Module 1 - Jee Foundation

Integrated Programme(Class X ) Module - I
INTEGRATED PROGRAMME
(CLASS X)
2021-2022
Module - I
Brilliant
STUDY CENTRE
PALA
Mutholy Campus, Ph: 04822 - 206100, 206800
Arunapuram Campus, Ph: 04822 - 212415, 210949, 216975
Ernakulam - Ph: 0484 - 2665080, 2665090
www.brilliantpala.org., email: [email protected]
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Blank
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CONTENTS
PHYSICS
1. Electricity ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 05
2. Magnetic Effect of Electric Current and EMI ---------------------------------------------- 43
CHEMISTRY
1. Chemical Reactions and Equations-------------------------------------------------------------- 87
2. Acid, Bases and Salts --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 110
BIOLOGY
1. Nutrition ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 141
2. Respiration--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 170
MATHEMATICS
7. Number System, Surds and Exponents ------------------------------------------------------ 191
8. Commercial Mathematics II ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 217
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PHYSICS
1
CHAPTER -
ELECTRICITY
Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles. This can be either statically as an
accumulation of charge (static electricity) or dynamically as a current.
I. Static Electricity
A branch of physics which deals with the study of the electric charges at rest and their effects is known as
electrostatics or static electricity.
II. Electric Charge
a) Definition :
Electric charge may be defined as the intrinsic property of certain fundamental particles (electron, proton, etc)
due to which they produce electric and magnetic effects.
b) Charge on a body:
Excess or deficiency of electrons in a body produces a charge on a body. A body having excess of electrons is
negatively charged and a body having deficiency of electrons is positively charged.
From the study of atomic structure, we know that in an atom there are a number of electrons revolving in
different paths or orbits. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. A proton is a positively charged particle while
a neutron has no charge. Therefore, the nucleus of an atom bears a positive charge. An electron is a negatively
charged particle having negative charge equal to the positive charge on a proton. Normally, the number of electrons
is equal to the number of protons in an atom. Therefore, an atom is electrically neutral as a whole; the negative
charge on electrons cancelling the positive charge on protons. This leads to the conclusion that under ordinary
conditions, a body is neutral i.e. it exhibits no charge.
When this equality or balance is disturbed by removing or supplying electrons, the body acquires a net charge.
The body will acquire a positive or negative charge depending upon whether electrons are removed from it or added
to it.
c) Types of Electric Charge :
There are two types of charges. They are :
(i) Positive charge - Charge possessed by a proton
(ii) Negative charge - Charge possessed by electrons
d) Charging of a body :
There are a number of methods to charge a body as :
(i) Charging by friction
(ii) Charging by conduction
(iii) Charging by induction etc.
5
(i) Charging by friction :

Whenever two bodies (at least one non conductor) are rubbed against each other, heat is produced due to
friction present between them. Due to this heat produced, electrons in both the bodies are excited. The body having
more electron affinity attracts some of the electrons from other body. Both the bodies develop equal and opposite
charges by this method.
Positive Charge Negative Charge

1. Glass Rod 1. Silk cloth
2. Fur or woolen cloth 2. Ebonite, Amber, Rubber rod
3. Woolen coat 3. Plastic sheat
4. Woolen carpet 4. Rubber shoes
5. Nylon or Acrilie 5. Cloth
6. Dry hair 6. Comb
 Note : The object in above table must be in given pair,

(ii) Charging by conduction :
If an uncharged conductor is touched with a positively or negatively charged conductor, then the uncharged
conductor also acquires the charge possessed by the charged conductor. This process is called charging by conduction.
Take an uncharged metal rod A and place it on an insulating stand as shown in figure (a) bring a positively
charged conductor B with an insulating handle near it and touch the metal rod A figure (b). You will observe that the
uncharged metal rod becomes positively charged. Try the same activity with a negatively charged conductor.
Observe the charge on the uncharged conductor.
uncharged conductor
A A B
insulating
stand charged
conductor
insulating
handle
(a) (b)
(iii) Charging by induction : The process of charging a body by keeping it near a charged body, but not
touching it, is called charging by induction.
Take a metal rod A on an insulating stand. Bring a positively charged conductor B with an insulating handle near
it. Let the charged conductor be touched with your finger. Now, remove your finger first and then remove the
charged conductor. The uncharged conductor becomes negatively charged. (figure).
6
uncharged metal
B A
point in
earth
charged
conductor
insulated
half
a) Properties of Electric Charge :

(i) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
+ + + –
(ii) Charge is a scalar quantity

(iii) Charge is always quantized : The amount of charge on a charged body is always an integral multiple of the
elementary charge. (the fractional multiple is not possible)
(iv) Charge is conserved : Whenever two bodies are charged by rubbing, one gets positively charged and the
other negatively charged. The net charge on the two bodies, however, remains zero- the same as that
before rubbing. In other words, charge is conserved. It can neither be created nor destroyed. The only
thing that happens on rubbing is that charged particles (electrons) get transferred from one body to the
other.
In some phenomena, charged particles are created. But even then the conservation of charge holds. For
example, a free neutron converts itself into an electron and a proton, again the charge is conserved.
(v) Charge is always associated with mass.
(vi) Total charge of system remains conserved.
b) Unit of Charge :
The S.I. unit of charge is coulomb abbreviated as C. Charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10–19 C.
1
No. of electrons in 1 C of charge  19
 6.25  1018
1.6 10
Thus, when we say that a body has a positive charge of one coulomb (i.e. + 1C) it means that the body has a
deficit of 625 ×1016 electrons from the neutral state.
Example 1 : How many electron pass through a lamp in 1 minute if the current in it is 300 mA. (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C)
Solution: Total charge q  I  t  300  103  60  18 C
Total charge 18
No electrons flowing in 1 minute  charge of electron  1.6  1019  1.125 10 electrons
20
7
III Coulomb’s Law

Charles Augustine de Coulomb studied the interaction forces of charged particles in detail in 1784. He used a
torsion balance. On the basis of his experiments he established Coulomb’s law. According to this law the magnitude
of the electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and acts along the straight line joining
the two charges.
In mathematical terms, the force that each of the two point charges q1 and q2 at a distance r apart exerts on the
other can be expressed as-
q1q 2
Fk
r2
This force is repulsive for like charges and attractive for unlike charges.
1
Where k is a constant of proportionality. k  4
0
here 0 is absolute permittivity of free space.

The force is directed along the line joining the centres of the two charged particles.
For any other medium except air, free space or vacuum, Coulomb’s law reduces to
1 q1q 2
F
4 r 2
 = Permittivity of the medium
and    0 r

r 
0 ,  r  relative Permittivity or dielectric constant of the medium.
Example 2 : Calculate the electrostatic force between the proton and electron in a hydrogen atom, if the radius of
the electron orbit is 0.05 nm and charge on the electron is 1.6 × 10–19 C.
1 q1q 2
Solution : By Coulombs inverse sq. law, F  4 r2
0
Magnitude of charge on proton and charge on electron are same
1
 9  109
4 0
9 109  1.6  1019  1.6  1019

F  9.216  108 N
 0.05 10 
9 2
8
Example 3 : Force between two charges is 36 × 10–6 N when separated by a certain distance. On increasing the
separation by 5 m the force reduce to 25 × 10–6 N. If one charge is 10 times the other find the initial separation and
magnitude of charges.
1 q1q 2 9  109  10q  q

F  6
Solution : 1 4 d 2 , 36  10 
0 d2
1
9  109  10q 2 F1 36 d2 d5 6
F2  25  106     
; 1
 d  5 F2 25 d 5
2
 d  5
2
6 9  109  10q  q
5d  25  6d ; d = 25 m ; 36  10 
252
36 106  252
q2   25 1014  q1  0.5  10 6 C ; q 2  0.5  10 6 C
9  1010
IV. Electric Field

Electric field due to a given charge is defined as the space around the charge in which electrostatic force of
attraction or repulsion due to charge can be experienced by any other charge. If a test charge experiences no force
at a point, the electric field at that point must be zero.
Electric field intensity at any point is the strength of electric field at that point. It is defined as the force experienced
by unit positive charge placed at that point.
If F is the force acting on a test charge +q0 at any point then electric field intensity at this point is given by
F
E
q0
Electric field is a vector quantity and its S.I. unit is Newton per coulomb (N/C).
V. Properties of Electric Field Intensity
(i) It is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same as the force experienced by positive charge
(ii) Electric field due to positive charge is always away from it while due to negative charge always towards it.
(iii) Its S.I. unit is Newton/Coulomb.

(iv) Electric force on a charge q placed in a region of electric field, where the electric field intensity is E is given

by F  qE
(v) It obeys the superposition principle, that is, the field intensity at a point due to a system of charges is the
vector sum of the field intensities due to individual point charges.
   
E  E1  E 2  E 3  ......
(vi) The electric field will be of a fixed value at a point unless we change the distribution of the charges.
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VI. Electric Lines of Force

The line of force in an electric field is an imaginary line, the tangent to which at any point on it represents the
direction of electric field at the given point.
a) Properties :
(i) Line of force originates out from a positive charge and terminates on a negative charge. If there is only one
positive charge then lines start from positive charge and terminate at  . If there is only one negative charge
then lines start from  and terminates at negative charge.
ELOF of Isolated positive charge
ELOF of Isolated negative charge
+ –
ELOF due to positive and negative charge
+ +
ELOF due to two positive charges

(ii) The electric intensity at a point is the number of lines of force passing through unit area normal to the
direction of the intensity at that point. The intensity will be more where the density of lines is more.
A
EA > EB
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(iii) Number of lines originating (terminating) from (on) is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge
(iv) ELOF of a charge can never intersect with each other.
(v) Electric lines of force produced by static charges do not form close loop
(vi) Electric lines of force end or start perpendicularly on the surface of a conductor.
(vii) Electric lines of force never enter into conductors.
VII. Electric Flux
The total number of lines of force crossing an area is called electric flux. Consider a surface S in an electric field
 
E . Let us select a small area element dS on this surface.
 
The electric flux of the field over the area element is given by dE  E.ds
dS E

n S

If the electric field is uniform over the area S then total flux E  E.S
Unit of electric flux:
(i) The SI unit of electric flux is Nm 2 C 1 (gauss) or J m C-1 .

(ii) Electric flux is a scalar quantity. (It can be positive, negative or zero)
VIII. Electric Potential
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit +ve
charge from infinity to that point, without acceleration.
Mathematically,
W
V
q
Since work is measured in joule and charge in coulomb, therefore electric potential is measured in joule per
coulomb (J/C). This unit occurs so often in our study of electricity, so it has been named as volt, in honour of the
scientist Alessandro Volta (the inventor of the voltaic cell).
1 joule
1 Volt 
1 coulomb
Potential is a scalar quantity, therefore it is added algebraically. For a positively charged body potential is
positive and for a negatively charged body potential is negative.
 We can say potential is the electrical state of a conductor which determines the direction of flow of charge when
the two conductors are kept in contact.
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c) Electric Potential Difference :

Consider a charge Q placed at a point P. Let A and B be two other points (B being closer to A) as shown in
figure.
Q B A q
P From infinity
If a charge q is brought from infinity to A, work WA will be done.
WA
Then potential at A will then be, VA 
q
WB
If charge q is brought from infinity to B, the work done will be WB, then VB  .
q
The quantity VB  VA is called the potential difference between points A and B in the electric field of charge Q.
Mathematically we have,
WB WA
VB  VA  
q q
Electric potential difference is also measured in volt.
Example 4 : 30 J of work is done in moving a charge q between two points having potential difference 12 volt. Find
the value of the the charge q.
W 30
Solution : Charge q    2.5 C
V 12
Example 5 : Charges 3 × 10–6 C and 2 × 10–6 C are placed at corners A and B of a square of side 8 cm as in fig.
How much work is done against electric field in moving a charge of 2 × 10–6 C from C to D.
A B
8 cm
D C
8 cm
Solution: Potential difference between C and D will give the work done in shifting unit charge from C to D.
1  q1 q 
Potential at D, VD    2 
40  AD BD 
From fig. BD  BC 2  CD 2  82  82  8 2 cm  0.08 2 m
AD = 0.08 m
 3 10 6 2  106  9 109  106  2 

 VD  9  109     3   496.6  10 V
3
 0.08 0.08 2  0.08  2

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 2 106 3 106  9 109  106  3 

Potential at C, VC  9  10  0.08   2  238.6  103 V
9
0.08  
 0.08 2   2
P.D. btween D and C   496.6  103  238.6  103   258  103 V
 Work done in moving a charge 2 × 10–6 C from C to D is
W  q  VD  VC   2  106  258 103  0.52 J
IX Electric Potential Energy
Consider a charge Q placed at a point P as shown in figure. If another charge q of the same sign is now brought
from a very far away distance (infinity) to point O near P, then charge q will experience a force of repulsion due to
charge Q. If charge q is still pushed towards P, work is done. This work done is the potential energy of the system
of these two charges.
Q
q q
r
P O From infinity
Thus, the electric potential energy of a system of charges is defined as the amount of work done in bringing
various charges from infinite separation to their present positions to form the required system. It is denoted by U.
For the system of two charges separated by distance r as shown in figure, the electric potential energy is given by :
kQq
U
r
Electric potential energy is measured in joule (J). The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument
called voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected in parallel across the points where the potential difference is to be
measured.
X Current Electricity
A branch of physics which deals with the study of the electric charges in motion and their effects is known as
current electricity.
XI Electric Current
A) Charges in motion
When two charged bodies at different potential are connected by a conducting wire, electrons flow from the
body at lower potential to the one at higher potential till the potentials of both the bodies become equal i.e., potential
difference between the two bodies becomes zero. Figure shows the two oppositely charged conductors A and B
which are held on stands. The positively charged conductor A is said to be at higher potential and the negatively
charged conductor B is said to be at lower potential.
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High potential Low potential

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
A + Current B
Negatively charged
+
Positively charged Wire
conductor conductor
Insulated
stands
Negative charge starts flowing from conductor B to conductor A. Flow of charge will stop when both the
conductors A and B acquire the same potential.
This rate of flow of electric charge from one body to another through a conductor is called electric current and
its direction is opposite to direction of flow of electrons
or
The quantity of charge passing through a given point of the conductor in one second is called electric current.
Thus, if Q is the charge which flows through a conductor in time t, then the electric current is given by
Charge  Q 
Current  I  
Time  t 
Q
or I 
t
or Q  It
Note : The electric current is a scalar quantity.
b) Unit of current :
S.I. unit of current is ampere. which is denoted by letter A. Current is said to be one ampere if one coulomb of
charge flows through any cross section of a conductor in one second, i.e.
1 coulomb
1 ampere 
1 second
or 1A  1 C S1
Smaller units of current :
1 milliampere (mA) = 10-3 A
1 microampere   A   106 A
c) Direction of Electric Current :

Electric current was considered to be a flow of positive charges and the direction of flow of the positive charges
was taken to be the direction of electric current. Thus, the conventional direction of electric current is from positive
terminal of a cell (or battery) to the negative terminal through the external circuit.
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d) How the Current Flows in a Wire :

As electric current is the flow of electrons in a metal wire (or conductor) when a cell or battery is connected
across its ends. A metal wire has plenty of free electrons in it. When the metal wire has not been connected to a
source of electricity like a cell or a battery, then the electrons present in it move at random in all the directions
between the atoms of the metal wire as shown in figure below.
e e e
e e
Metal Wire
e e
e
When a source of electricity like a cell or a battery is connected between the ends of the metal wire, then an
electric force acts on the electrons present in the wire. Since the electrons are negatively charged, they start moving
from negative end to the positive end of the wire and this flow of electrons constitutes the electric current in the wire.
e e e e
e e e e
Direction of conventional Current
+ –
Cell
e) How to get a Continuous flow of Electric Current :

To get a continuous current flow there should be a P.D. between the ends of the conductor. For this a cell is
connected between the ends of the conductor.
Due to the chemical reactions inside the cell or battery, a potential difference is maintained between its terminals
and this potential difference drives the current in the circuit
XII Electrical Resistance
a) Ohm’s Law :
Ohm’s law states that the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across its ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions (mechanical strain etc.), remain unchanged
i.e., I  V or V  I or V  RI
Where R is a constant called resistance of the conductor.
Ohm’s law, is named after the German physicist George Simon Ohm (1789 - 1854), who formulated it.
It is quite clear from the above equation that
(i) The current I is proportional to the potential difference V between the ends of the conductor.
(ii) If V is constant, then current I is inversely proportional to the resistance.
Example 6 : A heater of resistance 100  is connected to 220 V line. How much current will the heater draw?
V 220
Solution : By Ohms law  I    2.2 A
R 100
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Experimental verification of ohm’s law :

Set up a circuit as shown in the figure below consisting of a wire AB, a current measuring instrument called
ammeter, an instrument measuring the potential difference called voltmeter and a number of cells, each of which
provides some constant potential difference across the two points of a conductor. Rheostat is a variable resistor.
Adjust the position of the rheostat for a particular voltage and measure the current. Then change the position of
Rheostat for various voltages and measure the current in each case.
+ Rheostat
B Rh
()
K –
A
+
V
A R B
V
Note the successive readings in the ammeter and the voltmeter. Now calculate in each case which shows
I
V
that is a constant verifying Ohms law..
I
Now, plot a graph between the current and the potential difference, we will get a straight line graph. Showing
that the current is directly proportional to P.D. The slope of the graph gives the resistance of the conductor.
4V
difference (V)
3V
×
2V
×
Potential
V
×
I 2I 3I 4I
Current (A)
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b) Resistance of a Conductor:
The electric current is produced due to the flow of electrons through a conductor. When the electrons move
from one part of the conductor to the other part, they collide with other electrons and with the atoms and ions
present in the body of the conductor. Due to these collisions, there is some obstruction or opposition to the flow of
electrons through the conductor.
The property of a conductor due to which it opposes the flow of current through it, is called resistance.
Potential difference
 Resistance =
Current
V
or R 
I
V
Slope of graph, tan   R
I
c) Unit of Resistance :
The S.I. unit of resistance is ohm, which is denoted by the symbol  .
When a potential difference of 1 volt is applied to the ends of the conductor and a current of 1 ampere flows
through it, then resistance of the conductor will be 1 ohm.
d) Conductors, Resistors and Insulators :
On the basis of their electrical resistance, all the substances can be divided into three groups : conductors,
resistors and insulators.
(i) Conductors:
Those substances which have very low electrical resistance are called conductors. A conductor allows electricity
to flow through it easily.Silver is the best conductor of electricity. Copper and aluminium are also good conductors.
Electric wires are made of copper or aluminium because they have very low electrical resistance.
(ii) Resistors :
Those substances which have comparatively high electrical resistance, are called resistors. The alloys like
nichrome, manganin and constantan (or ureka), all have quite high resistances, so they are used to make electrical
devices where high resistance is required. A resistor reduces the current in the circuit.
(iii) Insulators :
Those substances which have infinitely high electrical resistance are called insulators. An insulator does not
allow electricity to flow through it. Rubber is an excellent insulator. Electricians wear rubber handgloves while
working with electricity because rubber is an insulator and protects them from electric shocks. Wood is also a good
insulator.
e) Factors affecting the Resistance of a Conductor :
Resistance depends upon the following factors :-
(i) Length of the conductor.
(ii) Area of cross section of the conductor (or thickness of the conductor)
(iii) Nature of the material of the conductor.
17
(iv) Temperature of the conductor. It has heen found by experiments that :

(i) The resistance of a given conductor is directly proportional to its length i.e.
RL ......  i 
1
(ii) The resistance of a given conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section i.e., R 
A
L
 R , where  is the specific resistance.
A
XIII Effect of Stretching of a wire on resistance:
In stretching, the density of wire usually does not change. Therefore
Volume before stretching = Volume after stretching
l1A1  l2 A 2
R 2 l2 A1
and R  l  A
1 1 2
A1 l 2
If information of lengths before and after stretching is given, then use A  l
2 1
2
R 2  l2 
 
R 1  l1 
If information of radius r1 and r2 is given then use
l2 A1

l1 A 2
2 4
R 2  A1   r1 
   
R 1  A 2   r2 
XIV Resistivity
RA
Resistivity,   ----------(iv)
L
By using this formula, we will now obtain the definition of resistivity. Let us take a conductor having a area of
cross section of 1 m2 and a length of 1 m. So, putting A = 1 and L = 1 in equation (iv), we get :
Resistivity,   R
Resistivity :
The resistivity of a substance is numerically equal to the resistance of a rod of that substance which is 1 metre
long and 1 metre square in cross - section. Unit of resistivity, ohm-m.
18
ohm   metre 
2
' '   ohm  metre

metre
The S.I. unit of resistivity is ohm-metre which is written in symbols as   m
Resistivity of a substance does not depend on its length or thickness. It depends only on the nature of the
substance. The resistivity of a substance is its characteristic property. So, we can use the resistivity to compare the
resistances of two or more substances
(i) Importance of resistivity :
A good conductor of electricity should have a low resistivity and a poor conductor of electricity should have a
high resistivity. The resistivity of alloy are much higher than those of the pure metals.
It is due to their high resistivities that manganin and constantan alloys are used to make resistance wires used in
electronic appliances to reduce the current in an electrical circuit.
Example 7 : What length of the wire is needed to make a resistance of 50  with area of cross section 2.5  107 m 2
by a wire of resistivity 100  108  m
RA RA 50  2.5  107
Solution:   , L   12.5 m
L  100 108
XV. Conductivity
Conductivity is the ability of a conductor to conduct current. The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity
1
that means   and its S.I. unit is  1m 1 or siemen meter-1

XVI. Combination of Resistances
The current in a circuit depends on resistance of the circuit. So, in the electrical circuits two or more resistances
are combined to get the required current in the circuit.
We can combine the resistances lengthwise (called series) or we can connect the resistances parallel to one
another. Thus, the resistances can be combined in two ways:
(i) series combination (ii) parallel combination
(i) Series combination of resistors :
Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series to a cell of potential difference V as shown in figure.
Since the three resistors are connected in series therefore the current I through each of them is same.
By Ohm’s law the potential drop across each resistor is given by V1  IR 1 , V2  IR 2 and V3  IR 3 .
Since V is the total potential in the circuit, therefore by conservation of energy we have
V  V1  V2  V3
19
Substituting for V1 , V2 and V3 in above equation we have,
V  IR1  IR 2  IR 3 -------(i)
If Rs is the equivalent resistance of the series combination, then by Ohm’s law we have
V  IR s ---------(ii)
Therefore from equations (i) and (ii) we have
IR s  IR 1  IR 2  IR 3
Hence R s  R1  R 2  R 3
A B C D A Rs D
R1 R2 R3
I I
V
+ – + –
Battery V
Thus in series combination the equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. For more resistors,
the above expression would have been R s  R 1  R 2  R 3  ..............
 Features of series combination :
(A) The current is same in each resistor of the circuit
(B) The resistance of the combination of resistors is equal to sum of the individual resistances
(C) The total voltage across the combination is equal to the sum of the voltage drop across the individual
resistors.
(D) The equivalent resistance is greater than that of any individual resistance in the series combination.
(ii) Parallel combination of resistors :
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel as shown in figure. When the current I reaches point ‘a’,
it splits into two parts I1 going through R1 and I2 going through R2. If R1 is greater than R2, then I1 will be less than I2
i.e. the current will tend to take the path of least resistance.
I1 R1 Rp
a b
a b
R2
I I2
+ –
+ – I
V V
Since charge must be conserved, the current I that enters at point ‘a’ must be equal to the current that leaves
that point. Therefore we have
I  I1  I 2 ..........  i 
Since the resistors are connected in parallel, the potential across each resistor must be same, hence by Ohm’s
law we have
20
V V
I1  and I 2 
R1 R2
substituting in equation (i) we have.
V V
I  .............  ii 
R1 R 2
Let Rp be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination, then by Ohm’s law we have
V
I ...........  iii 
Rp
Hence from equations (ii) and (iii) we have.
V V V 1 1 1
  or  
R p R1 R 2 R p R1 R 2
An extension of this analysis to three or more resistors in parallel gives the following general expression
1 1 1 1
    ..........
R p R1 R 2 R 3
Features of parallel combination :
(A) The sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistance is equal to the reciprocal of equivalent resistance
(Rp).
(B) The currents in various resistors are inversely proportional to the resistances, higher the resistance of a
branch, the lower will be the current through it. The total current is the sum of the currents flowing in the
different branches.
(C) The voltage across each resistor of a parallel combination is the same and is equal to the voltage across the
applied circuit.
Rs nR
Note : For n equal resistances R  R / n  n
2
Example 8 : Find the current supplied by the battery in the following circuit.
12 
3V 12  12  12 
Solution: All 4 resistances are parallel in the circuit.

