transmitters measure the level in either of the three ways:

 The weight of the fluid

 The pressure head of the fluid
 The position of the fluid in a container

 If you look closely, all the pressure transmitters covered in this post take into account either of the
three factors to give an appropriate measurement. Level measurements are classified into two
types– direct and indirect level measurements or performed by contact or non-contact transmitters.
Direct level measurements are considered ideal for small level changes, which are observed in
various industrial tanks. However, most level transmitters are designed for indirect level
measurements as they are sensitive and designed for too high or too low level measurements,
where direct measurement becomes difficult. Ultrasonic level transmitters can be availed in contact-
or non-contact configurations.

Types of Level Transmitters:

Level measurement transmitters are of seven types. Each type of transmitter works in a different
way, and makes it useful for different types of processes.

6.1.2 Capacitance Level Transmitters

These transmitters use liquid stored in a tank or container as a dielectric medium between two or
more electrodes. The energy capacity of the capacitor circuit increases when there is more liquid,
and decreases if there is less liquid. By measuring the variations in the capacitance value,
capacitance level transmitters can calculate the current fill level of the tank or container.

Figure 6.1.1 : Capacitance Level Transmitters

 6.1.2 Hydrostatic Level Transmitters

Also known as pressure level transmitters, these transmitters help in determining fluid contents of a
container by measuring the pressure of resting body of the fluid within it. The greater the force of
liquid, the greater the volume of fluid.
 Figure 6.1.2: Hydrostatic Level transmitter

 6.1.3 Magnetic Level Transmitters

These transmitters use a magnetic object, which is suspended in a buoyant float. This is usually in a
narrow auxiliary column, to restrict lateral movements of the float. While the float is on top of the
liquid, the movement of the float is measured by a different magnetic device. This allows a precise
and stable fill level to be transmitted. This method is suitable for continuous measurement owing to
the tendency of the float to rise or sink based on the liquid level.

Figure 6.1.3: Magnetic level transmitter

 6.1.4 Radar Fill Level Transmitters

These transmitters work on the principle of a radar by using radio wave emissions. These
transmitters are normally mounted at the top of a tank filled with a liquid. The transmitter sends a
radar signal into the liquid, and receives a reflection of the signal. The transmitters then analyse the
current fill level of the tank based on the time taken by the transmitted signal to return.
 Figure 6.1.4: Radar Fill Level Transmitter

 6.1.5 Ultrasonic Level Transmitter

In this type of transmitter, an ultrasonic transducer is mounted at, or near the top of a container
containing liquid. The transducer sends out an ultrasonic pulse. The pulse hits the surface of the
liquid, and gets reflected. The sensor then calculates the fill level based on the time between the
transmitted and received signal.

Figure 6.1.5: Ultrasonic Level Transmitters

 6.1.6 Guided Microwave Level Transmitters

These transmitters work by sending a microwave pulse through a sensor cable or rod. The signal hits
the surface of the liquid, and travels back to the sensor, and then to the transmitter housing. The
electronics integrated in the transmitter housing determine the filling level based on the time taken
by the signal to travel down the sensor and back up again. These types of  level transmitters are used
in industrial applications in all areas of process technology.
 Figure 6.1.6: Guided Microwave Level transmitter

6.1.7 Liquid Level Transmitters

These transmitters are engineered for detecting levels of liquids. Liquid level transmitters are also
used for detecting interfaces between two different liquids such as oil and water. Liquid level
transmitters are mainly used for liquid-level sensing in storage tanks, transport tanks, as well as
water storage tanks. These pressure transmitters measure the level by measuring the head pressure
of liquid.

Figure 6.1.7: Liquid Level Transmitter

6.2 Pressure Transmitters

The functional principle of a resistive pressure transmitter is very simple. The pressure sensor
converts the mechanical pressure value into a proportional electrical signal. The pressure sensor
typically consists of a stable main body and a (thin) diaphragm. The diaphragm is the most
important element for the measurement of the pressure and is equipped with strain-sensitive and
 compression-sensitive resistance structures, so-called strain gauges (DMS). The diaphragm is
deflected under the influence of pressure.
Thus, the strain gauges attached to it are elongated or compressed and its electrical resistance
changes. This change in resistance is directly proportional to the pressure. For example, if the
resistors are wired to a Wheatstone measuring bridge, the resulting electrical signal can be
measured and transferred to an indicator.