1 1 1 1 1 4
So the effective resistance     
R 12 12 12 12 12
12 3V
R 3   Current in the circuit 3   1 A
4
21
XVII Cell, Battery

A cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Electrochemical cells are of three types:
a) Primary cell b) Secondary cell c) Fuel cell
a) Primary Cell :
It is an electrochemical cell, which cannot be recharged, but the chemicals have to be replaced after a long use.
The reactions taking place in the cell are irreversible.
Eg. Daniel cell, Lechlanche cell, Dry cell etc.
b) Secondary Cell :
Electrical energy can be converted into chemical energy and chemical energy can be converted into electrical
energy in these cells, i.e. secondary cells can be recharged after use. Chemical reaction taking place in these cells are
reversible.
Example : Lead accumulator, Edison cell (alkali cell) and ion nickel cell.
c) Fuel cell
A fule cell is a device that converts chemcial potentail energy (energy stored in molecular bonds) into electrical
energy. If hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are used as fuel, the products of the reactions are water, electricity and heat.
This cell is much efficient.
d) Electro Motive Force of a Cell (E.M.F.) :
It is the maximum potential difference between the two electrodes of the cell when no current is drawn from the
cell or cell is in the open circuit.
e) Potential Difference of a Cell :
It is the difference of potential between two terminals of the cell when current is drawn from it or the cell is in
closed circuit.
f) Internal Resistance of a Cell :
It is the resistance offered to the flow of current inside the cell i.e. internal resistance is the resistance offered to
the flow of current by electrode. Internal resistance decreases with the increase of the area of plates and also with
the decrease of the distance between plates.
XVIII Grouping of Cells
Series combination
E1 E2 E3 ...................En
.......
r1 r2 r3 rn
I
In series connections negative of each cell is connected to positive of next cell. In that case, the current
through the circuit
E1  E 2  .....E n
I
r1  r2  ......rn  R
22
Eeq = E1  E 2  E 3  ...........E n
req = r1 + r2 + r3 .............. rn
If n cells of equal emf E and equal internal resistance r, are connected in series through a resistance R1 then
n n E
I ; E eq  n req  nr ; If R << nr, then I  
nr  R nr r
Parallel combination

r I/m

r I/m

r I/m

r
I/m
I
R
For parallel connections, let there are m branches and the positive of each cell is connected to a point then for
a loop.
I E
IR  r0 I
m  r 
R  
 m
r E eq
req  ; I'  I  I', so eq  
m R  req ;
r E eq r m
If R  , I ; If R  , I
m R m r
XIX KIRCHOFFS RULES
There are two laws given by KIRCHOFF for analysing circuit for its current and P.D.
First law (Junction Rule)
In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the current meeting at any junction in the circuit is zero or sum of the
currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. i  0
i5
i1
i4
i2 i3
i1  i 2  i 3  i 4  i 5
This law is based on conservations of charge
23
Second law (Loop rule)

In any closed circuit the algebraic sum of the potential differences and emf is zero. E  IR  0 This law is
based on conservation of energy.
R1 R2
I
E  IR 1  IR 2  IR 3  I  R1  R 2  R 3 
E I
R3
r1 E1
R2 I R1 I
E2
r2
 E1  Ir1    E 2  Ir2   IR1  IR 2  0

 E1  E 2   Ir1  Ir2  IR1  IR 2  0
E1  E 2  I  r1  r2   I  R 1  R 2 
E1  E 2
I
r1  r2  R1  R 2
XX. Wheatstone’s Bridge
A Wheatstone’s bridge is a circuit used to find the value of unknown resistances or to compare resistances. A
Wheatstone’s bridge is said to be balanced, when the current through the galvanometer is zero. The condition for
P R
balance of a Wheatstone’s bridge is 
Q S
B i3
P Q
ig
i1
A G C
I i2
R S
i4
D
()
XXI Heating Effect of Current

When the ends of a conductor are connected to a battery, then free electrons move with drift velocity and
electric current flows through the wire. These electrons collide continuously with the ions of the wire and thus the
energy is dissipated. To maintain the electric current in the wire, energy is transferred to the ions of the wire by the
24
electrons. This increases the thermal motion of the ions, as a result the temperature of the wire rises. The effect of
electric current due to which heat is produced in a wire when current is passed through it is called heating effect of
current or joule heating. In 1841 Joule found that when current is passed through a conductor the heat produced
across it is :
(i) Directly proportional to the square of the current through the conductor i.e H  I2
(ii) Directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor i.e. H  R
(iii) Directly proportional to the time for which the current is passed i.e. H  t
Combining the above three equations we have
H  I 2 Rt
I 2 Rt
or H  (in calorie)
J
Where J is called Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat and has a value of J  4.18 J cal1 . The above equation
is called Joule’s law of heating.
In some cases, heating is desirable, while in many cases, such as electric motors, generators or transformers, it
is highly undesirable. Some of the devices in which heating effect of an electric current is desirable, are incandescent
lamps, toasters, electric irons and stoves. The tungsten filament of an incandescent lamp operates at a temperature
of 27000C. Here, we see electrical energy being converted into both heat and light energy.
A) Electric energy:
The fact that conductors offer resistance to the flow of current, means that work must be continuously done to
maintain the current. The role of resistance in electrical circuits is analogous to that of friction in mechanics. The
amount of work done by current I, flowing through a wire of resistance R during the time t is calculated by -
W = QV
but as Q  I t
Therefore, the amount of work done, W is
W  V I t
By substituting the expression for V from Ohm’s law.
V = IR
we finally get W  I 2 Rt
This shows that the electrical energy dissipated or consumed depends on the product of the square of the
current I, flowing through the resistance R and the time t.
(i) Commercial unit of electrical energy (Kilowatt - hour):
The S.I. unit of electrical energy is joule and the commercial unit of electrical energy which is called “kilowatt -
hour”. One kilowatt - hour is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an electrical appliance having a power
rating of 1 kilowatt is used for 1 hour
25
(ii) Relation between kilowatt hour and Joule.

Kilowatt-hour is the energy utilised at the rate of 1000 watts for 1 hour.
1 kilowatt-hour = 3600000 Joules
1 kWh  3.6  106 J

b) Electric Power :
The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed, is termed as electric power. The power P is given
by
P  W / t  I2R
The unit of electric power is watt, which is the power consumed when 1A of current flows at a potential
difference of 1 V.
(i) Unit of power :
The S.I. unit of electric power is ‘watt’ which is denoted by the letter W. The power of 1 watt is the work done
at the rate of 1 Joule per second.
A bigger unit of electric power is kilowatt
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 watt.
Power of an agent is also expressed in horse power (hp).
1 hp = 746 watt
Power P in terms of V and R :
We know, P  V  I
V
From Ohm’s law I 
R
V V2
P  V P
R R
(ii) Calculation of Electric bill :
Energy consumed by electric appliances is given by the formula.
Electricity energy (in kWh) =
no of appliance  Power of appliance in watt  Time in hour

1000
Example 9 : Two bulbs A and B are marked 40 W, 220 V and 100 W, 220 V respectively. They are connected
to a 220 V source in series. Calculate the current through each bulb. Which bulb will consume more energy?
V 2 2202
Solution: Resistance of 40 W bulb  R1    1210 
P1 40
26
V 2 2202
Resistance of 100 W bulb  R 2    484 
P2 100
When they are connected in series Total resistance  R1  R 2  1694 
220
 current in the circuit   0.1298 A
1694
Since same current passes through each bulb.
Energy consumed in bulb A, P1 = I2R1  0.12982  1210  20.38 W

Energy consumed by B, P2  0.12982  484  8.15 W
Hence bulb A will consume more energy when connected in series.
Example 10 : An electric heater is used everyday for 150 mins. The electricity bill for 60 days is 120 units.
Calculate the power of the electric heater.
Solution : Let P is the power of the electric heater.
days  P  hrs
Energy consumed 
1000
energy consumed×1000 120  1000
P   800 W
days×hrs 60  2.5
c) Power -Voltage Rating of Electrical Appliances :
Every electrical appliance like an electric bulb, radio or fan has a label or engraved plate on it which tells us the
voltage (to be applied) and the electrical power consumed by it. For example, if we look at a particular bulb in our
home, it may have the figures 220 V, 100 W written on it. Now, 220 V means that this bulb is to be used on a voltage
of 220 volts and 100 W which means, it has power consumption of 100 watts or 100 joules per second, when
supplied a voltage of 220 volt.
d) Applications of Heating Effect of Current :
Domestic electrical appliances such as electric bulb, electric iron, geyser, room heater etc work on heating
effect of current and are rated in terms of voltage and wattage. The coils of these devices are made of a material of
a very high resistance, (for instance nichrome or tungsten) such that when a current passes through the coil, heat is
generated. Generally the potential difference applied to the electrical appliance is the same as that of the mains i.e.
220 - 230 V in India and 110 V in U.S.A, Canada etc.
e) Electric Fuses :
An electric fuse is an easily fusible wire of short length put into an electrical circuit for protection purposes. It is
arranged to melt above a definite current.
27
It is an alloy of lead and tin (37% lead + 63 % tin).It has a low resistivity and low melting point. As soon as the
safe limit of current exceeds, the fuse “blows” and the electric circuit is cut off.
XXII Household Electrical Circuit
Power Station 33 kV
132 kV To heavy industries
Boiler 11 kV To light industries
Inter- 220 V
mediate City City Consumer
Generator Sub at 220 V
Station
Electric power is usually generated at places which are very far from the places where it is consumed. At the
generating station, the electric power is generated at 11,000 volt. This voltage is alternating, of frequency 50 Hz (i.e.
changing its polarity 100 times in a second). The power is transmitted over long distance at high voltage to minimise
the loss of energy in the transmission line wires. For a given electric power, the current becomes low at a high voltage
and therefore the loss of energy due to heating (I2 Rt) becomes less. Thus, the alternating voltage is stepped up from
11 kV to 132 kV at the generating station (or called grid sub-station). It is then transmitted to the main sub-station.
At the main sub-station, this voltage is stepped down to 33 kV and is transmitted to the switching transformer station
or the city sub-station. At the city sub-station, it is further stepped down to 220 V for supply to the consumer as
shown in figure.
phase
Line Fuse phase load
kWh P P
MCB Load
meter N N
Neutral Neutral
link Neutral
Connect to metal
Body part
XXIII Electrical Safety
a) Earthing :
Earthing means to connect the metal case of electrical appliance to the earth (at zero potential) by means of a
metal wire called “earth wire”. In household circuits, we have three wires, the live wire, the neutral wire and the earth
wire. One end of the earth wire is buried in the earth. We connect the earth wire to the metal case of the electrical
appliance by using a three-pinplug.
Failed insulation brings wire Metal case of appliance

into contact with metal case
Live
Live
Zero voltage
R
High voltage
Neutral
Neutral
Earth
28
The metal casing of the appliance will now always remain at the zero potential of the earth. We say that the
appliance has been earthed or grounded. If, by chance, the live wire touches the metal case of the electric iron (or
any other appliance) which has been earthed, then the current passes directly to the earth through the earth wire. It
does not need our body to pass the current and therefore, we do not get an electric shock. Actually, a very heavy
current flows through the earth wire and the fuse of house-hold wiring blows out or melt. And it cuts off the power
supply. In this way, earthing also saves the electrical appliance from damage due to excessive current.
Colour coding of wires
An electric appliance is provided with a three-core flexible cable. The insulation on the three wires is of different
colours. The old convention is red for live, black for neutral and green for earth. The new international convention is
brown for live, light blue for neutral and green (or yellow) for earth.
29
QUESTIONS
LEVEL I
1. Force between two charges separated by a certain distance in air is F. If each charge were doubled and
distance between them also doubled, force would be
F
A) F B) 2 F C) 4 F D)
4
2. The dielectric constant K of an insulator can be
A) –1 B) 0 C) 0.5 D) 5
3. The electric field that can balance a deutron of mass 3.2 × 10–27 kg is
A) 19.6 × 10–10 N/C B) 19.6 × 10–8 N/C C) 19.6 × 1010 N/C D) 19.6 × 108 N/C
4. A ball of mass 1 g carrying a charge 10–8 C moves from a point A at potential 600 V to a point B at zero
potential. The change in its K.E. is
A) –6 × 10–6 erg B) –6 × 10–6 J C) 6 × 10–6 J D) 6 × 10–6 erg
5. Two conducting spheres of radii r1 and r2 are equally charged. The ratio of their potential is
r1 r2 r12 r22
A) r B) r C) 2 D) 2
2 1 r2 r1
6. The electric flux over a sphere of radius 1 m is  . If radius of the sphere were doubled without changing the
charge enclosed, electric flux would become
 
A) 2 B) C) D) 
2 4
7. Electric flux at a point in an electric field is
A) +ve B) –ve C) zero D) all the above
8. Calculate the electric field intensity which would be just sufficient to balance the weight of a particle of charge
10 C and mass 10 mg
A) 9.8 × 10–2 B) 9.8 × 10–3 C) 9.8 D) 980
9. Graphs between V and I are plotted for a conductor at temperature T1 and T2 as shown in figure.
V
T2
T1
I
A) T1 = T2 B) T1 > T2 C) T1 < T2 D) T1  T2
10. The resistivity of a metallic wire is  . When its length is doubled, its new resistivity is

A) 2 B) C) 4 D) 
2
30
11. The equivalent resistance between points A and B of the given circuit is about
A
1 1
B
1
A) 2  B) 1  C) 0.67  D) 3 
12. If the temperature of a conductor increases, its conductivity,
A) increases B) remain same C) increases linearly D) decreases linearly
13. A rod of resistance 1  is bent to form a square. The resistance across any two adjacent corners is
3 3
A) 1  B) 3  C)  D) 
4 16
14. When one of the three series resistors is removed from a circuit and the circuit is reconnected, the current
A) increases by half B) increases C) decreases by half D) decreases
15. The unit of specific conductivity is
A) ohm cm–1 B) ohm cm–2 C) ohm-cm D) ohm–1 m–1
16. A wire of resistance 4 is redrawn by pulling it doubled, what is its new resistance?
A) 8  B) 4  C) 2  D) 16 
17. Two coils have a combined resistance of 25 ohm when connected in series and 4 ohm when connected in
parallel. Find their individual resistances.
A) 1  and 25  B) 20  and 5  C) 25  and 4  D) 15  and 10 
18. What is the resistance of a 1000 W heater marked for 230 V?
A) 22.9  B) 32.9  C) 42.9  D) 52.9 
19. When an electric heater is switched on, the current flowing through it is plotted against time. Taking into
account the variation of resistance with temperature, the graph that represents the variation of current with
time is
i i i i
A) B) C) D)
t t t t
20. 1 kWh = ................

A) 36 × 106 J B) 3.6 × 106 J C) 3.6 × 108 J D) 360 × 109 J
21. Of the two bulbs 150 W bulb and 60 W bulb which has more resistance
A) 60 W B) 150 W C) Both A and B D) None of these
31
LEVEL II
1. When a glass rod rubbed with silk is brought near the cap of an electroscope, then
A) The leaf has an induced negative charge
B) No charge is induced on the leaves
C) Positive charge is induced on one leaf and negative charge on the other leaf
D) The leaf has an induced positive charge
2. Five point charges, each of vlaue q are placed on five vertices of a regular hexagon of side L. What is the
magnitude of the force on a point charge of value -q coulomb placed at the centre of the hexagon?
L
E D
q
q
L
q O
F C
q
–q
q
A B
2
kq q2 kq 2
A) 2 B) Zero C) 2 D)
L L L
3. Two small balls carrying charges 9 C and 4 C attract each other with a force F. If a charge of 5 C
is added to each one of them, then the force between the balls would become
F 3F
A) F B) C) 2F D)
2 4
4. Calculate the amount of current flowing through a conductor if 106 electrons cross through the cross-section
of the conductor in 1.6 millisecond. Given, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C.
A) 1 × 10–10 A B) 1 A C) 1 × 10–8 A D) 1 × 10–11 A
5. Find the resistance of a conductor in which 1 mA current passes, when potential difference across the ends of
the conductor is 1 volt.
A) 1  B) 1k  C) 10  D) 106 
6. Find the resistance of a hollow cylindrical conductor of length 1.0 m with outer and inner radii 4.0 mm and
1.00 mm respectively. The resistivity of the material is 2.0 × 10–8 ohm m.
A) 0.42  102  B) 0.42  101  C) 0.42  103  D) 0.42 
7. Two wires A and B of equal masses and same metal are taken. The diameter of the wire A is half the diameter
of the wire B. If the resistance of the wire A be 24 ohm, calculate the resistance of the wire B.
A) 15  B) 1.5  C) 150  D) 0.15 
32
8. A parallel combination of 3 resistances takes a current of 7.5 A from a 30 V battery. If the two resistances are
10  and 12  , find the third resistance.
A) 15  B) 1.5  C) 150  D) 0.15 
9. An e.m.f. of 2.2 volt is connected to the combination of resistors shown in figure. What is the equivalent
resistance connected across the terminals of the cell? What is the value of the current?
10  C 5 D
B E 10 
5
i1
2.2 V
A) 0.58 A B) 0.22 A C) 1.6 A D) 0.16 A

10. In the given circuit, currents I1 and I2 are
7 B 5
A C
I1 4V I2
G F D
6V 8V
10 12 10 12 8 12 8 12
A) A, A B) A, A C) A, A D) A, A
7 7 7 5 7 5 7 7
11. The potential difference between the terminals of an electric heater is 60 V when it draws a current of 4 A from
the source. What current will the heater draw if the potential difference is increased to 120 V?
A) 0.8 A B) 0.08 A C) 80 A D) 8 A
12. A current of 2 A flows in a system of conductors shown in figure. The potential difference VA – VB will be
A
2 3
2A D C
2
3
B
A) + 1 V B) – 1 V C) +2 V D) – 2 V
33
13. Three different circuits (I, II and III) are constructed using identical batteries and resistors of R and 2R ohm.
What can be said about current I in arm AB of each circuit?
A R R R A R R R R R R
E 2R 2R 2R R E 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R R
B B
(I) (III)
A R R R R R R R R
E 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R R
B
(III)
A) III < II < IIII B) II < III < IIII C) II = III = IIII D) I1 > III = IIII
14. In the given circuit, what will be the equivalent resistance between the points A and B of figure.
2 3
A B
10 
4 6
B
10 20 10
A)  B)  C)  D) 5 
3 3 5
15. In the circuit figure, E = 6.0 V, R 1  100 , R 2  R 3  50 , R 4  75  . The equivalent resistance of the
circuit in ohm, is
R1
I
R4
R2
E
A) 11.875 B) 26.31 C) 118.75 D) None of these

16. At what temperature, the resistance of a copper wire will become three times its value at 0oC? (Temperature
coefficient of resistance for copper = 4 × 10–3 per oC)
A) 400oC B) 450oC C) 500oC D) 550oC
34
17. If the circuit figure, the resistance R2 is decreased.
R1
E
A) the current through R1 increases B) the current through R1 is constant

C) the voltage drop across R2 decreases D) the power dissipation by R2 decreases
18. A battery of e.m.f. 10 V and internal resistance 3  is connected to parallel combination of two identical
resistors each of resistance R. Current in the circuit is 0.5 A. Find the terminal voltage of battery.
A) 85 V B) 8.5 V C) 5.8 V D) 58 V
19. An electric bulb is rated as 50 W, 220 V. If the supply voltage drops to 100 V. Find the heat and light energy
produced by the bulb in 20 minutes.
A) 124 kJ B) 12.4 kJ C) 12.4 J D) 124 J
20. Three bulbs are rated 40 W, 60 W and 100 W. Which bulb will glow brightly if they are connected in series
across a 220 V source?
A) 40 W B) 60 W C) 100 W D)All will glo equally bright
21. An electric motor takes 5 A from a 220 V line. Determine the power of the motor and the energy consumed
in 2 h is
A) 2.2 kWh B) 2.02 kWh C) 11 kWh D) 0.22 kWh
LEVEL III
Multiple Correct.
1. Which of the following statements are true about an electric resistance?
A) The resistance of an electric circuit is a measure of the overall amount of hindrance to the flow of
charge through the circuit.
B) A large resistance value indicates that the charge is encountering a relatively large amount of difficulty in
moving through the circuit
C) The resistance of a conducting wire will increase as the length of the wire increases.
D) The resistance of a conducting wire will increase as the cross-sectional area of the wire increases.
2. Which of the following statements about an electric current are true?
A) Electric current is measured in the unit Ampere.
B) Electric current is defined as the number of Coulombs of charge which move past a point on a circuit.
C) Wider conducting wires are capable of carrying larger currents.
D) Suppose a miniature light bulb is connected to a battery in a circuit. A light bulb with a greater resistance
will have a greater current.
35
3. If a current of I ampere flows in a circuit with power P watt and resistance R ohms, for t hours under a
potential difference of V volts, then number of units consumed in the circuit is given by:
 I
2
Pt Rt
A) B)
3.6  106 3.6  106
VI t
C) D) None of the above mentioned
3.6  106
Passage Comprehensive Type.
A 50 V dc power supply is used to charge a battery of eight lead accumulators, each of emf 2 V and internal
1
resistance  . The charging current also runs a motor connected in series with the battery. The resistance
8
of the motor is 5  and the steady current supply is 4 A.
4. The total power lost due to heat dissipation is
A) 88 W B) 92 W C) 96 W D) 100 W
5. The useful power available is
A) 112 W B) 108 W C) 104 W D) 100 W
6. The chemical power stored in the battery is
A) 80 W B) 76 W C) 64 W D) 50 W
7. The mechanical power stored in the motor is
A) 20 W B) 30 W C) 40 W D) 50 W
Matrix Match.
8. Two wires of same material having length l, 2l and radius 2 r, 3 r are connected in parallel across a source of
l
emf  and negligible internal resistance. If  is the resistivity of each wire, using  x , compare column I
r 2
with column II.
Column I Column II
A) Resistance of first wire p) 2x
9
B) Resistance of second wire q) x
4
C) Current in first wire r) 9 
2 x
D) Current in second wire s) 4
x
36
Integer Type.
9. Resistance of a coil is 4.2  at 100oC and the temperature coefficient of resistance of its material is 0.004 / o C .
Then its resistance at 0oC is
10. Calculate the current I in the circuit.
11. Seven resistances are connected as shown in the figure. The equivalent resistance between A and B is
12. In the circuit shown in figure the total current supplied by the battery is
Reasoning Type.
Each question contains Statement I and Statement II. Of these Statements, mark correct choice if
A) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is a correct explanation for Statement I
B) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is not a correct explanation for Statement I
C) Statement I is true, Statement II is false
D) Statement I is false, Statement II is true
13. Statement I : Fuse wire should have high resistance but low melting point.
Statement II : H  R Fuse wire will melt and break the circuit to safe guard the appliances.
14. Statement I : A tap supplies water at 20oC. A man takes 1 litre of water per minute at 35oC from a geyser
connected to the tap. The power of the geyser is 1050 W.
Statement II : Power = heat spent / time taken
37
NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS

1. Select correct statement.
If resistance are connected in series: (2014)
A) Different current flows through every part and effective resistance is greater than the individual resistances
B) Same current flows through every part and effective resistance is smaller than the individual resistances
C) Same current flows through every part and effective resistance is greater than the individual resistances
D) Different current flows through every part and effective resistance is smaller than the individual resistances
2. Four 20  resistors are connected in series and the combination is connected to a 20 V emf device. The
potential difference across any one of the resistors is: (2016)
A) 5 V B) 2 V C) 4 V D) 20 V
3. Which of the following is incorrect (2015)
A) 1 ampere × 1 second = 1 coulomb B) 1 coulomb × 1 joule = 1 volt
C) 1 volt × 1 coulomb = 1 joule D) 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 joule per second
4. The power of an electric power station is 200 mega watt, the electrical energy produced by it daily, will be :
A) 200 megawatt hour B) 4800 megawatt hour C) 4800 megawatt D) 4800 joule (2015)
5. When three equal resistors are connected together in series with a source of electromotive force (e.m.f.), it
dissipate 10 watt of power. What would be the power dissipated when same resistors are connected in
parallel with the same source of e.m.f. (2014)
A) 90 watt B) 80 watt C) 70 watt D) 75 watt
6. What is the equivalent resistance of the following arrangement between M and N. (2015)
R R R
M N
R R R R
A) B) C) D)
2 3 4 6
7. If current through a resistance is increased by 100% simultaneously reducing resistance value to 25%, the
new power dissipated will be : (2015)
A) No change B) Increased by 100%
C) Decreased by 400% D) Increased by 400%
8. In an experiment on finding equivalent resistance of two resistors in series, four students draw up circuits
which one is correct? (2015)
+ V– +A– +V– + V–
– R1 R2 – R1 R2 – R1 R2 – R1 R2
A) A B) V C) A D) A
+ B K + B K + B K + B K
() () () ()
38
9. A resistance wire of uniform cross section is in the form of a ring. The two diametrically opposite points are
connected through a source of emf via an ammeter. A conduction wire is now connected across AB, A1B3 and
then A2B2, one by one, if ammeter reads I1, I2 and I3, respectively: (2015)
A2
A1
A3
A B
B1 B3
B2
A
A) I1 > I2 > I3 B) I3 = I1 > I2 C) I1 = 0, I2 > I3 D) I3 = 0, I1 < I2
10. An electric bulb rated for 500 W at 100 V is used in a circuit having a 200 V supply. The resistance ‘R’ that
must be kept in series with the bulb so that the bulb draws 500 W is: (2015)
A) 30  B) 5  C) 10  D) 20 
11. Three 6  resistors are connected in parallel and the combination is connected to a 15 V battery. The current
through any one of the resistors will be: (2017)
A) 2.5 A B) 2.0 A C) 5 A D) 10 A
12. A circuit as shown in figure the value of current in 5  resistance will be : (2017)
12 V, 2  5 12 V, 2 
A) 2 A B) zero C) 3 A D) 1 A
13. The resistance of a wire is R. After melting it is remoulded such that its area of cross-section becomes n times
its initial area of cross-section, its new resistance will be : (2017)
R R
A) nR B) C) D) n2R
n n2
14. The equivalent resistance of r1 and r2 when connected in series is R1, and that when they are connected in
R1
parallel is R2. Then the ratio R is: (2017)
2
 r1  r2 
2
r1 r1  r2 r1r2
A) r B) r  r C) D) 2r  r
2 1 2 r1r2 1 2
15. Three voltmeters all having different resistances are joined as shown. When some potential difference is
applied across A and B, then readings in voltmeter are V1, V2 and V3. (2017)
V1 V2
A B
V3
A) V1 = V2 B) V1 < V2 C) V1  V2  V3 D) V1  V2  V3
39
16. What is potential difference across AB? (2017)

3A
A B
3V 1 6
A) 24 V B) 0 V C) 6 V D) 18 V
17. What is the equivalent resistance between any two opposite corner points of a quadrilateral, if the sides of the
quadrilateral are of equal resistance R? (2017)
2R
A) 3 R B) 2 R C) R D)
3
18. Two electrodes are maintained at a potential difference of 50 V. An electron moving from cathode to anode
gains kinetic energy equal to: (2017)
A) 50  1019 erg B) 50 joule C) 80  1019 Joule D) 80 erg
19. A copper wire is stretched to decrease the radius by 0.1 %. Calculate the percentage change in its resistance
(2018)
A) 0.3%, decrease B) 0.4 % decrease C) 0.4 %, increase D) 0.2 % increase
20. What is the equivalent resistance of the given circuit between points A and B? (2018)
1 2
1 3 2
A B
1 2
14 17
A) 10  B) 4  C)  D) 
3 6
21. 4 bulbs rated 100 W each, operate for 6 hours per day. What is the cost of the energy consumed in 30 days
at the rate of Rs. 5/kWh? (2018)
A) Rs. 360 B) Rs. 90 C) Rs. 120 D) Rs. 400
22. A heater coil is cut into two equal parts and only one part is used in the heater the heat generated now will be
(2018)
A) Doubled B) Four times C) One fourth D) Halved
23. The equivalent resistance of the given circuit between points A and B is : (2019)
10
A
10
10 10
B
10
A) 40  B) 4  C) 5  D) 0.2 
40
24. Find the current flowing through the above circuit. (2019)
3 4 2 4 4
3V
()
A) 0.374 A B) 0.375 A C) 3.74 A D) 3.75 A

25. Bulb ‘P’ marked as 100 W, 220 V and bulb Q marks as 60 W, 110 V. The resistance ratio of P and Q is
A) 12 : 5 B) 5 : 12 C) 12 : 7 D) 5 : 7 (2019)
26. A wire of resistance 8 R is bent in the form of a circle as shown in the figure. What is the Effective resistance
between the ends of the diameter AB? (2019)
A O B
A) 2 R B) 4 R C) 8 R D) 16 R
27. A current of 2 mA is flowing through a circuit for 10 sec. The number of electrons flowing through the circuit
during this time will be about (2019)
A) 6  1018 B) 120  1018 C) 20 D) 120  1015
28. The voltage supplied to a bulb is halved. Then the power consumed becomes (2019)
A) Two times B) Four times C) Halved D) One-fourth
29. If the current through a resistor is increased by 50%, the increase in power dissipated will be (assume the
temperature remains constant) (2019)
A) 225% B) 200% C) 250% D) 125%
30. In a hydro-Power Plant (2019)
A) Kinetic energy possessed by the stored water is converted into potential energy
B) Potentail energy possessed by the stored water is converted into electricity
C) Water is converted into steam to produce electricity
D) Heat is extracted from water to produce electricity
31. In a Helium gas discharge tube every second 40 × 1018 He+ (ions) move towards the right through a cross-
section of the tube, while n electrons move to the left in the same time. If the current in the tube is 8 A towards
right then n = ? (2019)
A) 10  1018 B) 3  1019 C) 3  1020 D) 3  1021
41
32. Device/devices changing electrical energy into mechanical energy is/are........ (2019)
I) Electric generator II) Electric motor III) Votlmeter IV) Ammeter
A) I and II B) II and III C) II, III and IV D) Only II
33. n conducting wires of same dimensions, but having resistivities 1, 2, 3, ..... n are connected in series. The
equivalent resistivity of the combination is
n  n  1 n 1 n 1 2n
A) B) C) D)
2 2n 2n n 1
34. Five resistances of same value ‘x’ are joined in an electric circuit as shown in figure. The equivalent resistance
between ends P and Q is 3 . The value of x
X
P
X X
X X
Q
1 5 21 7
A)  B)  C)  D) 
5 4 4 4
35. A glass rod is rubbed with silk, is found positively charged. This is because
A) Electrons are transferred from glass rod to silk B) Electrons are transferred from silk to glass rod
C) Protons are transferred from glass rod to silk D) Protons are transferred from silk to glass rod
36. An electric stove boils 1 kg of water in time 2 min and another stove boils 1 kg of water in time 3 min. Both
electric stoves are designed for the same voltage. When they are joined in parallel, the time required to boil 1
kg of water is
A) 1 .2 min B) 2.4 min C) 5 min D) 1 min
42
CHAPTER - 2
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND EMI
Magnets
Magnets are solid objects of stone, metal or other material which have the property of attracting iron-containing
materials. It attracts magnetic substances like iron, steel, cobalt, nickel towards it.
Discovery of Magnet : Magnet was discovered by an ancient Greek shepherd; ‘named Magnes. Once’; while he
was feeding with his crook, the metallic end of the crook got stuck with the rocks. Those rocks contained the natural
magnet, magnetite. The story of magnetite spread far and wide. Some people believe that magnetite was discovered
at a place called Magnesia.
This property of rocks made them very useful as direction-finders and they came to be called leading-stone or
lodestone.
Magnets can be Natural or Artificial. The iron ore magnetite is a part of naturally occurring rock.
Natural Magnet : Magnet which is found naturally is called natural magnet.
Artificial Magnet : Magnet which is made by humans is called artificial magnet.
Types of Magnets : Magnets are made in different shapes and they are named according to the shape, e.g. bar
magnet, dumb-bell shaped magnet, horse-shoe magnet, cylindrical magnet, etc.
Magnetic Materials : Materials which are attracted towards a magnet are called magnetic materials, e.g. iron,
nickel and cobalt.
Non-magnetic materials : Materials which are not attracted towards a magnet are called non-magnetic materials,
e.g. aluminium, zinc, wood, rubber, etc.
Poles of a Magnet: A magnet has two poles, viz. north pole and south pole. The magnetic power is concentrated
on the poles of a magnet. The pole of the magnet lie slightly inside from the end.
When a magnet is suspended freely with the help of an unspun thread, it comes to rest along the north south
direction. The pole which points towards geographic north is called north pole (N) and the pole which points
towards geographic south is called south pole (S).
The straight line passing through north and south poles of a magnet is called axial line of the magnet. A line
passing through centre of the magnet in a direction perpendicular to the length of the magnet is called equatorial line
of the magnet.
43
Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
Repulsion
Attraction
S N
S
N N S
N
S
(a) (b)
Pole strength
Pole strength of north pole and south pole of a magnet is conventionally represented by (m) and (–m) respectively.
Unit of pole strength is Am.
Pole strength is directly proportional to area of cross section of magnet.
The force of attraction or repulsion F between two magnetic poles of strengths m1 and m2 separated by a
distance r is directly proportional to the product of the pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centres ie,
m1m 2 mm
F 2
or F  K 1 2 2 , where K is the magnetic force constant.
r r
0
In S.I. units, K   10 7 WbA 1m 1
4
Where  0 is the absolute magnetic permeability of free space or air..
0 m1m2
 F
4 r2 --------------------(1)
This is called Coulomb’s law of magnetic force.
N S
N S N S
N S N S N S N S
The magnetic poles always exist in pairs i.e. magnetic monopoles do not exist. The two poles of a magnet are
always of equal strength. In an attempt to separate the magnetic poles, if we break a magnet, we find new poles
formed at the broken ends. If the two pieces are broken again, we find the broken ends contain new poles.
44
Atomic/Molecular theory of Magnetism

The molecular theory of magnetism was given by Weber and modified later by Ewing. According to this theory:
(i) Every molecule of a magnetic substance (whether magnetised or not) is a complete magnet itself, having a north
pole and a south pole of equal strength.
(a) unmagnetised (b) magnetised
(ii) In an unmagnetised substance, the molecular magnets are randomly oriented such that they join closed chains
as shown in Fig.(a). The north pole of one molecular magnet cancels the effect of south pole of the other so that
the resultant magnetism of the unmagnetised specimen is zero.
(iii) On magnetising the substance, the molecular magnets are realigned so that north poles of all molecular magnets
point in one direction and south poles of all molecular magnets point in the opposite direction.
The extent of magnetism of the specimen is the extent of realignment of the molecular magnets.
(iv) When all the molecular magnets are fully aligned, the substance is said to be saturated with magnetism.
(v) At all the stages, the strengths of the two poles developed will always be equal.
(vi) On heating the magnetised specimen, molecular magnets acquire some kinetic energy. Some of the molecules
may get back to the closed chain arrangement. That is why magnetism of the specimen would reduce on
heating. This is called demagnetization.
Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is defined as the space around a magnet or the space around a conductor carrying current, in
which the magnetic effect can be experienced.
The S.I. unit of magnetic field is tesla.
× × × ×
× × × ×
× × × ×
× × × ×
Uniform Outward Inward
Magnetic field in a region is said to be uniform, if the magnetic field vector B has the same magnitude and the
same direction at all the points in the region. The only example of nearly uniform magnetic field over a wide area is
that due to earth’s magnetism. A uniform magnetic field acting in the plane of the paper is represented by equidistant
parallel lines.
A uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the paper and inwards is represented by crosses.
A uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the paper and outwards is represented by dots
45
Magnetic Lines of force

The concept of magnetic lines of force or simply the field lines was developed to visualize the effect of the
magnetic field. The magnetic field lines represent the magnetic field in the sameway as the electric field lines represent
an electric field.
A
B
P
The magnetic lines of force do not exist in reality. They are only hypothetical lines, which enable us to understand
certain phenomena in magnetism.
Properties of Magnetic Lines
Following are some of the important properties of magnetic lines of force:
1. Magnetic lines of force are closed continuous curves, we may imagine them to be extending through the body
of the magnet.
2. Outside the body of the magnet, the direction of magnetic lines of force, is from north pole to south pole.
3. The tangent to magnetic line of force at any point gives the direction of magnetic field at that point.
4. No two magnetic lines of force can intersect each other.
5. Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and they dilate laterally.
6. Crowding of magnetic lines of force represents stronger magnetic field and vice-versa.
The essential difference between magnetic and electric lines of force is that magnetic lines of force are closed,
continuous curves, the electric lines of force are discontinuous.
Magnetic Dipole : A magnetic dipole consists of two poles of equal strength and separated by a small distance.
For example, a bar magnet, a compass needle etc. are magnetic dipoles. An atom behaves as a dipole due to
electrons revolving around the nucleus.
S N
Magnetic dipole moment is defined as the product of pole strength and the distance between the two poles.

This distance between the poles is called magnetic length and is represented by 2l . If m is the strength of each pole,

then magnetic dipole moment M is  
 
M  m 2l   ------------(2)
Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity directed from south to north pole as shown in Fig.
46
Example 1 : A magnetised thin rod of length L and magnetic moment M is bent in the form of a semi circle. What is
the new magnetic moment?
Solution: Circumference  2R
Semi circumference  R
L
L  R  R

2L
The new effective length  2R 

2L M 2L 2M
The new magnetic moment  m .2R  m.  . 
 L  
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT
A Denmark born German scientist Hans Christian Oersted (1820), while demonstrating an experiment to his
students in his laboratory found that a magnetic needle placed below a wire showed some deflection whenever
there was current flowing through the wire.
The direction of deflection of the magnetic needle is reversed when the direction of current in the wire is
reversed. This shows that a magnetic field is associated with a current carrying wire.
The magnetic field produced by the conductor carrying current thus interacts with the magnetic needle and
deflects it. The branch of physics which deals with the magnetism due to electric current is called electromagnetism.
Ampere’s swimming rule.
According to this rule, if we imagine a man is swimming along the wire in the direction of current with his face
always turned towards the needle, so that the current enters at his feet and leaves at his head, then the -N- pole of the
magnetic needle will be deflected towards his left hand side. It means, current from South to North, in a wire over
the magnetic needle, the north pole of the needle is deflected towards West.
Biot-Savart’s Law
Biot-Savart’s law is an experimental law predicted by Biot and Savart. This law deals with the magnetic field at
a point due to a small current element (a part of any conductor carrying current ). Let us consider a small element

AB (of length dl) of the conductor XY carrying a current I. Let r be the position vector of the point P from the
  
current element dl and  be the angle between dl and r .
According to Biot- Savart’s law, the strength of magnetic field dB (also called magnetic flux density) at a point P due
to current element depends upon the factors as stated below.
Y
I
B
dl 
A
r
I P
47
(i) dB  I
(ii) dB  dl
(iii) dB  sin 
1
(iv) dB 
r2
Combining these factors, we get
Idlsin 
dB 
r2
Idl sin 
dB  K
r2
where K is a constant of proportionality. Its value depends on the system of units chosen for the measurement
0
of the various quantities and also on the medium between point P and the current element. In S.I. Units, K  ,
4
where 0 is the absolute permeability of free space.  0  4  10 7 WbA 1m 1  4  107 TA 1m
 0 Idlsin 
dB  ----------(3)
4 r 2

Direction of dB .

Here dB is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r directed inwards.
Right hand thumb rule or Right Hand Grip Rule.

According to this rule, if we imagine the linear conductor to be held in the grip of the right hand so that the thumb
points in the direction of current, then the curvature of the fingers around the conductor will represent the direction
of magnetic lines of force.
B B
i i
P Q
to the plane to the plane
upward downward (a) (b)
A A
Maxwell’s cork’s screw rule.
According to this rule, if we imagine a right handed screw placed along the current carrying linear conductor, be
rotated such that the screw moves in the direction of flow of current, then the direction of rotation of the screw gives
the direction of magnetic lines of force.
48
MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCULAR COIL CARRYING CURRENT
Consider a circular coil of radius r with centre O, lying with its plane in the plane of the paper. Let I be the
current flowing in the circular coil in the direction shown in Fig.

In this case the direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane of the current loop and is directed inwards. The
total magnetic field at point O due to current in the whole circular coil can be obtained by
90o O
dl I
r
I I
0 I
B
2r
 0 nI
If the circular coil consists of n turns, then B -----------------(4)
2r
The circular-coil carrying current, acts as a magnetic dipole.

The magnetic dipole moment is given by, M = IA
If the coil has n - turns,
M  nIA  nI. r 2

Direction of B

The direction of magnetic field B (i.e. magnetic flux density) is perpendicular to the plane of the circular coil
and directed inwards.
The direction of magnetic field at the centre of circular current loop is given by Right hand palm rule.
49
Right Hand Rule.