6.2.1 Bourdon tube Pressure Gauge:

Bourdon tube pressure gauges are used for the measurement of relative pressures from 0.6 ... 7,000
bar. They are classified as mechanical pressure measuring instruments, and thus operate without
any electrical power.

Bourdon tubes are radially formed tubes with an oval cross-section. The pressure of the measuring
medium acts on the inside of the tube and produces a motion in the non-clamped end of the tube.
This motion is the measure of the pressure and is indicated via the movement.

The C-shaped Bourdon tubes, formed into an angle of approx. 250°, can be used for pressures up to
60 bar. For higher pressures, Bourdon tubes with several superimposed windings of the same
angular diameter (helical tubes) or with a spiral coil in the one plane (spiral tubes) are used.

Figure 12: Bourdon Pressure Gauge

6.2.2 Absolute Pressure Gauge:

Absolute pressure transmitters can measure the pressure of atmospheric air, other gases, vapors
and liquids from the zero-reference point, i.e. absolute vacuum. It is important to understand that
any pressure transmitter takes measurements against reference pressure. Absolute pressure
transmitters, for one, have absolute zero as that reference. There are also pressure transmitters that
measure pressure against atmospheric pressure (gauge pressure transmitters), transmitters that
measure vacuum pressure against atmospheric pressure (vacuum transmitters), transmitters that
register two opposing pressures (differential pressure transmitters).
 Figure 13: Instrumentation Pressure Gauge

6.2.3 Differential pressure gauge:

Differential pressure transmitters were originally designed for use in pipes to measure pressure
before and after the fluid encounters a filter, pump, or another interruption in flow. Standard
differential pressure transmitters come with two process connections arranged side by side to
measure the drop in pressure (d) between the higher and lower points (H and L, respectively, in
Figure 14). Classic differential pressure transmitters can also measure flow rates.It wasn’t long
before people realized that differential pressure measurements could be used to determine liquid
level as well.

Figure 14: Differential Pressure Transmitter

6.2.4 Multivariable Pressure Transmitter:

The multivariable transmitters are devices specifically designed to measure three process
parameters and calculate the flow during an active industrial operation. These types of transmitters
offer static pressure, differential pressure, and temperature measurement along with a flow
calculator. It features local flow indicators to calculate accurate mass flow reading. However, the
mass flow calculations are based on the earlier measurements of static pressure, differential
pressure, and temperature.

These transmitters are active parts of industrial applications that require instant or active
measurements of temperature fluctuations, volumetric flow, totalized flow, energy variations, etc.
 Figure 15: Multi Variable Pressure Transmitter

6.3 Flow Transmitters

A flow transmitter is an upgraded version of the flow meter. It is a flow meter with an integrated
electronic circuit as an operational system. In the flow transmitter, the activity of flow rate
measurement is performed by the electronic circuit on receiving the commands from the operator.
Since the flow transmitters feature an electronic circuit, it is possible to control and monitor the fluid
flow using these devices.

Flow transmitters use several meter technologies, including differential pressure (DP). The basic
operating principle of DP meters is that a pressure drop across a meter is proportional to the square
of the flow rate. Examples of DP meters include orifice plates, cone devices, Pitot tubes, Venturi
tubes, and flow nozzles.

6.3.1 Orifice plates constrict fluid flow to produce differential pressure across a flat piece of
metal that contains a bored hole.