According to this rule, if we hold the thumb of right hand mutually perpendicular to the grip of the fingers such
that the curvature of the finger represents the direction of current in the wire loop, then the thumb of the right hand
will point in the direction of magnetic field near the centre of the current loop.
Example 2 : A circular coil of 300 turns and diameter 14 cm carries a current of 15 A. What is the magnitude of
magnetic moment associated with the coil ?
M  nIA  300  15    0.07   69.24 A.m 2

2
Solution : n = 300; r = 0.07 m; I = 15 A;
Example 3 : A closely wound solenoid of 800 turns and area of cross section 2.5 × 10–4 m2 carriers a current of
3.0A. What is the magnetic moment associated with it ?
Solution : n = 800; A  2.5 10 4 ; I = 3 A; M  nIA  800  3  2.5  104  0.6 Am 2
Example 4 : A wire as shown in figure carriers a current I ampere. The circular part has a radius r. The magnetic
field at the centre C will be
r
I r
A C
B
Solution: The magnetic field at the centre due to AC and BC is zero.
3
 The magnetic field at the centre will be only due to the th path of the circular loop.
4
3  0 I 3 0 I
Magnetic field at C  
4 2r 8r
Example 5 : A long wire is bent as shown in the figure. What will be the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
field at the centre O of the circular portion, if a current I is passed through the wire? Assume that the straight wire do
not touch the circular wire at P.
r
I O I
I P I
Solution : The system consists of a straight conductor and a circular loop. Field due to straight conductor at point
O is
0 I
B1  , directed normally outwards.
2r
Field due to circular loop at point O is
50
0 I
B2  , directed normally outwards. The two fields get added up
2r
0 I  1 
The total field at O, B = B1 + B2   1   , directed normally outwards.
2r   
Example 6 : A circular coil of wire consisting of 100 turns, each of radius 8.0 cm carries a current of 0.40 A. What
is the magnitude of the magnetic field B at the centre of the coil?
Solution: n = 100; r = 0.08 m; I = 0.4 A
 0 nI 4 107  100  0.4
B   3.14 104 T
2r 2  0.08
Example 7 : A horizontal circular coil has 10 turns and of 8 cm radius, 2 ampere current flows through it, which
appears anti-clockwise from a point vertically above it. Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field at the
centre of the coil.
Solution : Here, n = 10, r = 8 cm = 8 × 10-2 m
I = 2A,  0  4  10 7 Tm A–1 or Wb/A×m or H/m
using the relation,
 0 nI 4107  10  2
B   1.57  104 T
2r 2  8  102
As the current is anti-clockwise as seen from a point vertically above it so the direction of magnetic field will be
directly vertically upward.
Example 8 : The radius of a circular wire is 0.5 m and the current is 10 A. Find the magnitude of magnetic field at
the centre of the circular wire.
Solution : Radius of the circular wire, r =0.5 m
Current, I = 10A
0 I 4107  10
magnetic field at the centre, ; B  12.57 106 T
2r 2  0.5
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT
Y
a
2
C  P
1
l 
r
dl O
51
Consider a long straight conductor XY lying in the plane of the paper carrying current I in the direction X to Y,
Let P be a point at a perpendicular distance a from the straight conductor
The direction of d B , according to right hand thumb rule will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper and
directed inwards. The total magnetic field at point P due to current through the whole straight conductor XY
0 I
B  sin 1  sin 2  ----------(5)
4a
For an infinitely long conductor,


1  2 
2
0I    0 2I
B  2 sin   --------------(6)
4a  2 4 a
The direction of magnetic lines of force can be given by Right Hand Thumb Rule or Maxwell’s cork-screw
rule.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO SOLENOID CARRYING CURRENT
A solenoid consists of an insulated long wire closely wound in the form of a helix. Its length is very large as
compared to its diameter.
Consider a long straight solenoid having n turns per unit length and carrying current I. The magnetic field set up
in the solenoid is as shown in Fig. At points inside the long solenoid, the magnetic field is uniform and parallel to the
length of the solenoid.
I I
The magnetic field at a point well inside the solenoid. B   0 nI

 0 nI
At a point, near the end of a solenoid, magnetic field is found to be .
2
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN TOROID
A toroid is an endless solenoid in the form of a ring,
52
Let n be the number of turns per unit length of the toroid and I be the current flowing through it. The magnetic
field is set up inside the turns of the toroid. The magnetic lines of force inside the toroid are concentric circles. The
magnetic field inside the turns of toroid,
B   0 nI
The magnetic field inside the toroid is constant and is always tangential to the circular closed path.
Example 9 : A wire placed along north-south direction carries current of 20 A from south to north. Find the
0
magnetic field at a point 300 cm east from the wire. Given  107 T.m/A .
4
Solution : I = 20 A; r = 300 cm = 3.00 m
 0 I  0 2I 2  20
B  .  107 × =1.33×106 T
2r 4 r 3
The magnetic field is acting downwards.

Example 10 : A long straight wire carries a current of 35 A. What is the magnitude of the field B at a point 20 cm
from the wire?
Solution : I = 35 A; a = 20 cm;
0 I 4107  35 2  35  107
B    3.5 105 T
2a 2 0.20 0.20
Example 11 : A long straight wire in the horizontal plane carries a current of 50 A in north to south direction. Give

the magnitude and direction of B at a point 2.5 m east of the wire.
 0 I 4107  50
Solution :I = 50 A; a = 2.5 m; B    4 106 T , acting vertically upwards.
2a 2 2.5
Example 12 : The magnetic induction at a point P which is at a distance of 4 cm from a long current carrying wire
is 10-3 T. What is the field of induction at a distance 12 cm from this current carrying wire?
Solution : a1 = 4 cm = 0.04 m; B1 = 10–3 T
a2 = 12 cm = 0.12 m; B2 = ?
0 I
B1 2a1 a 2
 
B2 0 I a1
2a 2
B1a1 103  0.04

B2    3.33  104 T
a2 0.12
53
Example 13 : Find the magnetic field B at the centre of a square loop of side ‘a’, carrying a current i
Solution:
i
o
45
i d
o i
45
 0i
B4 cos 450  cos 450 
4d
 0i  1   0i
4 2 2 2 into the plane of the paper..
a  2  a
4
2
a 3
Example 14 : Calculate the magnetic field induction at a point at a distance, metre from a straight wire of
2
length ‘a’ metre carrying a current of i amp. The point is on the perpendicular bisector of the wire.
30o P
a d 30o
i
 0i
Solution: B  sin 1  sin 2 
4d
7
10  i  1 1  2i
    107 T
a 3/22 2 a 3
perpendicular to the plane of the figure (inwards)
ELECTROMAGNET
(i) Definition:
A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetise a piece of magnetic material like
soft iron, when placed inside the solenoid. The magnet so formed is called an electromagnet.
(ii) Principle :
It works on the phenomenon of magnetic effect of current
54
(iii) Construction:
It consists of a large number of turns of an enamelled thick copper wire wrapped very closely on a soft iron
core.
Soft iron is chosen because it loses all its magnetism when the current is switched off.
Their shapes and sizes depend upon the purpose for which they are to be used.
Enammeled Soft iron core

copper wire
S N
Key
Electromagnet
(iv) Working :
When the switch is closed to make a strong current to pass through the wrapped copper coil, it becomes
strongly magnetised. When it is suspended vertically by a strong crane and its lower end is touched with a heavy iron
sheet lying on the ground, it will stick to the sheet. The crane can easily lift the iron sheet. To make the sheet free, the
current is switched off.
(v) Applications:
A) In factories very strong electromagnets are used with cranes for lifting very heavy iron ingots and steel
scraps , from one place to another.
B) In hospitals they are used for removing small steel splinters from the eyes of a patient.
C) In offices and houses they are used in electric bells.
D) To separate iron ore from muddy impurities in metallurgical industries.
Factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet:
(i) The number of turns in the coil :
If we increase the number of turns in the coil, the strength of the electromagnet increases.
(ii) The current flowing in the coil
If the current in the coil is increased, the strength of the electromagnet increases.
(iii) The length of air between its poles:
If we reduce the length of air gap between the poles of an electromagnet, the strength will be increased, so a bar
type electromagnet is not very strong. On the other hand the air gap between the poles of a U-shaped electromagnet
is small, so it is very strong.
Electromagnets are used in electric bells, electromagnetic relay, relay switch for car starter and several other
instruments. Since the magnetisation depends on the current flowing through the coil, it is possible to obtain very
powerful electromagnets by increasing the current.
Soft iron can be easily magnetised even by a weak magnetic field, whereas steel can be magnetised only by a
strong magnetic field.
55
S.No. Bar magnet (or permanent magnet) Electromagnet

1 The bar magnet is a permanent magnet. An electromagnet is a temporary
magnet. Its magnetism is only for the
duration for which current passes
through it, so the magnetism of an
electromagnet can be switched on or
switched off as desired
2 A permanent magnet produces a An electromagnet can produce very
comparatively weak force of attraction. strong magnetic force.
3 The strength of a permanent magnet The strength of an electromagnet can
cannot be changed. be changed by changing the number
of turns in its coil or by changing the
current passing through it.
4 The (north-south) polarity of permanent The polarity of an electromagnet can
magnet is fixed and cannot be changed. be changed by changing the direction
of current in its coil.
FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

When a current carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic field (not parallel to it), a force acts on it. This force is
created due to the interaction of magnetic field of the current in the conductor and the external magnetic field on the
conductor. As a result of this superposition, the resultant magnetic field on one side of the conductor is weaker than
on the other side. Hence the conductor experiences a resultant force in one direction.
The direction of this force is always at right angles to the plane containing both the conductor and the magnetic
field, and is predicated by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
Referring to the diagram above, F is force, B is magnetic field, I is the current.

Factors affecting magnetic force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
• Strength of the magnetic field.
• Current flowing through the wire.
• Length of the wire.
• Angle between magnetic field and the conductor carrying current.
56
(a) Magnitude of Force :

Consider a straight conductor of length  . It carries I current, it is kept in a uniform magnetic field at an
angle  . Then the force acting on the conductor by the magnetic field
F = IB  sin  ---------(7)
Direction of force is perpendicular to both the conductor (wires) and the magnetic field B. Direction of F can be
find out by Fleming’s left hand rule.
Case I : If   0 or 180, sin0o = sin 180o = 0 ; So, F = 0
Case II:   900
F = IB  sin 900 ; F = IB  max imum 
(i) Fleming’s left hand rule :
If we stretch the forefinger, middle finger and the thumb of our left hand in such a way that they are mutually
perpendicular to each other as shown in figure. If the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field and the
middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb will indicate the direction of motion (ie., force) on the
conductor.
F
Force
Magnetic field
B
Cu
rre
nt
I
(ii) Right Hand Palm Rule:
If we stretch our right hand such that thumb is at right angles to the fingers, then if fingers represent the direction
of external magnetic field (B), thumb in the direction of current, then the force will be acting outside and normal to
the palm.
I
F
MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD (LORENTZ FORCE)

When a charged particle of charge q is moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B at an angle  , then force
acting on the particle.
B
q
F = qvBsin  ---------(8)
57
 
 = Angle between v and B
This force is called Lorentz force
Case -I :If  =0 or 180, sin 00 = sin 1800 = 0
So, F=0
Then the particles will move in the same direction in a straight line with same speed.
Case -II: If  = 90
F = qvB sin90o = qvB (maximum)
In this case the charged particle will move in circular path and the plane of the circle is perpendicular to B.
Case -III :If  lies between 00 and 900 .
Then the path of the particle is helical or helix (like a spring)
B
q B
a) Direction of Lorentz Force:

The direction of force is obtained by the Fleming’s left hand rule.
Fleming’s left hand rule:
If we stretch the forefinger, middle finger and the thumb of our left hand in such a way that mutually perpendicular
to each other as shown in figure the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger is in
the direction of velocity of the charge, then lorentz force will act in the direction of thumb.
Force
Magnetic field
Ve
loc
ity
When charge q enters into transverse magnetic field B, the force acting on it is perpendicular to both velocity
 mv 2 
and magnetic field. This will act as the centripetal force   for a circular motion.
 R 
58
mv 2 R m
F  qvB   
R v qB
2R 2m
T  ---------(9)
v qB
1 qB
 Frequency n   ---------(10)
T 2m
Example 15 : A conductor of length 10 cm carrying 2.5 A current is placed in a magnetic field of 0.3 T. Calculate
the force on the conductor when it is placed at 30o to the direction of the field.
Solution : l = 10 cm = 0.1 m; I = 2.5 A; B = 0.3 T;   30o
1
F  BIl sin   0.3  2.5  0.1  0.0375 N
2
Magnetic field of Earth
Sir William Gilbert was the first to suggest in the year 1600, that earth itself is a huge magnet. His statement
was based on the following evidence.
(i) A magnet suspended from a thread and free to rotate in a horizontal plane comes to rest along the north-south
direction. On disturbing, the magnet returns quickly to its north-south direction again. This is as if a huge bar
magnet lies along the diameter of the earth. The north pole of this fictitious magnet must be towards geographic
south so as to attract south pole of the suspended magnet and vice-versa.
(ii) When we draw field lines of a magnet, we come across neutral points. At these points the magnetic field due to
the magnet is neutralized or cancelled exactly by the magnetic field of earth. If earth had no magnetism of its
own, we would never observe neutral points.
The branch of Physics which deals with the study of magnetism of earth is called terrestrial magnetism or
geomagnetism.
The strength of this field at the surface of earth is approximately 10-4 tesla.
Ng
Sm
GEOGRAPHIC
EQUATOR
MAGNETIC
EQUATOR
Sg Nm
Magnetic Elements
Magnetic elements of earth at a place are the quantities which describe completely in magnitude as well as
direction, the magnetic field of earth at that place.
Following are the three magnetic elements of earth:
59
1. Magnetic Declination 
2. Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip   ,

3. Horizontal Component (H).
1. Magnetic Declination at a place is defined as the angle between magnetic axis and the geographic axis. The
magnetic axis, as we know, is the line joining north and south pole of a freely suspended magnet and geographic axis
is the axis of rotation of earth. This axis points along geographic north and geographic south.
B'
GEOGRAPHIC
 MERIDIAN
A
 H L B
V
R
M K
MAGNETIC
MERIDIAN
C'
 C
D
A vertical plane passing through N-S line of a freely suspended magnet is called magnetic meridian and the
vertical plane passing through the geographic north-south directions is called geographic meridian. We may, therefore
also define magnetic declination at a place as the angle between magnetic meridian and geographic meridian at that
place. It is represented by  .
By definition, CDC'  BAB'   is the magnetic declination.
2. Magnetic Dip or Inclination at a place is defined as the angle which the direction of total intensity of earth’s
magnetic field makes with a horizontal line in magnetic meridian. It is the angle by which total intensity of earth’s
magnetic field dips (northern hemisphere) or comes up (southern hemisphere) out of the horizontal plane. It is
represented by  .
3. Horizontal Component is the component of total intensity of earth’s magnetic field in the horizontal direction
in the magnetic meridian. It is represented by H.
0

N
30
60
60
Horizontal component along AB is

AL = H = R cos  -----------------(11)
Vertical component along AD is
AM = V = R sin  ------------------(12)
Square (11) and (12), and add
H2 + V2 = R2 (cos2  + sin2  ) = R2.
R  H2  V2
Dividing (12) by (11), we get
R sin  V V
 or tan  
R cos  H H
Neutral Points
When we trace magnetic lines of force around a magnet using a compass needle, what we obtain is the resultant
of the magnetic field of the magnet and that of the earth. As earth’s field is fixed, the resultant field would depend on
the direction in which the magnet is placed. In the plot of the resultant field, we come across points at which field (B)
due to the magnet becomes equal and opposite to the horizontal component (H) of earth’s field (B = H). Therefore,
the net magnetic field at these points will be zero. These points where the net magnetic field due to the magnet and
magnetic field of the earth is zero are called Neutral points.
1. Magnet placed with its north pole towards north of earth.
Place a small compass needle on a line drawn on a sheet of paper fixed on a drawing board. Rotate the board
till the compass needle is parallel to the line. Now place a small bar magnet on this line with north pole of the magnet
pointing towards north of earth. The lines of force due to combined field of a magnet and earth are shown in Fig.
GEOG. NORTH
N
E
S
N
P S Q
GEOG. SOUTH EARTH'S

FIELD
In the plot, P and Q are two neutral points lying on the equatorial line of the magnet.
2. Magnet placed with its south pole towards north of earth.
Place the bar magnet on a sheet of paper in the magnetic meridian with its south-pole pointing towards north of
earth. Plot the lines of force using the compass needle. The lines of force due to the combined field of magnet and
earth are shown in Fig.
61
In this case, P and Q are two neutral points which lie in the axial line of the magnet.
N
GEOG. NORTH
W E
S
N
EARTH'S GEOG. SOUTH

FIELD
Example 16 : The horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field is 0.2 gauss and total magnetic field is 0.4 gauss,
find the angle of dip.
Solution : H = 0.2 G ; B = 0.4 G; H  Bcos 
H 0.2 1
cos    
B 0.4 2
   60o
Example 17 : Horizontal and vertical components of earth’s magnetic field at a place are 0.22 and 0.38 G respectively.
Calculate angle of dip and resultant intensity.
Solution : H = 0.22 G ; V = 0.38 G
B  H 2  V 2  0.0484  0.1444
 0.1928  0.439 G
V 0.38
tan     1.727
H 0.22
   60o
Example 18 : What will be the value of vertical component and total intensity of earth’s field at a place where dip
is 60o. Horizontal component is 0.3 G.
Solution :   60o ; H = 0.3 G
H H 0.3
cos   ; B   0.6 G  0.6 104 T
B cos  1/ 2
V
tan   ;  V  H tan   0.3 tan 60  0.52 G  0.52  104 T
H
62
Example 19 : The horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field at a place is 0.3 gauss and angle of dip is 30o.
Calculate vertical component and total intensity of earth’s field.
Solution : H = 0.3 G;   30o
V
tan   ;  V  H tan   0.3 tan 30  0.173 G
H
H H
cos   ; B ; B = 0.346 G
B cos 
MAGNETIC FLUX
If we consider a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, then the product of the magnitude of the field
and the area of the plane is called the magnetic flux    linked with that plane. It is the number of lines of force
passing perpendicular to a given area. Figure shows a plane of area A placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic

field B . The magnetic flux linked with this plane is given by
  BA

If the magnetic field B , instead of being perpendicular to the plane , makes an angle  with the perpendicular
to the plane as shown in figure, then the magnetic flux linked with the plane will be equal to the product of the
component of the magnetic field perpendicular to the plane and the area of the plane, thus,
  Bcos   A  BA cos  -------------(13)
A B
= BA cos 
63
Case I : If   00 , then from equation (13)

  BA cos 0  BA (outgoing flux)
A
B
= BA
Case II: If   900 , then from equation (13)
  BA cos 90  0
A
B
= 0
Case III: If   1800 , then from equation (13)

  BA cos180   BA (incoming flux)
= –AB
B

 is positive if the outward normal to the plane is in the same direction as B . It is negative if the outward

normal is opposite to B .
SI unit of B and 

The S.I. unit of magnetic flux  is weber (Wb). Since B  , the magnetic field is also expressed in weber/
A
metr e2, (Wb -m-2). That is why the magnetic field induction B is also called the magnetic flux density.
Definition of magnetic flux density (B):

 B , if A = 1 m2, then B  
A
64
In a magnetic field the number of lines of force (flux) passing through one m2 perpendicular to the field is equal
to the magnetic flux density. It’s unit is Tesla or Wb/m2.
Example 20 : The plane of a coil of area 1 m2 and having 50 turns is perpendicular to a magnetic field at 3 × 10–6
W/m2. Find the magnetic flux linked with it.
Solution :   NBA cos 
N = 50, B = 3 × 10–6 w/m2;   0
   NBA  50  3  106  1  150  105 weber
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction was first discovered in 1830’s by Michael Faraday. Faraday noticed that when he
moved a permanent magnet in and out of a coil or a single loop of wire, it induced an electro motive force or emf, in
other words a voltage, and therefore a current was produced. This then led to a very important law linking electricity
with magnetism, Faraday’s law of Electro Magnetic Induction.
When the magnet stops moving and is held stationary with regards to the coil, the needle of the galvanometer
indicating current returns back to zero as there is no physical movement of the magnetic field. Likewise, when the
magnet is moved away from the coil in the other direction, the needle of the galvanometer deflects in the opposite
direction.
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction

Law 1
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit is changed, an emf is induced in it.
Law 2
The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
1. Whenever there is a relative motion between the coil and the magnet, the galvanometer shows a sudden
deflection. This deflection indicates that a current is induced in the coil.
2. The deflection is temporary. It lasts so long as the relative motion between the coil and the magnet continues.
3. The deflection is more when the magnet is moved faster and less when the magnet is moved slowly.
4. The direction of deflection is reversed when the same pole (north or south) is moved away from the coil,
instead of moving it towards the coil or north pole is moved towards the coil instead of south pole.
Faraday’s laws
1st law : Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes an emf is induced in the circuit. The
induced emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
IInd law : The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux.
If d is the small change in magnetic flux in a small time dt,
d
e --------(14)
dt
The negative sign is taken because induced emf always opposes any change in magnetic flux associated with
the circuit.
65
Lenz’s law
The law gives the direction of current induced in a circuit.
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced emf is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux
which produces it.
For example, in figure, when the magnet is moved towards the loop, a current is induced in the loop. The
induced current produces its own magnetic field which opposes the motion of the magnet. Thus the induced current
must be anticlockwise as shown in figure below.
S N N S
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
motion
magnetic field
induced current
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule also give us the direction of induced emf/current. According to this rule, if we stretch
the first finger, central finger and thumb of our right hand in mutually perpendicular directions, such that first finger
points along the direction of the field and thumb is along the direction of motion of the conductor, then the central
finger would give the direction of induced current.
TRANSFORMERS
It is a device which raises or lowers the voltage in AC circuits. It works on the principle of mutual induction. It
consists of two coils wound on the same core. The coil which is connected to the source (ie., to which input is
applied ) is called primary coil while the other which is connected to the load (ie., from which output is taken ) is
called secondary coil. The alternating current passing through the primary coil creates a continuously changing flux
through the core. This changing flux induces an alternating e.m.f. in the secondary coil. As magnetic lines of force are
closed curves, the flux per turn of the primary must be equal to the flux per turn of the secondary coil.
Let  be the magnetic flux linked with each turn in primary and secondary coils, and NP and NS be the total
number of turns in primary and secondary coils.
66
d
Induced emf in primary coil is E P   N P
dt
d
Induced emf in secondary coil is E S   N S
dt
ES N S  d 
or E  N as E  dt 
P P
For an ideal transformer there is no loss of power, so P = EI = constant, therefore E s Is  E p I p .
ES IP NS
 
E P IS N P -----------(15)
Now there are two possibilities:

(i) NS> NP, the transformer is said to be step up and it increases voltage and reduces current.
 E s  E p and Is  I p 
(ii) NS< NP, the transformer is said to be step down and it reduces voltage and increases current.
 E s  E p and Is  I p 
NOTE :
Regarding a transformer it is worth noting that:
(i) It works on AC only and never on DC
(ii) It can increase or decrease either voltage or current but not both simultaneously (as power = constant)
(iii) Some power is always lost due to flux leakage, hysteresis, eddy currents, humming and heating of coils.
Example 21 : A transformer is used to light a 120 W, 24 V / lamp from 240 V ac main. The current in the main cable
is 0.6A. Find the efficiency of the transformer.
P0 P0
Solution: Efficiency   P  100  E I 100
i i i
120  100 120  100

   83.33%
E i Ii 240  0.6
67
Example 22 : A transformer has turn ratio 100/1. If secondary coil has 4 A current then, find out current in primary
coil.
Ip Ns Ns 1
Solution : I  N Ip 
Np
 Is ; Ip   4  .04 A
s p 100
Example 23 : A transformer lowers emf from 220 V to 12 V. If the number of turns in primary is 8800, how many
turns are there in secondary coil?
Solution: Ep = 220 V; Es = 12 V; Np = 8800 ; Ns = ?
Ep Np 220 8800
  
Es Ns 12 Ns
12  8800
 Ns   480
220
Example 24 : An emf applied to a primary coil is 210 V. If the number of turns in primary coil is 200 and that in the
secondary coil is 20, then find out the output voltage. Name the type of transformer.
Solution : Ep = 210 V; Np = 200; Ns = 20 ; Es = ?
Ep Np 210 200
    10  E s  210  21 V
Es Ns Es 20 10
It is a stepdown transformer.
Example 25 : A stepup transformer operates on a 220 V AC line and supplies a load current of 6 A. The ratio of the
primary to secondary turns is 1 : 12. Find the current in the primary, voltage in the secondary, and output power,
given that the efficiency of the transformer is 70%.
Solution :   70% ; Ip = ?; Es = ?; po = ?
Np 1 Ep Np 220 1
 , Is = 6 A;  ; 
Ns 12 Es Ns E s 12 ; Es = 2640 V
Power across secondary

P0 = Es Is ; P0 = 2640 × 6 = 15840 W
Input power Pi = Ep × IP
  70%  Output power = 70% of the input power..
70 7
E s Is   E p Ip ; 15840   220  I p
100 10
15840  10
 Ip  ; Ip = 102.86 A
7  220
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GENERATOR
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy using the principle of electromagnetic
induction. It is of two types.
a) AC Generator or Dynamo :
When a coil (conductor) is rotated in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux linked with it changes and therefore an
alternating e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
Construction :The main parts of a dynamo are:-
i) Field magnets:
It is a strong horse shoe permanent magnet. An electromagnet run by a DC source can also be used for high
power generators.
ii) Armature :
It is a soft iron core on which a coil ABCD having a large number of turns of insulated copper wire is wound.
This armature (or coil) is rotated rapidly in the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet.
iii) Slip rings:
The ends of the armature (or the coil) are connected to two coaxial metallic slip rings S1 and S2 which rotate
along with the coil.
iv) Brushes :
Two brushes B1 and B2 made of carbon, press against the slip rings S1 and S2 respectively. The external circuit
(i.e, load) is connected between the other ends of brushes. The brushes B1 and B2 do not rotate along with the coil.
Working of an AC generator :
B C Shaft
Rectangular coil
(Armature) Field magnet
N S
A D
B1
S1 Slip ring
AC S2
B2
Carbon brush
Handle
Suppose the generator coil ABCD is initially in the horizontal position. Again suppose that the coil ABCD is
being rotated in the anticlockwise direction between the poles N and S of a horse-shoe type magnet.
i) As the coil rotates in the anticlockwise direction, the side AB of the coil moves down cutting the magnetic
lines of force near the N-pole of the magnet and side CD moves up, cutting the lines of force near the S-pole of the
magnet. Due to this, induced current is produced in the sides AB and DC of the coil. On applying Fleming’s right-
hand rule to the sides AB and DC of the coil, we find that the currents are in the directions B to A and D to C. Thus,
the induced currents in the two sides of the coil are in the same direction and we get an effective induced current in
the direction BADC.
69
ii) After half revolution, the sides AB and DC of the coil will interchange their positions. The side AB will be in
the right hand side. So, after half a revolution, side AB starts moving up and side DC starts moving down. As a result
of this, the direction of induced current in each side of the coil is reversed after half a revolution. Since the direction
of induced current in the coil is reversed after half revolution so that polarity (positive and negative) of the two ends
of the coil also changes after half revolution. The end of the coil which was positive in the first half of rotation
becomes negative in the second half and the end which was negative in the first half revolution becomes positive in
the second half of revolution. Thus, in 1 revolution of the coil, the current changes its direction 2 times.
After every half revolution, each side of the generator coil starts moving in the opposite direction in the magnetic
field. The side of the coil which was initially moving upwards, after half revolution, it starts moving downwards. Due
to the change in the direction of motion of the sides of the coil in the magnetic field after every half revolution, the
direction of current produced in them also changes after every half revolution.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
A motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Every motor has a shaft or spindle
which rotates continuously when current is passed into it. The rotation of its shafts is used to drive the various types
of machines in homes and industry. Electric motor is used in electric fans, washing machines, refrigerators, mixer and
grinder and many other appliances. A common electric motor works on direct current. So, it is also called DC
motor, which means a direct current motor. The electric motor which we are going to discuss now is actually a DC
motor.
a) Principle of a motor:
An electric motor utilizes the magnetic effect of current. A motor works on the principle that when a rectangular
coil is placed in a magnetic field and current is passed through it, a torque acts on the coil which rotates it continuously.
When the coil rotates, the shaft attached to it also rotates. In this way the electrical energy supplied to the motor is
converted into the mechanical energy of rotation.
b) Construction of a motor:
An electric motor consists of a rectangular coil ABCD of insulated copper wire, wound on a soft iron core
called armature. The soft iron core has not been shown in figure to make things simple. The coil is mounted between
the curved poles of a U-shaped permanent magnet in such a way that it can rotate between the poles N and S. The
two ends of the coil are soldered (or welded) permanently to the two half rings X and Y of a commutator.
Anticlockwise
B C Shaft
Rectangular coil
(Armature) Permanent magnet
F F (field magnet)
N S
A D
Commutator X Y
(split ring)
P y Q
Carbon brushes Battery
A commutator is a copper ring split into two parts X and Y, these two parts are insulated from one another and
mounted on the shaft of the motor.
70
End A of the coil is welded to part X of the commutator and end D of the coil is welded to part Y of the
commutator. The commutator rings are mounted on the shaft of the coil and they also rotate when the coil rotates.
The function of commutator rings is to reverse the direction of current flowing through the coil every time the
coil just passes the vertical position during a revolution.
To pass the electric current to the coil, we use two carbon strips P and Q known as brushes. The carbon
brushes P and Q are fixed to the base of the motor and they press lightly against the two half rings of the commutator.
The function of carbon brushes is to make contact with the rotating rings of the commutator and through them to
supply current to the coil. It should be noted that any one brush touches only one ring at a time, so that when the coil
rotates, the two brushes will touch both the rings one by one.
Working of a motor
Suppose that initially the coil ABCD is in the horizontal position as shown in figure. On pressing the switch, the
current enters the coil through carbon brush P and commutator half ring X. The current flows in the direction ABCD
and leaves via ring Y and brush Q.
(i) In side AB of the coil, the direction of current is from A to B and the direction of magnetic field is from N to S
pole. So, by applying Fleming’s left hand rule to the side AB of the coil we find that it will experience a force in
the downward direction.
(ii) In side DC of the coil, the direction of current is from C to D towards but the direction of magnetic field remains
the same from N to S pole as shown in figure. So, by applying Fleming’s left hand rule to the side DC of the
coil, we find that, it will experience a force in the upward direction.
(iii) We find that the force acting on the side AB of the coil is in the downward direction whereas the force acting on
the side DC of the coil is in the upward direction. These two equal, opposite and parallel forces acting on the
two sides of the coil form a couple (torque) and rotate the coil in the anticlockwise direction.
(iv) While rotating, when the coil reaches the vertical position, then the brushes P and Q will be in the gap between
the two commutator rings and current to the coil is cut off. Though the current to the coil is cut off when it is in
the exact vertical position, the coil doesn’t stop rotating because it has already gained momentum due to which
it goes beyond the vertical position.
(v) When the coil goes beyond the vertical position, the two commutator’s half rings automatically change contact
from one brush to the other. This reverses the direction of current through the coil which, in turn, reverses the
direction of forces acting on the two sides of the coil. The side AB of the coil will now be on the right hand side
with a upward force on it, whereas side DC of the coil will come on the left hand side with an downward force
on it. In this position also a couple acts on the coil which rotates it in the same direction (anticlockwise direction).
This process is repeated again and again and the coil continues to rotate as long as the current is passing. This
is how an electric motor works.
71
QUESTIONS
LEVEL I
1. A long magnet is cut into two parts in such a way that the ratio of their lengths is 2 : 1. The ratio of pole-strengths
of both the sections is
A) 1 : 1 B) 2 : 1 C) 1 : 2 D) 4 : 1
2. A magnetised thin rod of length L and magnetic moment M is bent in the form of a semicircle. Its new magnetic
moment will be
2M M
A) M B) C) D) M
 
3. A long magnetic needle of length 2l magnetic moment M and pole-strength m is divided along the axis into two
parts of equal length. The magnetic moment and pole-strength of each half will be
M m m M
A) and B) M and C) and m D) M and m
2 2 2 2
4. The radius of a circular loop is r. A current i is flowing in it. The equivalent magnetic moment will be
A) i  r 2 B)  i 2 r 2 C) 2 i r D)  r 3
5. A magnetic field of 5 T is produced by a long wire carrying a current of 5 A at a point 2 m away from it. What
will be the magnetic field if the distance of the point is made four-fold?
A) 12.5 T B) 1.25 T C) 125 T D) 0.125 T
6. Two identical thin bar magnets are placed mutually at right angles such that the north pole of one touches the
south pole of the other. The length and the pole strength of each bar are l and m. The resultant magnetic
moment of the system is
A) ml B) 2 . ml C) 3 . ml D) 2 ml
7. A solenoid of 1.5 m length and 4.0 cm diameter has 10 turns per cm. A current of 5 amp is flowing through it.
The magnetic induction at axis inside the solenoid is
A) 2 105 tesla B) 2 103 tesla C) 4 102 tesla D) 4 103 tesla
8. A magnetic field due to 0.1 A current flowing through a circular coil of radius 0.1 m and 1,000 turns at the
centre of the coil is
A) 2  101 T B) 4.31 102 T C) 6.28  104 T D) 9.8110 4 T

9. An arc of a circle of radius r subtends an angle at the centre. It carries a current I. The magnetic field at the
2
centre will be
0 I 0 I 0 I 2 0 I
A) B) C) D)
2R 4R 8R 5R
10. A magnetised wire of magnetic moment M is bent into an arc of a circle that subtends an angle of 60o at the
centre. The equivalent magnetic moment is
M 2M 3M 4M
A) B) C) D)
   
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11. An electric charge in uniform motion produces

A) Neither electric nor magnetic field B) An electric nor magnetic field
C) A magnetic field only D) Both electric and magnetic fields

12. A conducting circular loop of a radius r carries a constant current i. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field B

such that B is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The magnetic force acting on the loop is
  
A) Zero B) ir B C) 2 ir B D)  ir B
13. Two parallel wires are carrying electric currents of equal magnitude and in the same direction. They exert
A) A repulsive force on each other B) An attractive force on each other
C) No force on each other D) A rotational torque on each other
14. A proton enters a magnetic field of flux density 1.5 weber/m2 with a velocity of 2 × 107 m/s at an angle of 30o
with the field. The force on the proton will be
A) 2.4 1012 N B) 0.24  10 12 N C) 2.4 1012 N D) 0.024  10 12 N

15. An elastic circular wire of length l carries a current I. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field B (out of paper)

such that its plane is perpendicular to the direction of B . The wire will experience
A) No force B) A stretching force C) A compressive force D) A torque

16. At a place the Earth’s horizontal and vertical components of magnetic fields are equal, then the angle of dip will
be
A) 30o B) 90o C) 45o D) 0
17. The charge on a particle Y is double the charge on another particle X. These two particles X and Y, after being
accelerated through the same potential difference, enter a region of uniform magnetic field and describe circular
paths of radii R1 and R2 respectively. The ratio of the mass of X to that of Y is
2 2 2
 2R1   R1  1 R  Bq
A)   B)   C) . 1  D)
 R2   2R 2  2  R2  2m
18. A metallic ring is attached with the wall of a room. When the north pole of a magnet is brought near it, the
induced current in the ring will be
S N
A) In clockwise direction B) First clockwise then anticlockwise

C) First anticlockwise and then clockwise D) In anticlockwise direction
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19. In what form is the energy stored in inductor?

A) Electrical B) Heat C) Magnetic D) Magnetic + electrical
20. Lenz’s law is the consequences of the law of conservation of
A) Charge B) Mass C) Energy D) Momentum
21. To induce an e.m.f. in a coil, the linking magnetic flux
A) Must decrease B) Can either decrease or increase
C) Must increase D) Must remain constant
22. In the diagram shown if a bar magnet is moved along the common axis of two single turn coils A and B in the
direction of arrow
A B
N S
A) Current is induced only in A and not in B

B) Induced current in A and B are in opposite directions
C) Induced currents in A and B are in same direction
D) Current is induced only in B and not in A
23. A wire of length l metre carrying a current of I amp is bent in the form of a circle. Magnitude of its magnetic
moment will be
IL I2 L I2 L2 IL2
A) B) C) D)
4 4 4 4
24. A power transformer is used to step up an alternating emf of 220 V to 11 kV to transmit 4.4 kW of power. If
the primary coil has 1,000 turns, what is the current rating of the secondary? Assume 100% efficiency for the
transformer.
A) 0.4 amp B) 4 amp C) 0.04 amp D) 0.2 amp
25. The secondary of a transformer gives 200 volt when 2 kilowatt power is supplied to its 500 turns of primary at
0.5 A. The number of turns in the secondary is
A) 30 B) 25 C) 40 D) 35
LEVEL II
1. A proton enters a magnetic field of flux density 1.5 weber/m2 with a velocity of 2 × 107 m/s at an angle of 30o
with the field. The force on the proton will be
A) 2.4 10 12 N B) 0.24  10 12 N
C) 24  1012 N D) 0.024  102 N
2. A magnetic field
A) always exerts a force on charged particle
B) never exerts a force on charged particle
C) exerts a force, if the charged particle is moving across the magnetic field line
D) exerts a force, if the charged particle is moving along the magnetic field line
74
3. Calculate the value of magnetic field in air at a point 10 cm from a long straight wire carrying a current of 15A.
A) 3 × 10–5 T B) 3 × 10–4 T C) 3 × 105 T D) 3 × 104 T
4. An electron (mass = 9 × 10–31 kg, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C) is moving in a circular orbit in a magnetic field of
1.0 10 4 Wb/m 2 . Its period of revolution is
A) 7.0  107 sec B) 3.5  107 sec C) 1.05  107 sec D) 2.1 10 17 sec
5. A long hollow copper pipe carries a current, then magnetic field is produced:
A) Inside the pipe only B) Outside the pipe only C Both inside and outside pipe D) No where
6. A uniform wire is bent in the form of a circle of radius R. A current I enters at A and leaves at C as shown in the
figure. If length ABC is half the length ADC, the magnetic field at the centre O will be
B
I C I
A R
O
0 I 0 I 0 I
A) B) C) Zero D)
2R 4R 6R
7. A flat circular coil with 20 loops of wire has a radius of 40 cm. What current must flow in it to produce a
magnetic field of 3 × 10–4 T at its centre?
A) 0.95 A B) 0.095 A C) 9.5 A D) 95 A
8. A coil has an area of 0.05 m and it has 800 turns. It is placed perpendicularly in a magnetic field of strength 4
2
× 10–5 Wb/m2. It is rotated through 90o in 0.1 sec. The average e.m.f. induced in the coil is
A) 0.026 V B) 0.016 V C) 0.052 V D) 0.032 V
9. The magnetic field at the point O due to the current flowing in the current loop shown in the figure is
0 I  r1  r2  0 I  r1  r2  0I 0 I
A)   B)   C) 4  R  R  D) 4  R  R 
4  r1r2  4  r1r2  1 2 1 2

10. A current I flows through a circular arc of wire which subtends an angle of at the centre. If the radius of the
3
circular arc is R, the magnitude of the magnetic induction B at the centre is
0 I 0 I 3 0 I  0 I
A) B) C) D)
4 R 12 R 2r 6r
75
11. Weber ampere per metre is equal to

A) Joule B) Henry C) Newton D) Watt
12. A charged particle moving in a magnetic field has increased its velocity, then its radius of the circle
A) decreases B) increases C) remains the same D) becomes half
13. An electron having charge e and mass m is moving in a uniform electric field E. Its acceleration will be
e2 Ee 2 Ee mE
A) B) C) D)
m m m e

14. When a charged particle moving with velocity v is subjected to a magnetic field of induction B , the force is
non zero. This implies that
A ) angle between B and v is either zero or 180o
B) angle between B and v is necessarily 90o
C) angle between B and v can have any value other than 90o
D) angle between B and v can have any value other than zero and 180o
15. A proton projected with a velocity v describes a circle of radius R in a uniform magnetic field B. The velocity
with which an  -particle should be projected so that it describes a circle of the same radius R in the same
magnetic field, is
v v
A) B) C) v D) 2 v
4 2
16. An  -particle and a proton are accelerated through the same potential difference from rest. Find the ratio of
their final velocity
A) 4 : 1 B) 1 : 1 C) 1: 2 D) 1 : 2
17. A positive charge is moving upward in a magnetic field which is towards north. The particle will be deflected
towards.
A) east B) west
C) north D) south
18. The value of angle of dip is zero at the magnetic equator because on it.
A) V and H are equal B) the value of V and H are zero
C) the value of V is zero D) the value of H is zero
19. At a certain place, horizontal component is 3 times the vertical component. The angle of dip at this place is
   
A) B) C) D)
2 3 6 4
1  Wb 
20. A circular disc of radius 0.2 meter is placed in a uniform magnetic field of induction   in such a way that
  m2 
the axis makes an angle 60o with the magnetic field. The magnetic flux linked with the disc is
A) 0.08 Wb B) 0.01 Wb C) 0.02 Wb D) 0.06 Wb
76
21. A magnetic flux 5 × 10–4 is passing through a coil of 1000 turns. If the e.m.f. induced through coil is 5 volt, the
time interval will be
A) 1 sec B) 0.1 sec C) 0.01 sec D) 0.001 sec
22. When the plane of the armature of an a.c. generator is parallel to the field, in which it is rotating
A) both the flux linked and induced e.m.f. in the coil are zero
B) the flux linked with it is zero, while induced e.m.f. is maximum
C) flux linked is max. while induced e.m.f. is zero
D) both, the flux and e.m.f. have their respective maximum values
23. When the current through a solenoid increases at constant rate, the induced current.
A) increases gradually but in a direction opposite to the inducing current.
B) increases gradually but in a direction along the inducing current
C) is constant but it flows in a direction opposes to the inducing current
D) is constant but it flows in a direction along the inducing current
24. The magnitude of the emf induced across the secondary of a transformer does not depend on
A) the magnitude of the emf applied across the primary B) the number of turns in the primary
C) the number of turns in the secondary D) the resistance of the primary and the secondary
25. A transformer rated at 10 kW is used to connect a 5 kV transmission line to a 240 V circuit. The turns ratio in
the windings of a transformer is.
A) 5 B) 20.8 C) 104 D) 40
LEVEL III
More than one correct options
1. A particle of charge +q and mass m moving under the influence of a uniform electric field Eiˆ and a uniform
magnetic field Bkˆ vector follows trajectory from P to Q as shown in figure. The velocities at P and Q are viˆ
and 2vjˆ respectively. Which of the following statements (s) is/are correct?
3mv 2
A) E 
4qa
3mv 2
B) rate of work done by electric field at P is
4a
C) rate of work done by electric field at P is zero
D) rate of work done by both the fields at O is zero
77
  
2. A conductor AB of length l carries a current I in a magnetic field B . If AB  l and the force on conductor is

F , then
     

A) F  I l  B  
B) F  I B  l 
   
 
C) | F |  I l . B D) F does not depend on shape of AB
3. Current flows through a straight cylindrical conductor of radius R. The current is distributed uniformly over its
cross-section. If the magnitude of magnetic field induction at a distance r from the axis of the conductor is B,
then
1
A) B = 0 at the axis B) B  r for 0 < r < R C) B  for r > R D) B is maximum for r = R
r
4. If a charged particle moving with velocity v goes unaccelerated and undeflected in a region containing electric
 
E and magnetic field B . Then
  
A) E must be perpendicular to B B) v must be perpendicular to E

C) v must be perpendicular to B D) E = vB
5. A particle having a mass of 0.5 g carries a charge of 2.5 × 10–8 C. The particle is given an initial horizontal
velocity of 6 × 104 ms–1. To keep the particle moving in a horizontal direction
A) the magnetic field should be perpendicular to the direction of the velocity
B) the magnetic field should be along the direction of the velocity
C) magnetic field should have a minimum value of 3.27 T
D) no magnetic field is required’
6. The plates of a parallel plate capacitor are in the y – z plane. The separation between the plates is 3 mm and
a potential difference of 600 V is applied across the plates. An electron is projected between the plates with a
velocity of 2 × 106 ms–1 along the positive y-direction. The elctron moves undeflected between the plates.
A) The electric field between the plates is 2 × 105 V m–1.
B) The magnitude of the magnetic field in the region between the plates is 0.1 T
C) The direction of the magnetic field is along the positive z-direction
D) The direction of the magnetic field is along the negative z
Passage Comprehension
Passage I
A proton, an  particle, a doubly ionised Lithium atom (6Li)2+ and triply ionised carbon atom (12C)3+ are
projected in a region having uniform magnetic field. Subsequently they exhibit helical motion (or circular motion
depending on direction of projection) with radius r1, r2, r3, r4 and pitch P1, P2, P3, P4 respectively.
7. If each is projected perpendicular to the magnetic field with same kinetic energy, then
A) r1  r2  r3  r4 B) r4  r3  r2  r1 C) r1  r2  r3  r4 D) r3  r4  r2  r1
78
8. If each is projected with same velocity each at an angle of 45o with respect to the magnetic field, then
A) P1  P2  P3  P4 B) P1  P2  P3  P4 C) P4  P3  P2  P1 D) P4  P3  P2  P1
9. If each particle were accelerated through the same potential difference and then projected at 45o to the magnetic
field then
A) r4 = r3 = r2 = r1 B) r1 > r2 > r3 > r4 C) r4 > r3 > r2 > r1 D) r4 > r3 > r2 = r1
Passage II
In the above figure, NS is a permanent magnet with its poles as shown N and S, P and Q are two coils with
iron core, connected to resistors AB (for P) and CD (for Q) respectively lying on the common axis of the
magnet to its left and right respectively as in the figure. The windings on the coil are similar as shown.
10. If the magnet is now moved to the left, then during its motion,
A) a current will flow from A to B in P and from C to D in Q
B) a current will flow from A to B in P and from D to C in Q
C) a current will flow from B to A in P and from C to D in Q.
D) a current will fow from B to A in P and from D to C in Q.
11. If the magnet is kept fixed, and the coil P is moved to the left with coil Q fixed, then during its motion,
A) a current will flow from B to A in P and no current will flow in Q
B) a current will flow from B to A in P and from C to D in Q
C) a current will flow from B toA in P and from D to C in Q
D) a current will flow from A to B in P and no current will flow in Q
Matrix Match.
12. Match the column I and column II.
Column I Column II
A) A charged capacitor is connected p) A constant current flows through the wire
to the ends of the wire
B) A wire is moved perpendicular q) Thermal energy is generated in the wire
to its length with a constant
velocity in a uniform magnetic
field
C) A wire is placed in a constant r) A constant potential difference develops
electric field that has a direction between the ends of the wire
along the length of the wire
D) A battery of constant emf is s) Charge of constant magnitude appear at the
connected to the ends of the wire ends of the wire
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13. Match the following.
Column I Column II
A) AC generator p) Laminated core
B) DC generator q) Ohmic Resistance = 0
C) Transformer r) Slip Ring arrangement
D) Choke coil s) Split Ring arrangement
14. Equal currents are flowing in two infinitely long wires lying along x and y axis in the directions shown in figure.
Match the following two columns.
O x
Column I Column II
A) Magnetic field at (a, a) p) along positive y-axis
B) Magnetic field at (–a, –a) q) along positive z-axis
C) Magnetic field at (a, –a) r) along negative z-axis
D) Magnetic field at (–a, a) s) zero
15. Match the physical quantities in Column-II with the respective SI units in Column-I.
Column I Column II
A) NA 1m 1 p) Magnetic permeability   0 
B) Am2 q) Magnetic flux

C) NmA–1 r) Magnetic potential energy
D) NA–2 s) Magnetic flux density
t) Magnetic dipole moment
80
16. Match the Column-I with Column-II.