Figure 16a

6.3.2 Cone-based devices position a cone in the center of a fluid flow to create a differential
pressure that is proportional to velocity.
 Figure 16b

6.3.3 Pitot tubes are pairs of hollow tubes. One tube measures impact pressure and the other
tube measures potential.

Figure 16c

6.3.4 Venturi tubes gradually narrow the diameter of a flow pipe and measure the resultant
drop in pressure.

Figure 16d

6.3.5 Flow nozzles are similar to Venturi tubes, but do not provide an outlet area for pressure
recovery.

Figure 16d
6.4 Linear Variable Differential Transformer

LVDT is an acronym for Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is a common type of

electromechanical transducer that can convert the rectilinear motion of an object to which it is
coupled mechanically into a corresponding electrical signal. LVDT linear position sensors are readily
available that can measure movements as small as a few millionths of an inch up to several inches,
but are also capable of measuring positions up to ±30 inches (±0.762 meter). Figure 1 shows the
components of a typical LVDT. The transformer's internal structure consists of a primary winding
centered between a pair of identically wound secondary windings, symmetrically spaced about the
primary. The coils are wound on a one-piece hollow form of thermally stable glass reinforced
polymer, encapsulated against moisture, wrapped in a high permeability magnetic shield, and then
secured in a cylindrical stainless-steel housing. This coil assembly is usually the stationary element of
the position sensor.

Figure 17: LVDT

7.Actuators

An actuator is a device that uses a form of power to convert a control signal into mechanical motion.
From electric door locks in automobiles, to ailerons on aircraft, actuators are all around us. Industrial
plants use actuators to operate valves, dampers, fluid couplings, and other devices used in industrial
process control. The industrial actuator can use air, hydraulic fluid, or electricity for motive power.
These are referred to as pneumatic, electro-hydraulic, or electric actuators.

7.1 Pneumatic Actuators

Pneumatic actuators can utilize a cylinder, diaphragm, or rotary vane design. Compressed air acts
upon a piston or paddle to move it in one direction. A counterforce, consisting of a spring or a
second volume of compressed air, is applied to the opposite side of the piston or paddle to reverse
or maintain position. For industrial control, a pneumatic actuator requires positioning electronics,
and an instrument air system. Of the three types of actuators, pneumatics tend to have the lowest
initial price. However, operating costs are high due to the need to generate clean, dry, compressed
air. Maintenance requirements are also the highest of the three actuator types.
 Figure 7.1: Pneumatic Actuator

7.2 Hydraulic Actuator

Electro-hydraulic actuators operate a piston with pressurized oil. A motorized pump sends fluid from
a reservoir through a control valve(s) to opposite sides of a cylinder. The high power density of this
system allows for high thrust, and fast operating speeds. Electro-hydraulics tend to have a high initial
price. Routine maintenance involves periodic replacement of seals, o-rings, etc. Since the oil used in
hydraulic equipment can pose a fire hazard, this type of actuator may not be suitable for some
industrial environments.

Figure 7.2: Hydraulic Actuator

7.3 Electric Actuators

Electric actuators utilize an electric motor and gear reduction to produce a force or torque. A variety
of technologies can be used for an electric actuator design. Motors may use AC or DC power, and an
asynchronous (squirrel cage) or synchronous design. Gearing systems can include worm, spur, scotch
yoke, among others. Gear lubrication may consist of an oil filled gear box, or heavy duty grease
applied to the gear surfaces. Various accessories are often available to supervise and report on the
actuator’s status and operating conditions. There is a wide variety of electric actuators on the
market with different technologies, prices, performance, and quality.
 Figure 7.3: Electric Actuators

8. Valves

8.1 ON/OFF Valves

An ON/OFF Valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch, a device that either allows
unimpeded flow or acts to prevent flow altogether.

These valves are often used for routing process fluid to different locations, starting and stopping
batch processes, and engaging automated safety (shutdown) functions.

8.1.1 Ball Valve and Butterfly Valve

Valve styles commonly used for on/off service include ball, plug, butterfly (or disk), gate, and globe.

Large on/off valves are generally of such a design that the full-open position provides a nearly
unimpeded path for fluid to travel through. Ball, plug, and gate valves provide just this characteristic:

Figure 8.1.1: Ball Valve and Butterfly Valve

8.1.2 Plug Valve

A plug valve is very much like a ball valve, the difference being the shape of the rotating element.
Rather than a spherical ball, the plug valve uses a truncated cone as the rotary element, a slot cut
through the cone serving as the passageway for fluid.