Column I Column II
A) Magnetic field inside a long straight solenoid is p) Not constant
B) Magnetic field inside a toroidal solenoid is q) Zero
C) Magnetic field inside a conducting hollow pipe r) Constant
having current parallel to its axis
D) Magnetic field due to current carrying wire on s) Maximum
its surface is
Integer Answer type.

17. A stream of charged particles is moving undeviated with a velocity of 500 ms–1 in a region of crossed fields.
If the magnitude of electric field is 1000 V m–1, find the magnitude of the magnetic field.
18. A 2 MeV proton is moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of 2.5 tesla. What is the magnetic force
on the proton? (mass of proton = 1.6 × 10–27 kg) in terms of power 10–12 N.
19. A long straight thin conductor carries a current of 40 A in South to North direction. What is the magnetic field
at a point 2.0 m West of the wire in terms of power 10–6 T
20. A toroidal electromagnet has 1000 turns and mean radius of 0.1 m. The magnetic core has a relative permeability
of 2000. If a current of 1 A is passed, find the magnetic induction in Telsa.
21. The frequency of an a.c. supplied is 50 Hz. The time in milli second with which the current rise from zero to its
maximum value is
22. An ac generator consists of a coil of 50 turns and area 2.5 m2 rotating at an angular speed of 60 rads–1 in a
uniform magnetic field B = 0.3 T between two fixed pole pieces. The resistance of the circuit including that of
the coil is 450  . Find the maximum current drawn from the generator..
Reasoning Type.
Each question contains Statement I and Statement II. Of these Statements, mark correct choice if
A) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is a correct explanation for Statement I
B) Statements I and II are true and Statement II is not a correct explanation for Statement I
C) Statement I is true, Statement II is false
D) Statement I is false, Statement II is true
23. Statement I : A charged particle moves perpendicular to a magnetic field. Its K.E. remains constant, but
momentum changes.
Statement II : Force acts on the moving charged particle in the magnetic field.
24. Statement I : When equal currents are passed through two coils, equal magnetic field is produced at their
centres. If the ratio of number of turns in the coils is 8 : 15, then the ratio of their radii will be
8:15.
 0 NI
Statement II : Magnetic field at the centre of circular coil carrying current is B  .
2R
81
25. Statement I : When a dip needle oscillates in a vertical plane in magnetic meridian, it oscillates under the
action of total intensity R of earth’s field.
Statement II : In magnetic meridian, both H and V are effective.
26. Statement I : One basic difference between an electric line and a magnetic line of force is that former is
discontinuous and the latter is continuous or endless.
Statement II : No electric lines of force exist inside a charged body, but magnetic lines do exist inside a
magnet.
27. Statement I : Electricity is generated by rotating a copper coil in a magnetic field.
Statement II : On rotating the coil,  changes. Therefore, magnetic flux  linked with the coil changes. Hence
an emf is induced.
NTSE PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
1. An AC generator is connected to an electric appliance. In 10 revolutions of the armature the current in the
appliance changes direction:
A) 5 times B) 10 times
C) 20 times D) 40 times
2. The length of a bar magnet is 2l, the distance between magnetic poles will be :
A) between 0 – l
B) between l – 2l
C) equal to 2l
D) equal to l
3. A rectangular coil of copper wire is rotated in magnetic field. The direction of the induced current changes one
in each:
A) revolution
B) two revolution
C) half revolution
D) one fourth of a revolution
4. A high energy electron enters into a strong magnetic field which is perpendicular to its velocity plane in which
path is it expected to move?
A) B) C) D)
5. A primary coil of a transformer has 800 turns and the secondary coil has 8 turns. This transformer is connected
to a 220 volt A.C. supply. Then the output voltage will be:
A) 1.5 volt B) 2.2 volt
C) 3.5 volt D) 3.3 volt
82
6. Two wires each carrying current i are shown. The magnetic field at P (midway between the wires) is described
by which statement:
A) Magnetic fields are in opposite direction and net field is equal to zero
B) Magnetic fields due to two wires are in the same direction
C) Magnetic fields are in opposite direction but net field is not zero
D) Magnetic fields are in the same direction and equal to two times the field due to one wire
7. An electron moving with uniform velocity in x direction enters a region of uniform magnetic field along y direction.
Which of the following quantities is (are) non zero and remain constant?
B x
–
e
(I) Speed of the electron

(II) Momentum of the electron (magnitude)
(III) Kinetic energy of the electron
(IV) Force of the electron (magntidue)
A) only I and II
B) only III and IV
C) all four
D) only II and IV
8. A uniform magnetic field exist in the plane of the paper pointing from bottom to top while a proton and an
electron are moving from left to right as shown in figure. The force experienced by them will be :
Magnetic field
Electron
Proton
A) Outward for both

B) Inward for electron, outward for proton
C) Inward for proton, outward for electron
D) Inward for both
83
9. An electron enters in a magnetic field from south to north direction and magnetic field lines are from east to west
direction. The direction of force acting on the electron will be
A) to the right
B) to the left
C) out of paper
D) into the paper
10. Which of the following is correct?
A) 1 tesla = 4  × 10–7 gauss
B) 1 tesla = 8.89 × 109 gauss
C) 1 tesla = 104 gauss
D) 1 tesla = 1.98 gauss
11. Two circular coils having identical turns and radius in the ratio 1 : 3 are joined in series. Find the ratio of
magnetic fields at the centres of coils:
A) 1 : 9 B) 1
C) 3 : 1 D) 9 : 1
12. An electric current is passed through a straight wire. Magnetic compasses are placed at the points A and B.
True statement is
A
B
A) their needles will not deflect
B) only one of the needles will deflect
C) both the needles will deflect in the same direction
D) the needles will deflect in the opposite direction
13. Which one of the following not a part of direct current generator?
A) Split Rings
B) Slip Rings
C) Aramture
D) Carbon brushes
14. If a charge 3 C experiences a force of 3000 N when it is moved in a uniform electric field, then the potential
difference between two points separated by distance of 1 cm is
A) 10 V
B) 1000 V
C) 3000 V
D) 9000 V
84
15. The two ends of a horizontal conducting rod of length l are joined to a voltmeter. The whole arrangement
moves with a horizontal velocity u, the direction of motion being perpendicular to the rod. The vertical component
of earth’s magnetic field is B. The voltmeter reading is (NTSE, AP, 2016)
A) Blv only if the rod moves eastward B) Blv only if the rod moves westward
C) Blv only if the rod moves in any direction D) zero
16. Consider two conducting plates A and B, between which the potential difference is 5 V, plate A being at a
higher potential. A proton and an electron are released at plates A and B respectively. The two particles then
move towards the opposite plates - the proton to plate B and the electron to plate A. Which one will have a
larger velocity when they reach their respective destination plates?
A) Both will have the same velocity B) The electron will have the larger velocity
C) The proton will have the larger velocity D) None will be able to reach the destination point
17. Which one of the following statemements best describes the nature of the field lines due to a bar magnet?
A) Field lines start from the north pole and end on the south pole. Any number of field lines can pass through
a point
B) Field lines start from the north pole and end on the south pole.
C) Field lines are continuous lines passing inside and outside the magnet. Only one field line passes through a
point
D) Field lines are continuous lines passing inside and outside the magnet. Any number of field lines can pass
through a point
18. Which of the following statements is correct?
A) AC generator generates a higher voltage
B) DC generator generates a higher voltage
C) AC generates has a permanent magnet whereas a DC generator has an electromagnet
D) There is a split-ring commutator in a DC generator but not in an AC generator
19. Three rings P, Q and R are dropped at the same time over identical hollow magnets as shown below:
Which of the following describes the order in which the ring P, Q and R reach the bottom of the magnet?
P Q R Copper rings
Plastic ring
N N N
S S S
A) Rings P and R arrive simulataneously, followed by Q

B) They arrive in the order, P, Q, R
C) They arrive in the order P, Q, R
D) Rings Q and R arrive simultaneously, followed by P
85
20. Two coils C1 and C2 are arranged coaxially as shown in figure. The ends of the coil ‘C2’ are connected to an
ammeter A. The current sent through the coil C1 is directly proportional to the time. If the magnetic field
induction produced by the coil C1 is proportional to the current in it, then the induced current through the coil
C2 is
C1 C2
+ – A
A) zero B) increasing with time

C) constant D) decreasing with time
86
CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER - 01
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The concept of chemical reaction had a primary role in defining chemistry as it is known today. It had its
origins in early experiments that classified substances as elements and compounds. The first substantive study
in this area was the identification of oxygen in the 18th century by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele and
English clergyman Joseph Priestley. French chemist Antoine Lavoisier measured the weight gained when
elements were oxidised and ascribed the result to the combining of the element with oxygen. English chemist
John Dalton maintained that chemical reactions were involved in rearranging atoms to form new substances.
This view of chemical reactions accurately defines the subject.
A chemical equation is a method of writing the essential features of a chemical reaction using chemical symbols,
formulae and other accepted abbreviations. By convention, reactants are written on the left and products on
the right of an arrow. The first chemical equation was diagrammed by Jean Beguin in 1615.
2.0 CHEMICAL REACTION
A chemical reaction is the process by which a chemical compound is formed from elements or compounds.
The substance undergoing change is known as reactant and the new chemical compound formed is known
as product.
In a chemical reaction different types of energies such as heat, electrical energy, light etc. are either absorbed
or evolved. The total mass of the substance remains the same throughout the chemical change.
2.1 Characteristics of Chemical Reaction
When we heat sugar crystals they melt and on further heating they give out steamy vapour, leaving behind a
brownish black mass. On cooling, the sugar crystals do not reappear. Thus, this is a chemical change and
the process which brings about chemical change is called chemical reaction.
i) The substances which take part in bringing about a chemical change are called reactants.
ii) The substances that are produced as result of chemical change are called products.
iii) Reactions involve breaking and making of chemical bonds.
iv) Products of a reaction are new substances with new names and chemical formulae.
v) It is often difficult to reverse a chemical reaction.
vi) Properties of products of a chemical reaction are different from those of the reactants.
vii) Heat, light, electricity etc., are used bring about chemical changes.
viii) Heat, light and electricity may be produced during chemical changes.
ix) The physical state of the products may be different from those of the reactants.
87
2.2 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A chemical equation is a representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and formulae. The
reactants are written on the left and products on the right. A single arrow between them denotes an irreversible
reaction, a double arrow a reversible reaction. The coefficients next to the symbols and formulae of entities
are the absolute values of the stoichiometric numbers. The law of conservation of matter requires that every
atom on the left appear on the right; only their arrangements and combinations change (the equation must
balance).
2.2.1 Types of Chemical Equations
i) Chemical reactions can be described in sentence form, but the description would be quite long.
ii) Word equation : A word equation links together the names of the reactants and the products. For example,
the word equation for magnesium ribbon burning in oxygen to form a white powder of magnesium oxide, may
be written as,
Magnesium  Oxygen 
 Magnesium oxide
(Reactants) (Products)
The word equation for the reaction between granulated zinc and sulphuric acid may be written as
Zinc  Sulphuric acid 
 Zinc sulphate  Hydrogen
Characteristics of word equation
The reactants are written on the left hand side with a plus sign (+) between them.
The products are written on the right hand side with a plus sign (+) between them.
An arrow () separates the reactants from the products; the arrowhead points towards the products.
Although word equations are quite useful, they do not give the complete picture of chemical reactions.
iii) Symbol equation : The representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulae of the
substances involved is known as a symbol equation. For example, the symbol equation for the reaction
between granulated zinc and sulphuric acid may be written as,
Zn(s)  H 2SO4 
 ZnSO4  H 2
2.2.2 Unbalanced and Balanced Chemical Equations
i) Unbalanced chemical Equation
In an unbalanced equation, the number of atoms of different elements on both sides of the equation may not
equal. For example, the number of Mg atoms on both sides of the following equation is the same, but the
number of oxygen atoms are not equal.
Mg  O 2 
 MgO
An unbalanced equation is also called skeletal equation.
ii) Balanced chemical Equation
In a balanced equation, the number of atoms of different elements on both sides of the equation are always
equal. The balanced equation for the burning of magnesium ribbon in oxygen may be written as,
2Mg  O 2 
 2MgO
The balancing of a chemical equation is essential to fulfil the requirement of Law of conservation of mass.
88
2.2.3 Balancing chemical equations

Balancing of chemical equations may be defined as the process of making the number of different types of
elements, on both sides of the equation, equal (Law of concervation of mass).
Hit and Trial Method or Mass Balancing. In this method, the coefficients before the symbols or formulae
of the reactants and products are adjusted in such a way that the total number of atoms of each element on
both the sides of the arrow becomes equal. This method is also known as mass balancing because when
atoms of elements on both sides are equal and their masses will also be equal.
Steps involved in balancing chemical equation
i) Write the chemical equation in the form of a word equation; reactants on the left side and products on the
right side of an arrow (  ) pointing towards the products.
ii) Convert the word equation into the symbol equation by writing the symbols and formulae of all the reactants
and products.
iii) Make the atoms of different elements on both sides of the equation equal by adding suitable coefficients.
This is known as balancing the equation.
iv) Make the equation more informative by including the physical state of reactants and products, conditions
(temperature, pressure, catalyst) and absorption or evolution of energy (heat, light, etc.).
Eg.1 Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to give zinc sulphate and hydrogen.
Sol.The word equation for the reaction is: Zinc + Sulphuric acid  Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
The symbol equation for the same reaction is: Zn  H 2SO 4  ZnSO4  H 2
Counting the number of atoms of all the elements in the reactants and products sides of the equation.
Element No. of atoms in reactants (L.H.S.) No. of atoms in products (L.H.S.)
Zn 1 1
H 2 2
S 1 1
O 4 4
As the number of atoms of all the elements in the reactants and products are equal, the equation is already
balanced.
Eg. 2 Iron reacts with steam to form iron (II, III) oxide and liberates hydrogen gas.
Sol.The word equation for the reaction is: Iron + Water  Iron (II, III) oxide + Hydrogen
The symbol equation is: Fe  H 2 O  Fe 3 O 4  H 2
Counting the number of atoms of all the elements in the reactants and products sides of the equation.
Element No. of atoms in reactants (L.H.S.) No. of atoms in products (L.H.S.)
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4
The number of H atoms are equal on both sides, but the number of Fe and O atoms are not equal.
The balancing of the equation is done in the following steps:
89
Step 1: Balancing the number of O atoms. The number of O atom in the reactant (H2O) is 1 while in the
product (Fe3O4) is 4. To balance the number of O atoms, coefficient 4 is added before H2O on the reactant
side. The partially balanced equation may be written as
Fe  4H 2 O  Fe3O 4  H 2
Step 2 : Equating H atoms on both sides. In order to equate H atoms, coefficient 4 is added before H2 on
the product side. As a result, the H atoms on both sides of the equation become 8 and are thus balanced.
Fe  4H 2 O  Fe3O 4  4H 2
Step 3: Balancing the number of Fe atoms. In order to balance the number of Fe atoms, coefficient 3 is put
before Fe on the reactant side. The equation becomes
3Fe  4H 2 O  Fe3O 4  4H 2
Step 4 : Checking to see whether the numbers of all types of atoms on both sides are equal . The number
of atoms of all the elements on both sides are equal, therefore, the equation is balanced.
2.2.4 Characteristics of Chemical Equations
i) Chemical equations give information about the reactants and products of a reaction.
ii) It gives information about the number of molecules of reactants and products of a chemical reaction.
iii) We also get information on the weight of reactants and products involved. For example,
CaCO3 
 CaO  CO2
(100g) (56g) (44g)
The total weight of reactants is equal to the total weight of products because matter is never created or
destroyed. In the above example, total mass of reactant (100 g) and products is the same (56g + 44g =
100g).
iv) If any of the reactants or products is in the gaseous state, then its volume can also be determined. For
example, in the above reaction volume of carbon dioxide is 22.4 litres at S.T.P.
vi) We can get information about the valency of elements. For example,
Mg  2HCl  MgCl 2  H 2
In the above reaction, one atom of Mg displaces two atoms of hydrogen, therefore, the valency of magnesium
is two.
Chemical equations are written under S.T.P. (at 298 K and 1 atmosphere pressure) unless otherwise mentioned.
2.2.5 Limitations of Chemical Equations
A chemical equation does not give information on the following :
i) Physical state (solid, liquid or gas) of the reactants and products.
ii) The concentration of reactants and products.
iii) The speed of the reaction.
iv) Favourable conditions (pressure, temperature, catalyst etc.).
v) Whether energy is absorbed or evolved during the reaction.
vi) Precautions to be taken for the completion of reaction.
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2.2.6 Rectification of limitations

i) The physical states of reactants and products are represented by writing them in bracket.
The state symbols. The state symbols are : (s) for solid state; (l) for liquid state; (g) for gaseous state (aq) for
aqueous solution (solution prepared in water).
Significance of State Symbols. The state symbols are significant for chemical reactions which are either
accompanied by the evolution of heat (exothermic) or by the absorption of heat (endothermic). For example,
2H 2  g   O2  g  
 2H 2O  l   572kJ
2H 2  g   O2  g  
 2H 2O  g   484kJ
The above reactions are exothermic because heat is evolved. The amounts of heat evolved are different
when water is in the liquid state and when it is in the vapour state.
A balanced chemical equation together with the value of heat absorbed evolved is called a thermochemical
equation.
2H 2  g   I 2  g  
 2HI  g   52.5kJ
N 2  g   O 2  g  
 2NO2  g   180.7kJ
The above reactions are endothermic because heat is absorbed.
ii) A gas evolved in a reaction is shown by an arrow pointing upwards (  ).
2Na(s)  2H 2 O(l ) 
 2NaOH(aq)  H 2 (g) or H 2 
A precipitate formed during a reaction is indicated by an arrow pointing downwards (  ). The abbreviation
‘ppt’ is also used to represent precipitate.
Ca(OH) 2 (aq)  CO 2 (g)  CaCO3   H 2 O(l )
AgNO3 (aq)  NaCl(aq)  AgCl(ppt.)  NaNO3 (aq)
iii) To express the concentration, ‘dilute’ or ‘conc.’ is written below the formula.
Mg  H 2SO 4 
 MgSO 4  H 2
(dilute)
iv) Favourable conditions for the reaction are written above and below the arrow.
o
500 C,Fe/Mo
N 2  3H 2 
200 atm  2NH3  22400 Calorie heat
v) Reversible reaction is represented by (  ) symbol and irreversible reaction by (  ) symbol.

vi) The heat absorbed is written on the right side with a negative (–) sign and heat evolved with a (+) sign.
 2NH 3  92.4kJ (Exothermic Reaction)
N 2  3H 2 
 2NO  180.7kJ (Endothermic Reaction)

N 2  O2 
2.3 PHYSICAL PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING CHEMICAL REACTIONS
In chemical reactions, transformation of reactants to products is accompanied by various phenomena such as
evolution of gases, change of colour, formation of precipitate, evolution or absorption of energy etc.
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2.3.1 Evolution of gas: Certain chemical reactions take place with the evolution of a gas.
Reaction between a metal (zinc, magnesium, or iron) and dilute sulphuric acid produces hydrogen gas.
Zn(s)  H 2SO 4 (dil) 

 ZnSO 4 (aq)  H 2 (g)
Zinc Sulphuric acid Zinc sulphate Hydrogen gas
Iron sulphide reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to produce hydrogen sulphide gas.
FeS(s)  H 2SO 4 (dil) 

 FeSO 4 (aq)  H 2 S(g)
Ferrous sulphide Sulphuric acid Ferrous sulphate Hydrogen sulphide gas
Oxygen is produced on heating a mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide.

heat
2KClO3 (s) 
MnO
 2KCl(s)  3O 2 (g)
2
Potassium chlorate Potassium chloride Oxygen gas
Manganese dioxide (MnO2) acts as catalyst (a substance that alters the rate of a reaction without undergoing
any chemical change).
This reaction is used for the preparation of oxygen in the laboratory.
2.3.2 Change of colour : Some chemical reactions are characterised by change of colour of reacting substances.
When red lead oxide is heated strongly, it forms yellow lead monoxide and gives off oxygen gas.
heat
2Pb3O4 (s)   6PbO(s)  O 2 (g)
Lead oxide(Red) Lead monoxide(Yellow )
When copper carbonate (green) is heated strongly, it leaves behind a black residue of cupric oxide.
heat
CuCO3 (s)   CuO(s)  CO 2 (g)
Copper carbonate(Green) Copper oxide(Black) Carbon dioxide
On heating lead nitrate, nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas are evolved together.
heat
2Pb(NO3 )2 (s)   2PbO(s)  4NO 2 (g)  O 2 (g)
Lead (II) nitrate(White) Lead (II) oxide(Yellow) Nitrogen dioxide(Brown)
heat
C12 H 22 O11 (s)   12C(s)  11H 2 O(g)
Sugar (colourless or white) Carbon (black) Water
2.3.3 Formation of precipitate : Some chemical reactions are characterised by the formation of precipitate (an
insoluble substance), when solutions of two soluble reactants are mixed together. For example, when silver
nitrate solution is mixed with sodium chloride solution, a white precipitate of silver chloride is obtained.
92
AgNO3 (aq)  NaCl(aq) 

 NaNO3 (aq)  AgCl(s)
Silver nitrate(Colourless or white) Sodium nitrate (Colourless) Silver chloride (White precipitate)
A dirty green precipitate of ferrous hydroxide is formed, when ferrous sulphate solution is mixed with sodium
hydroxide solution (ferrous sulphate crystals are light green).
FeSO 4 (aq)  2NaOH(aq) 

 Na 2SO 4 (aq)  Fe(OH)2 (s)
Ferrous sulphate Sodium hydroxide Sodium sulphate Ferrous hydroxide(Green precipitate)
BaCl2 (aq)  dil H 2SO 4 

 BaSO 4 (s)  2HCl(aq)
Barium chloride Barium sulphate(Whiteprecipitate)
2.3.4 Energy changes : Chemical reactions proceed either with the absorption or evolution of energy.
On the basis of energy changes, chemical reactions can be classified into two types :
1. Endothermic reaction : A chemical reaction in which energy is absorbed is called endothermic reaction.
heat
C(s)  2S(s)   CS2 (l )
Carbon disulphide)
Light energy is essential for photosynthesis, the biochemical reaction, by which green plants prepare food
from carbon dioxide and water.
light
6CO2  6H 2O   C6 H12O6  6CO2
Glu cos e
2. Exothermic reaction : A chemical reaction in which energy is released is called exothermic reaction.
When magnesium ribbon is heated on a bunsen flame, it catches fire and burns with a dazzling white flame
releasing heat and light.
Heat
2Mg(s)  O2 (g)   2MgO(s)  Energy (heat and light)
Magnesium oxide
When water is added to quick lime (calcium oxide), a lot of energy is released as heat (water boils producing
steam).
CaO(s)  H2O 
 Ca(OH) 2 (aq)  Heat energy
Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
2.3.5 Change of state : Cretain chemical reactions are characterised by change of physical state.
Gases forming liquid. Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to form water.
2H 2 (g)  O2  g  
 2H 2O(l )
Liquid forming gas. When electric current is passed through water, it splits into the elements.
electric current
2H 2 O(l )   2H 2  g   O 2  g 
Gases forming solid. Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to produce solid ammonium chloride.
NH3 (g) HCl(g) 
 NH 4 Cl(s)
Ammonia Hydrogen chloride Ammonium chloride
2.4 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new substances.
93
Chemical Reactions
Addition (combination) Decomposition Displacement Redox Reactions
Element + Thermal Electrical Single Double

Compound + Element + Photo
Element Displacement Displacement
Compound Compound
2.4.1 a) Combination (Addition) Reactions
A reaction in which a single product is formed from two or more reactants is known as combination reaction.
The reaction may be brought about by the application of heat, light, electricity or pressure. For example, H2
and O2 combine to form water.
H 2 (g)  2O 2 (g) 
 2H 2 O(l )
i) When two or more elements combine to form a new compound.
Synthesis reaction. It is a type of addition reaction in which a new substance is formed by the union of its
component elements. For example,
 2NH 3  Haber's Process 
N 2  3H 2 
Ammonia is sythesised from the elements, therefore, it is a synthesis reaction.
Other examples of synthesis reactions are:
2H 2  O 2 
 2H 2 O ; 2Mg  O 2 
 2MgO ; 2Na  Cl 2 
 2NaCl
ii) When two or more compounds combine to form a new compound, e.g.,
NH 3  HCl 
 NH 4 Cl ; CaO  CO 2 
 CaCO3
iii) When an element and a compound combine to form a new compound, e.g.,
2CO  O 2 
 2CO 2 ; 2SO 2  O 2 
 2SO3
Only single substance is formed as product in addition reactions.
2.4.2 b) Decomposition Reaction
It is the breaking up of a compound into simpler substances. It may be brought about by the application of
heat, light, electricity, etc.
A chemical decomposition may be regarded as the opposite of chemical synthesis.
i) A decomposition reaction brought by heat is known as thermal decomposition, e.g.,
heat
CaCO3   CaO  CO 2
Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide(Quick lime)
heat
2Pb(NO3 ) 2   2PbO  4NO 2  O2
Lead nitrate Lead oxide Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen
i) Decomposition brought by electricity is known as electrical decomposition, e.g.,
Electricity
2H 2 O  2H 2  O2
Electricity
2NaCl(molten)  2Na  Cl 2  g 
Electricity
2Al2 O3  4Al  3O 2  g 
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Figure - 00 Electrolysis of water

Electrolysis of water
The experimental setup consists of a plastic beaker into which two carbon (graphite) electrodes are inserted
as shown in figure. The electrodes are connected to a 6V battery.
The beaker is filled with water such that the electrodes are immersed. A few drops of dilute sulphuric acid are
added to the water to make it conducting.
Test tubes filled with water are inverted over the carbon electrodes.
On switching on current bubbles start forming at both the electrodes and displace water in the test tubes.
Once the test tubes are filled with gases, these are taken out and tested by bringing a burning candle close to
their months.
In one case (test tube placed at cathode), the gas burns with a ‘pop’ sound while at the other (test tube placed
at anode) the candle starts burning brightly.
The gas which burns with pop sound is hydrogen and the other which supports combustion is oxygen.
Light
2AgBr   2Ag  Br2
Light
2AgCl   2Ag  Cl 2
iv) Decomposition in which a compound decomposes into its elements is known as analysis reaction, e.g.,

2HgO   2Hg  O 2

2HI   H 2   I2 
All analysis reactions are decomposition reactions, but all decomposition reactions are not analysis
reactions.
2.4.3 c) Displacement Reactions
It involves the displacement/replacement of one of the constituents of a compound by another substance.
Types of Displacement Reactions : Displacement reactions are of two types, single displacement and
double displacement.
The displacing group may have many types of electronic configurations and hence many types of substitution
reactions are possible. In general:
i) A more active metal will displace a less active metal from its compound.
ii) Some active nonmetals will displace less active nonmetals.
iii) Some metals will displace a nonmetal.
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Displacement of a less active metal by a more active metal

When an iron nail is dipped in copper sulphate solution, it gets coated with copper.
Fe(s)  CuSO 4 (aq) 
 FeSO 4 (aq)  Cu(s)
Iron Coppersulphate Iron sulphate Copper
In this reaction, Fe has taken the place of Cu in CuSO4. In other words, Fe has displaced Cu from CuSO4.
From the above reaction, it may be concluded that iron is a more reactive metal than copper.
Displacement of less active nonmetal by more active nonmetal
i) When chlorine gas is passed through sodium bromide solution, sodium chloride and bromine are formed.
2NaBr(aq)  Cl 2 (g) 
 2NaCl(aq)  Br2 (g)
Sodium bromide Chlorine Sodiumchloride Bromine
In the above reaction, chlorine displaces bromine from NaBr, therefore, chlorine is more reactive than bromine.
ii) When chlorine is bubbled through sodium iodide solution, sodium chloride and iodine are formed.
2NaI(aq)  Cl 2 (g) 
 2NaCl(aq)  I2 (g)
Sodium iodide Chlorine Sodium chloride Iodine
Here, chlorine displaces iodine from sodium iodide, therefore, chlorine is more reactive than iodine.
Displacement of hydrogen from acids by active nonmetals
When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen gas is liberated and zinc chloride is formed.
Zn(s) 2HCl(aq) 
 ZnCl 2 (aq)  H 2 (g)
Zinc Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride Hydrogen
It is evident that zinc is more reactive than hydrogen.
2.4.4 d) Double Displacement Reaction
It is the mutual exchange of radicals of two compounds, taking part in a reaction, which results in the formation
of two new compounds.
NaCl(aq)  AgNO3 (aq) 
 AgCl   NaNO3 (aq)
The white precipitate of AgCl is formed by the reaction of Ag+ ions and Cl- ions. The other product, sodium
nitrate remains in solution. Any reaction that produces a precipitate can be called a precipitation reaction.
BaCl2 (aq)  Na 2SO 4 (aq) 
 BaSO 4  2NaCl(aq)
The white precipitate of BaSO4 is formed by the reaction of sulphate ion and barium ions. The other product,
sodium chloride remains in solution.
Acid base neutralisation reactions are double displacement reactions, e.g.,
HCl(aq)  NaOH(aq) 
 NaCl(aq)  H 2 O(l )
2.5 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION REACTIONS
Redox Reaction : In our daily life, we come across processes like rusting of iron, fading of the colour of
clothes, and burning of combustible substances such as cooking gas, wood, coal, etc. All such processes
belong to a category of chemical reactions called oxidation - reduction reactions or redox reactions.
Earlier, chemical reactions were considered as oxidation or reduction on the basis of addition of oxygen or
hydrogen, but afterwards, the definition was modified to include other elements also.
96
2.5.1 Oxidation. Oxidation is the addition of oxygen, removal of hydrogen, addition of a more electronegative
element or removal of more electropositive element.
a) Oxidation as addition of oxygen to a substance, e.g.,
2H 2 (g)  O 2 (g) 
 2H 2 O(l )
C  s   O2  g  
 CO 2  g 
2Mg  s   O2  g  
 2MgO  s 
P4  s   5O2  g  
 P4 O10  s 
2Cu  s   O2  g  
2CuO  s 
b) Oxidation as removal of hydrogen from a substance, e.g.,
H 2S  g  
 H2  g   Ss
H 2S  aq   Br2  aq  
 2HBr  aq   S  s 
Oxidation
(hydrogen is removed from H2S)
4HCl  aq   MnO2  s  

Heat
 MnCl2  aq   2H 2 O  l   Cl2  g 
Oxidation
(hydrogen is removed from HCl)
2H 2S  g   O 2  g  
Heat
 2H 2 O  l   2S  s 
Oxidation
Here hydrogen is removed from H2S
c) Oxidation as addition of an electronegative element to a substance, e.g.,
2Fe  3Cl2 
 2FeCl3
SnCl2  Cl 2 
 SnCl4
In theabove reactions, the number of atoms of electronegative element (chlorine) increases from zero in Fe to
three in FeCl3 and from two in SnCl2 to four in SnCl4.
d) Oxidation as removal of electropositive element from a substance, e.g.,
2KI  Cl 2 
 2KCl  I 2
The electropositive element (Potassium) is lost, therefore, oxidation of KI takes place.
2NaBr  Cl2  g  
 2NaCl  Br2  g 
This involves removal of electropositive Na from NaBr, therefore, the reaction is oxidation.
Thus, oxidation is a chemical reaction in which substances combine with oxygen or an electronegative
element or lose hydrogen or an electropositive element.
Reduction. Reduction is the addition of hydrogen, removal of oxygen, addition of electropositve element or
removal of a more electronegative element.
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a) Reduction as addition of hydrogen from a substance, e.g.,

H 2  S 
 H 2S
Cl2  H 2S 
 2HCl  S
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) when reacted with chlorine (Cl2) gets oxidised to sulphur whereas chlorine gets
reduced to HCl.
H 2  Cl 2 
 2HCl
2Na  H 2 
 2NaH
C 2 H 4  H 2 
 C2H6
b)Reduction as removal of oxygen from a substance, e.g.,
H 2 O  C 
 CO  H 2
Steam coke water gas
In this case, water has been reduced to hydrogen by the removal of oxygen.
ZnO  H 2 
 Zn  H 2 O
Here Zinc oxide has been reduced to zinc by the removal of oxygen.
ZnO  C 
 Zn  CO
Reduction
(Removal of oxygen)
CuO  H 2 
 Cu  H 2 O
Reduction
(Removal of oxygen)
2MgO 
 2Mg  O2
Reduction
(Removal of oxygen)
c) Reduction as addition of electropositive element to a substance, e.g.,
Cl 2  Mg 
 MgCl 2
I 2  Hg 
 HgI 2
In above reactions, Cl2 is reduced to MgCl2 and I2 is reduced to HgI2.
d) Reduction as removal of an electronegative element from a substance, e.g.,
2FeCl3 
 2FeCl2  Cl2
FeS   Fe  S
Thus, reduction is a chemical reaction in which a substance combines with hydrogen or an electropositive
element or lose oxygen or an electronegative element.
2.6 Oxidising Agent and Reducing Agent
a) Oxidising Agent. A substance that brings about oxidation is called oxidising agent.
b) Reducing Agent. A substance which brings about reduction is called reducing agent.
98
Consider the reaction, CuO  H 2 

 Cu  H 2 O
In this reaction, hydrogen removes oxygen from copper oxide. Thus, CuO is reduced and hydrogen acts as
reducing agent.
Copper oxide gives oxygen to hydrogen or hydrogen is oxidised to water by CuO. Therefore, CuO acts as
oxidising agent.
(Removal of oxygen)
Reduction
CuO  H 2 
 Cu  H 2 O
Oxidising agent Reducing agent
Addition of oxygen
i) The substance to which oxygen is added or the substance from which hydrogen is removed is said to be
oxidised.
ii) The substance from which oxygen is removed or the substance to which hydrogen is added is said to be
reduced.
iii) The substance which gets oxidised acts as reducing agent.
iv) The substance which gets reduced acts as oxidising agent.
2.7 MODERN CONCEPT OF OXIDATION REDUCTION
Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions (Electronic concept)
According to electronic concept oxidation is the removal and reduction is the addition of electrons.
2.7.1 Oxidation. According to electronic concept, chemical reactions in which an atom, ion or molecule loses
electron(s) are known as oxidation reactions. This is also known as de-electronation.
i) Oxidation of atoms
Na   Na   e  ; Ca 
 Ca 2   2e  ; Zn 
 Zn 2   2e 
ii) Oxidation of ions (Cations)
Fe 2  
 Fe3  e  ; Sn 2 
 Sn 4   2e  ; Cu  
 Cu 2  e
iii) Oxidation of ions (Anions)
2Cl 
 Cl2  2e  ; MnO 24 
 MnO 4  e  ; 2O 2  
 O 2  4e 
iv) Oxidation of molecules
 H 2  S ; H 2S  2H   S2 
H 2S 
In oxidation reactions, electrons are lost due to which, positive charge on the substance increases or negative
change on the substance decreases.
2.7.2 Reduction. Reduction is the chemical process in which an atom, ion or molecule gains one or more electrons.
This is also known as electronation.
i) Reduction of atom
Cl  e    Cl  ; S  2e  
 S2 ; O  2e 
 O2
ii) Reduction of ion
Mg 2  2e  
 Mg ; Pb 4   2e  
 Pb 2 
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iii) Reduction of molecule

1
HgO  Hg 2 O 2   Hg  O 2
2
In reduction reaction, gain of electrons takes place due to which there is increase in negative charge or
decrease in positive charge.
Table - Comparative Study of Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
Oxidation Reduction
1 Combination of substance with oxygen Combination of substance with hydrogen
2 Combination of substance with electronegative Combination of substance with electropositive
element element
3 Loss of hydrogen from substance Loss of oxygen from substance
4 Loss of electropostive element from substance Loss of electronegative element from substance
5 Loss of electron from an atom or ion. Gain of electron by an atom or ion.
2.8 Redox Reactions. These are reactions in which oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously. In a
redox reaction, an atom, ion or molecule of one substance loses electron(s) while an atom, ion or molecule of
another substance gains electron(s).
(Loss of electrons)
(Oxidation)
1.

Fe  S   FeS  Fe2 S2 
Gain of electrons
(Reduction)
(Loss of electrons)
(Oxidation)
2.  2MgO  Mg 2 O2 
2Mg  O2 
Gain of electrons
(Reduction)
(Loss of electrons)
(Oxidation)
3.  CuCl 2  Cu 2 2Cl 
Cu  Cl2 
Gain of electrons
(Reduction)
(Loss of electrons)
(Oxidation)
4. 2Al  6HCl 
 2AlCl3  3H 2 or 2Al  6H  
 2Al3  3H 2
Gain of electrons
Reduction
Oxidising agent. Substances which gain electrons or get reduced are known as oxidising agents.
Reducing agent. Substances which lose electrons or get oxidised are known as reducing agents.
Consider the reaction, CuSO4  Fe 
 FeSO4  Cu
Oxidation
Cu 2   Fe 0 
 Fe 2   Cu 0
Reduction
100
In this reaction, Fe loses electrons and gets oxidised to Fe2+, therefore, Fe is the reducing agent. At the same
time, Cu2+ gains electrons and gets is reduced to Cu0, therefore, it is the oxidising agent.
Oxidation
Zn  s   Cu 2  aq  
 Zn 2  aq   Cu  s 
Reduction
Here zinc metal undergoes oxidation while Cu2+ ions undergoes reduction in aqueous solution.
Zn  s  
 Zn 2  aq   2e and Cu 2  aq   2e  
 Cu
2.9 EFFECT OF OXIDATION REACTIONS IN EVERYDAY LIFE
We are all aware that oxygen is involved in a variety of reactions which have wide range of effects in our daily
life. A number of phenomena, both physical as well as biological, are concerned with oxidation reactions.
Most of them are very useful while a few are harmful in nature.
2.9.1 Combustion Reactions. A chemical reaction in which a substance burns or gets oxidised in the presence of
air or oxygen is called combustion reaction. For example, kerosene, coal, charcoal, wood, methane (major
constituent of natural gas), etc., burn in air and thus, undergo, combustion.
CH 4  g  2O 2  g   CO 2 (g)  2H 2 O  l   energy
Methane
Similary, butane (C4H10), the main constituent of L. P. G. also undergoes combustion.
2C4 H10  g  13O 2  g   8CO 2 (g)  10H 2 O(g)  energy
Butane
Combustion reactions are exothermic and are accompained by release of heat energy.
The heat energy evolved when various foodstuffs that we eat undergo oxidation, keeps our body working.
Carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, starch etc., are the major sources of energy to the human body.
They undergo oxidation using oxygen that we inhale to form carbon dioxide and water.
All combustion reactions are not accompanied by flame. Combustion is fundamentally oxidation accompanied
by release of energy.
2.9.2 Respiration. Respiration is the most important biochemical reaction. It occurs in the cells and is accompanied
by the combustion of glucose producing carbon dioxide and water.
C6 H12 O6  s  6O 2  g  
 6CO 2  6H 2O  l   energy
Glu cos e
The energy released is utilised for many cell reactions and for keeping our heart and muscles working. It also
provides warmth to our body.
2.9.3 Harmful Effects of Oxidation
i) Pollution : Environmental pollution is mostly due to combustion. Poisonous gases like carbon monoxide
(CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), sulphur trioxide (SO3), oxides of nitrogen (NxOy), etc., are being released into
the atmosphere in large quantities, as a result of variety of combustion reactions. They pollute the atmosphere
and make our lives miserable.
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ii) Corrosion : The process of slow eating up of a metal due to attack of atmospheric gases such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, water vapour, etc., on its surface which converts it into its oxide, carbonate,
sulphide, etc., is known as corrosion.
The most common example of corrosion is the rusting of iron. When an iron article remains exposed to moist
air for a long time, its surface gets covered with a brown, flaky (non-sticky) substance called rust. Rust is
mainly hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3.xH2O), formed by the attack of oxygen and water vapour present in air.
2Fe  s   3 / 2O 2  g   xH 2 O  l   Fe2 O3 .xH 2O  s 
hydratedferric oxide(rust)
Copper loses its lustre or shine after some time due to a green coating of basic carbonate, CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
on its surface. This is due to attack of O2, CO2 and water vapour present in the air.
2Cu  s  CO 2  O2  g   H 2O  l  
 CuCO3.Cu  OH 2
Copper     Basic copper carbonate(Green)
From moist air
The surface of silver metal gets tarnished (loses lustre and becomes dull) on exposure to air. This is due to the
formation of a coating of black silver sulphide (Ag2S) on its surface by the action of H2S present in air.
1
2Ag  s   H 2S  g   O2  g  
 Ag 2S  s   H2O  l 
2 Silversulphide(Black)
Silver Hydrogen sulphide (from air)
Rusting is a very serious problem because it weakens the structure of bridges, iron railings, automobile parts,
etc. Every year a huge sum of money is spent for replacing rusted iron and steel structures. The reason for
serious damage to structures is the fact that the reddish brown crust of rust does not stick to the surface.
Instead, it peels off exposing fresh surface for corrosion which ultimately eats up the whole iron object.
Methods to prevent rusting. Rusting can be prevented if iron objects are prevented from coming into
contact with damp air. Some common methods used for preventing corrosion are :
i) Painting iron articles such as window grills, iron gates, steel furniture, railway coaches, cars, buses, etc.
ii) Applying grease or oil on iron articles such as mechanical tools, machine parts, etc.
iii) Galvanisation, i.e. coating the surface of iron objects with a thin layer of zinc.
(iii) Rancidity
When fats and oils are oxidised, they become rancid, and their smell and taste become unpleasant. Rancidity
of food materials can be prevented/retarded by
Adding antioxidants. Substances which prevent oxidation (antioxidants) are added to foods containing fats
and oil. Anti-oxidants are actually reducing agents. Two common anti-oxidants used in foods are BHA (Butylated
hydroxy-anisole) and BHT (Butylated hydroxy toluene).
Keeping food in air tight containers. When food is stored in air-tight containers, there is little exposure to
oxygen of air. Oxidation of fats and oils in food is slowed down and hence the development of rancidity.
Packaging foods in nitrogen gas. When packed food is surrounded by an unreactive gas like nitrogen, there
is no air/oxygen to cause its oxidation and make it rancid. Chips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with
nitrogen to prevent the chips from getting oxidised.
Keeping food in refrigerator. When food is refrigerated, oxidation is retarded due to low temperature.
Storing foods away from light. In the absence of light, oxidation of fats and oils is slowed down.
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QUESTIONS
LEVEL I
1. Which of the following statements is/are true?
A) The total mass of the substance remains same in a chemical change.
B) A chemical change is permanent and irreversible.
C) A physical change is temporary and reversible. D) All of these.
2. Which of the following statements is/are not correct?
A) A chemical equation tells us about the substances involved in a reaction.
B) A chemical equation informs us about the symbols and formulae of the substances involved in a reaction.
C) A chemical equation tell us about the atoms or molecules of the reactants and products involved in a
reaction.
D) A chemical equation tell us about the speed of reaction.
3. Which of the following is a chemical reaction?
A) rusting of iron B) formation of curd from milk
C) fermentation of grape juice D) all of these
4. An unbalanced equation is also called
A) word equation B) skeletal equation C) symbol equation D) none of these
5. Balancing of chemical equation follows
A) law of conservation of mass B) law of conservation of energy
C) modern periodic law D) Mendeleev’s periodic law
6. Stoichiometric equation is also called
A) balanced equation B) unbalanced equation
C) equilibrium equation D) all of the above
7. What does the symbol ‘  ’ indicate?
A) liberation of heat B) evolution of gas C) evolution of light D) precipitation
8.  Ca  NO3 2  yCO 2  H 2 O . The values of x and y are