The conical shape of a plug valve’s rotating element allows it to wedge tightly into the “closed”
(shut) position for exceptional sealing.

Figure 8.1.2: Plug Valve

8.2 Control Valves

Control valves are valves used to control conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid
level by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from controllers that
compare a “setpoint” to a “process variable” whose value is provided by sensors that monitor
changes in such conditions.

Control Valve is also termed as the Final Control Element.

Figure 8.2 : Control Valve

The opening or closing of control valves is usually done automatically by electrical, hydraulic or
pneumatic actuators. Positioners are used to control the opening or closing of the actuator based on
electric, or pneumatic signals.
These control signals, traditionally based on 3-15psi (0.2 to 1.0 bar), more common now are 4-20mA
signals for industry.

8.2.1 Why Control Valves used?

Process plants consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of control loops all networked together to
produce a product to be offered for sale.

Each of these control loops is designed to keep some important process variable such as pressure,
flow, level, temperature, etc. within a required operating range to ensure the quality of the end
product.

Each of these loops receives and internally creates disturbances that detrimentally affect the process
variable, and interaction from other loops in the network provides disturbances that influence the
process variable.

To reduce the effect of these load disturbances, sensors and transmitters collect information about
the process variable and its relationship to some desired set point. A controller then processes this
information and decides what must be done to get the process variable back to where it should be
after a load disturbance occurs.

When all the measuring, comparing, and calculating are done, some type of final control element
must implement the strategy selected by the controller.

9. Controllers

A controller is the component that executes the control logic and strategy of the control system. This
might include scanning input points and driving outputs, such as when the control function is part of
a PLC. It might be simple remote control, protection of systems through the use of interlocks, or
open-loop or closed-loop control. It would be distinct from other components such as HMI, alarms,
and logging/archiving.

9.1 Overview of AC 800M Controller

AC 800M can be defined as a hardware platform consisting of individual hardware units. AC 800M
hardware platform can be programmed to perform multiple functions, depending on the specific
unit configuration and operating system selected.

The hardware units which form the AC 800M Controller are:

• Processor units (including base plates)

• Communication interfaces for different protocols (including base plates)

• Power supply units, providing various power output levels

• Battery back-up unit

• For High Integrity systems control applications with AC 800M HI, special module SM810/SM811, is
needed

Once configured, the AC 800M hardware platform effectively becomes the AC 800M Controller.
Equipped with the specified Control Software, the AC 800M Controller can be used for all kinds of
process and industrial automation applications. With Control Software, the controller can act either
as a stand alone process controller or as a controller, performing local control tasks, in a control
network consisting of many interconnected computers. The AC 800M Controller is delivered without
firmware. To provide the controller with Control Software, it will first be necessary to load the
firmware and create the application separately by using the Control Builder interface.

The AC 800M Controller consists of a selection of units mounted on horizontal DIN rails, as shown in
Figure 9.1, which can, if required, be housed within an enclosure. The majority of units consist of a
base mounting plate and a removable cover, which are attached to each other by means of screws.
The base plate, which is always mounted on the DIN rail, carries the majority of the connections to
the processor, power supplies and communication interfaces, as well as to the external buses and
systems.

Figure 9.1: AC 800M Controller

9.2 PM 891 Unit

The PM891 unit has two RJ45 Ethernet ports (CN1, CN2) for connection to the Control Network, and
one RJ45 serial port (COM4). The COM4 port is isolated and is used for the connection of a
configuration tool. The communication expansion bus (CEX-Bus) is mounted on the unit. The CEX-
Bus is used for extending the on-board communication ports with communication interface units. It
is also possible to use redundant communication interfaces on the CEX-Bus. The CEX-Bus
Interconnection unit BC810 is used to increase the availability on the CEX-Bus by dividing it into
separate segments. The optical Modulebus at the bottom of the unit can be used for connecting
seven clusters of S800 I/O units (each comprising up to 12 units). Each PM891 unit is provided with a
unique Ethernet address which provides hardware identity to the unit. The address can be found on
the Ethernet address label located on the right-hand side of the unit.
Figure 9.2: PM891