The equation CaCO3  xHNO3 
A) 3 and 2 B) 2 and 2 C) 2 and 1 D) 1 and 2
9. Chemical reaction 2Na  Cl2 

 2NaCl is an example of
A) combination reaction B) decomposition reaction
C) displacement reaction D) double displacement reaction
10. N 2  3H 2  2NH3 . The given equation is an example of
A) decomposition reaction B) single displacement reaction
C) double displacement reaction D) synthesis reaction
103
11. Ionization of water is an example of

A) displacement reaction B) combination reaction
C) oxidation reaction D) decomposition reaction
12. Which of the following equations is not an example of single displacement reaction?
A) 2Al  Fe 2 O3 
 Al 2 O3  2Fe B) Ca  Cl 2 
 CaCl 2
C) 2KI  Cl 2 
 2KCl  I 2 D) 2Na  2H 2 O 
 2NaOH  H 2
13. Which of the following equations represent combination of two elements?
A) CaO  CO 2 
 CaCO3 B) 4Na  O 2 
 2Na 2 O
1
C) SO 2  O 2 
 SO3 D) 2Na  2H 2 O 
 2NaOH  H 2
2
14. The reaction in which two compounds exchange their ions to form two new compounds is
A) a displacement reaction B) a decomposition reaction
C) an addition reaction D) a double displacement reaction
15. Which of the following equations is not an example of electrolysis?
A) 2H 2 O 
electricity
 2H 2  O 2 B) 2NaCl 
electricity
 2Na  Cl 2
 molten 
C) CaCO3  heat

electric furnace
 CaO  CO 2 D) 2Al 2 O3 
electricity
 4Al  3O 2
solid   dissolved in cryolyte 
16. BaCl2  aq   Na 2SO 4 aq  

 BaSO 4 s   2NaCl aq  . Above reaction is a
A) displacement reaction B) double displacement reaction
C) combination reaction D) decomposition reaction
17. An acid base reaction is an example of
A) combination reaction B) neutralization reaction
C) combustion reaction D) gas-formation reaction
18. Which of the following is not true with respect to the neutralisation reaction?
A) salt is formed B) reaction occurs between an acid and a base
C) it is a double displacement reaction D) reactants are in gaseous state
19. What happens when zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid?
A) water-formation B) neutralisation C) gas-formation D) oxidation
20. What type of reaction is in the following : CaCO3  s  
heat
CaO  s   CO2  g 
A) endothermic reaction B) exothermic reaction
C) displacement and endothermic reaction D) combination and exothermic reaction
21. Which of the following statements is/are false for oxidation reaction?
A) gain or addition of electronegative radical B) removal of hydrogen atom
C) removal or loss of electropositive radical or element D) removal of oxygen atom
104
22. Reduction reaction is also called

A) protonation B) ionization reaction
C) de-electronation D) electronation
23. In the process of burning of magnesium in air, magnesium undergoes
A) reduction B) sublimation C) oxidation D) all of these
24. Which of the following statements is false for reduction reactions?
A) oxygen is removed from compound B) hydrogen molecule is added to the reactant
C) removal of electropositive element D) removal of electronegative element
25. 4NH 3  5O 2  4NO  6H 2 O is an example of
A) displacement reaction B) combination reaction
C) redox reaction D) decomposition reaction
26. A redox reaction is one in which
A) both the reactants are reduced B) both the reactants are oxidized
C) an acid is neutralised by the base D) one substance is oxidized, while the other is reduced
27. In the reaction, Mg  Cl 2 
 MgCl 2 , chlorine may be regarded as
A) oxidizing agent B) reducing agent C) catalyst D) providing an inert medium
28. A substance, which oxidizes itself and reduces other, is known as
A) oxidizing agent B) reducing agent C) dehydrating agent D) catalyst
29. An antioxidant used to prevent rancidity in foods is
A) butylated hydroxy anisole B) sodium hydroxide
C) sodium carbonate D) methylated hydroxy anisole
30. Coating the surface of iron objects with a thin layer of zinc is known as
A) reduction B) electroplating C) de-electronation D) galvanisation
LEVEL II
1. Which among the following is incorrect?
A) Process that brings about chemical change is called chemical reaction.
B) In a chemical change the substance undergoing change is called reactant and new compound formed
product.
C) Reactions do not involve breaking and making of chemical bonds.
D) Chemical equation is a representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and formulae.
2. The chemical equation, Zn  s   H 2SO 4  aq   ZnSO4  aq   H 2  g  is an example of
A) word equation B) symbol equation
C) unbalanced chemical equation D) skeletal equation
3. Which of the following equations best represents the formation of water?
A) 2H 2 l  O2 l  2H 2 O g  B) 2H 2 g   O 2 g   2H 2O l
C) 2H 2 g   O2 g   2H 2 O g  D) 2H 2 g   O2 g   2H 2 O s 
105
4. Which of the following equations is not balanced?

A) 2NaHCO3 
 Na 2 CO3  H 2 O  CO 2 B) 2C 4 H10  12O 2 
 8CO 2  10H 2 O
 2Al  OH  3  3H 2
C) 2Al  6H 2 O  D) 4NH 3  5O 2 
 4NO  6H 2 O
5. In the balanced equation: aFe 2 O 3  bH 2 
 cFe  dH 2 O . The values of a, b, c, d are respectively
A) 1, 1, 2, 3 B) 1, 1, 1, 1 C) 1, 3, 2, 3 D) 1, 2, 2, 3
6. Which of the following is endothermic reaction?
A) C s   O 2 g  
 CO 2 g  B) C s   2S s  
 CS2 l 
C) 2H 2 g   O 2 g  
 2H 2 O l  D) 2CH 3OH  l   3O 2 g  
 2CO 2 g   4H 2 O l 
7. When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron fillings,
A) hydrogen gas and ferrous chloride are produced B) chlorine gas and ferric hydroxide are produced
C) no reaction takes place D) iron salt and water are produced
8. In the reaction FeSO 4  x   Na 2SO 4  Fe  OH  2 , x is:
A) Na2SO4 B) H2SO4 C) NaOH D) H2O
9. Which of the following statements is true regarding precipitates?
A) product formation after saturation point
B) product formation before saturation point
C) precipitation does not relate to saturation point of a solution
D) product with higher concentration in a reaction is precipitate
10. When lead nitrate is heated, it breaks down into lead monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
2Pb  NO3 2 
 2PbO  4NO 2  O2 , the reaction is an example of
A) combination reaction B) decomposition reaction
C) double decomposition reaction D) displacement reaction
11. The following reaction is used for the preparation of oxygen gas in the laboratory:
2KClO3s  
Heat
 2KCl  3O 2 g  . Which of the following statement about the reaction is correct?
A) it is a decomposition reaction and endothermic in nature
B) it is a combination reaction
C) it is a decomposition reaction and accompanied by release of heat
D) it is a photochemical decomposition reaction and exothermic in nature
12. Which among the following is a single displacement reaction?
A) 2KClO3 
Heat
 2KCl  3O 2 B) Pb  CuCl2  PbCl 2  Cu
C) C  O 2  CO 2 D) CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2 O
13. When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed through a blue solution of copper sulphate a black precipitate of
copper sulphide is obtained and the sulphuric acid so formed remains in the solution. The reaction is an
example of
A) combination reaction B) displacement reaction
C) decomposition reaction D) double displacement reaction
106
14. The elements undergoing reduction and oxidation during the reaction,
 NH4 2 Cr2O7 
 N 2  Cr2O3  4H 2 O are respectively
A) N and Cr B) Cr and N C) N and O D) Cr and O
15. When the gases sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide react, the reaction is: SO 2  2H 2S 
 2H 2 O  3S
Here hydrogen sulphide is acting as
A) an oxidizing agent B) a reducing agent C) dehydrating agent D) a catalyst
16. Which of the following statements about the given reaction is incorrect?
3Fe  4H 2 O  Fe3O 4  4H 2
A) iron metal is getting oxidized B) water is getting reduced
C) water is acting as reducing agent D) water is acting as oxidizing agent
17. Which of the following reactions will not take place?
A) Zn  FeSO 4 
 ZnSO 4  Fe B) 2KI  Cl 2 
 2KCl  I 2
C) 2NaCl  Br2 
 2NaBr  Cl2 D) Zn  2HCl 
 ZnCl2  H 2
18. Fe  CuSO 4 
 FeSO 4  Cu
Zn  FeSO 4 
 ZnSO 4  Fe
Which of the following is correct order of reactivity on the basis of above reactions?
A) Fe > Cu > Zn B) Cu > Fe > Zn C) Zn > Fe > Cu D) Zn > Cu > Fe
19. What is the chemical equation for rusting of iron?
A) Fe  S  FeS B) Fe  2NO2  O2  Fe  NO3  2
3
C) 2Fe  O 2  xH 2 O  Fe 2 O3 .xH 2 O D) 2Fe  O2  2CO2  Fe  CO3 2
2
20. Which among the following is not correct?
A) BHA (butylated hydroxy anisole) and BHT (butylated hydroxy toluene) are antioxidants added to oils to
prevent rancidity
B) tarnishing of silver exposed to air in due to formation of Ag2S
C) copper looses its lustre due to formation of a coating of basic carbonate
D) galvanisation is the process of coating copper objects with tin
LEVEL III
Multiple Correct Answer Type
1. Which of the following are exothermic processes?
A) reaction of water with quick lime B) dilution of an acid
C) evaporation of water D) sublimation of camphor (crystals)
2. Which of the following is true in a balanced chemical reaction?
A) atoms are conserved B) mass is conserved
C) molecules are conserved D) physical state of elements is conserved
107
3. Which of the following reactions are double displacement reactions?

A) AgNO3  NaBr 
 NaNO 3  AgBr B) BaCl 2  H 2SO 4 
 BaSO 4  2HCl
C) As 2 O3  3H 2S 
 As 2S3  3H 2 O D) NaOH  HCl 
 NaCl  H 2 O
4. Which of the following are true for redox reactions?
A) both oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously B) non-metallic compound is removed
C) all single displacement reactions are redox reactions D) oxygen is liberated as product
Numerical Type
5. Find ‘x’ in the equation 3Fe  xH 2 O  Fe3O 4  4H 2
6. What is the number of nitrogen atoms on the reactant side of the equation H 2 g   N 2 g   NH3 g  after
balancing?
Matching Column Type
7.
Column I Column II
Types of chemical reaction Chemical equations
A) Combination reaction p) CaCO3 
 CaO  CO 2
B) Decomposition reaction q) M g  O 2 
 2MgO
C) Displacement reaction r) CaO  CO 2 

 CaCO 3
D) Synthesis reaction s) Fe  CuSO 4  aq  

 FeSO 4  aq  CuO
8. Column I Column II
A) Neutralisation p) 2M g  O 2  2MgO
B) Precipitation q) H 2 SO 4  N aOH  NaSO 4  H 2 O
C) Gas-formation r) ZnS  2HCl  ZnCl 2  H 2 S 
D) Oxidation s) PbNO 3  Na 2 SO 4  PbSO 4  2 NaNO 3
Statement Type
Each of these questions contains two statements: Statement 1 and Statement 2. Each of these questions has
four alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer.
A) Statement 1 is True, statement 2 is True; Statement 2 is Correct explanation for Statement 1.
B) Statement 1 is True, Statement 2 is True; Statement 2 is NOT a correct explanation for Statement 1.
C) Statement 1 is True, Statement 2 is False.
D) Statement 1 is False, Statement 2 is True.
9. Statement 1 : Brown fumes are produced when lead nitrate is heated because of a displacement reaction
taking place.
Statement 2 : Nitrogen dioxide gas is formed as a product.
108
10. Statement 1 : BaCl 2  CuSO 4  BaSO 4  CuCl2 . This is a precipitation reaction taking place in an
aqueous solution where barium sulphate is formed as precipitate.
Statement 2 : The solution gets saturated with BaSO4 and the compound can’t dissolve further due to
which it forms precipitate.
11. Statement 1 : In the reaction CuO s   H 2 g   Cu  s   H 2 O l , copper oxide gains hydrogen and act as
reducing agent.
Statement 2 : Hydrogen is said to be oxidized since it accepts oxygen to form water.
Paragraph
Matter can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. That is, the total mass of the elements
present in the products of a chemical reaction has to be equal to the total mass of the elements present in the
reactants. In other words, the number of atoms of each element remains the same, before and after a chemical
reaction. Hence, we need to balance a skeletal chemical equation.
12. Which law states that the mass can neither be created nor destroyed?
A) law of conservation of stoichiometry B) law of conservation of mass
C) law of conservation of molecules D) law of conservation of atoms
13. The chemical equation given below shows the reaction between zinc metal with silver nitrate:
Zinc  Silver nitrate  Zinc nitrate  Silver
Which of the following represents the balanced chemical equation for the above reaction?
A) Zn  AgNO3  ZnNO3  Ag B) Zn  2AgNO3  Zn  NO3  2  Ag
C) Zn  2AgNO3  Zn  NO3 2  2Ag D) 2Zn  Ag  NO3 2  2ZnNO3  Ag

Fill in the blanks
14. The substances that react together in a chemical change and form new substances are called ............
15. All combustion reactions are not accompanied by flame. Combustion is fundamentally oxidation accompanied
by ............ of energy.
16. The reactant molecules come .............. to bring in the chemical reaction.
17. ZnO is white but becomes ............. heating.
18. The reaction of H2 and Cl2 to give HCl is .............
19. Combustion reactions are always .............
20. Addition of hydrogen to a substance is called ............ whereas removal of hydrogen is called............
109
02 CHAPTER -
ACID BASES AND SALTS
INTRODUCTION
Acids, bases and salts pervade our lives, from the laboratory to the kitchen. For thousands of years people
have known that vinegar, lemon juice, and many other foods taste sour. However, it was only a few hundred
years ago that it was discovered that these things taste sour because they are all acids. The term acid comes
from the Latin term acere, which means “sour”. The ancients got bases from wood ash, a process known to
the Greeks, who mixed ashes with animal fat to make soap. Bases are also referred to as alkalis, a word
derived from the Arabic word for ‘roasting’.
In about 1300, a Spanish scholar, Arnaldus de Villa Nova, began to use litmus, obtained from lichen plant, for
studying acids and bases. This idea was expanded by Robert Boyle (1627-1691), who found that certain
plants derived substances changed colour in the presence of acids or bases.
Throughout history, humans have been using salts in their diets, to preserve meat, fish and other food materials,
clean wounds and make soap. Sodium chloride is the source of sodium in our diets, essential for the transmission
of nerve impulses and the maintenance of proper fluid balance in the body.
1.0 ACIDS
Acids are widely distributed in nature both in living organisms and minerals. They turn blue litmus red and react
with bases to form salt and water. The characteristic properties of acids are due to their capacity to provide H+
ions in aqueous solution. Therefore, acid is defined as a substance which releases H+ ions in aqueous solution.
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ACIDS
Acids can be classified on the basis of their source, basicity, and strength.
1.1.1 Classification of acids on the basis of their Source
On the basis of their source, acids can be classified in two categories; organic acids and inorganic acids.
A. Organic acids
The acids which are usually obtained from organisms are known as organic acids. Oxalic acid (H2C2O4),
acetic acid (CH3COOH), etc., are common examples of organic acids.
It may be noted that all organic acids contain carbon as one of their constituent elements. These are weak
acids, and therefore, do not ionise completely in their aqueous solutions. Since these acids do not ionise
completely in aqueous solution, their solutions contain both ions as well as undissociated molecules. For
example, aqueous solution of formic acid contains H3O+, HCOO– as well as undissociated HCOOH molecules.

HCOOH  H 2O  H 3O   HCOO 
Formic acid Hydronium ion Formate ion
110
Table - 01 Some Organic Acids with their Natural Sources

No. Organic acid Sources No. Organic acid Sources
1 Acetic acid Vinegar 7 Oleic acid Olive oil
2 Citric acid Citrus fruits 8 Stearic acid Fats
3 Butyric acid Rancid butter 9 Amino acid Proteins
4 Formic acid Sting of bees and ants 10 Uric acid Urine
5 Lactic acid Sour milk 11 Tartaric acid Tamarind
6 Malic acid Apples 12 Oxalic acid Tomatoes
B. Inorganic Acids
Acids which are obtained from minerals are known as inorganic acids. These are also called mineral acids.
Some common examples of inorganic acids are Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid
(HNO3), etc.
It may be pointed out that except carbonic acid (H2CO3), these acids do not contain carbon. Acids like HCl,
H2SO4 and HNO3 are strong acids which ionise completely in their aqueous solutions.
1.1.2 Classification of acids on the basis of their Basicity
The basicity of an acid is defined as the number of hydronium ions [H3O+(aq)] that are produced by the
complete ionisation of one molecule of the acid in aqueous solution.
Four example, basicity of HCl, H2SO4 and H3PO4 are 1, 2 and 3 respectively because one molecule of these
acids, on ionisation, produces 1, 2 and 3 hydronium ions in their aqueous solution.
The basicity of an acid is determined by number of hydronium ions produced per molecule of an acid on
ionisation and not on the number of hydrogen atoms present in one molecule.
For example, basicity of acetic acid CH3COOH is 1 because one molecule of acetic acid in aqueous solution
produces only one hydronium ion although one molecule of acetic acid contains four hydrogen atoms.

CH3COOH  H 2O  H 3O +  CH3COO-
Acetic acid Hydronium ion Acetate ion
On the basis of basicity, the acids can be classified as follows :

A) Monobasic Acids
When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation produces one hydronium ion (H3O+) in aqueous solution,
the acid is said to be a monobasic acid.
Examples
(i) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
(ii) Hydrobromic acid (HBr)
(iii) Nitric acid (HNO3)
(iv) Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
(v) Formic acid (HCOOH)
Characteristics of Monobasic Acids. Two important characteristics of monobasic acids are :
(i) A monobasic acid ionises in one step in aqueous solution. For example,
 H 3O  Cl (Single step ionisation)
HCl  H 2 O 
111
(ii) A monobasic acid forms only single salt or a normal salt. For example,
HCl  NaOH 
 NaCl  H 2O
Sodium chloride
 Normal salt 
(B) Dibasic Acids
When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation produces two hydronium ions (H3O+) in aqueous
solution, the acid is said to be dibasic acid.
Examples
(i) Sulphuric acid  H 2SO4 
(ii) Sulphurous acid  H 2SO3 
(iii) Carbonic acid  H 2CO3 
(iv) Oxalic acid  COOH  2 
Characteristics of Dibasic Acids. Two important characteristics of dibasic acids are :
(i) A dibasic acid ionises in two steps in aqueous solution. For example, sulphuric acid ionises to produce
bisulphate ion (HSO4-) in the first step which further ionises to produce sulphate ion (SO42-) in the second step.
 H 3O 
H 2SO 4  H 2O  HSO 4
Sulphuric acid Bisulphate ion
 H3O   SO 24

HSO 4  H 2O 
Sulphate ion
(ii) Because of the presence of two replacable hydrogens, a dibasic acid forms two series of salts, i.e., an acid
salt and a normal salt. For example, H2SO4 reacts with NaOH to form NaHSO4 (acid salt) and Na2SO4
(normal salt)
NaOH  H 2SO 4 
 NaHSO 4  H 2O
Sodium hydrogen sulphate
 An acid salt 
2NaOH  H 2SO4 
 Na 2SO 4  2H 2O
Sodium sulphate
 Nromal salt 
C) Tribasic Acids
When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation produces three hydronium ions in aqueous solution, the
acid is said to be tribasic acid.
Example : Phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
D) Tetrabasic Acids
When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation produces four hydronium ions in aqueous solution, the
acid is said to be tetrabasic acid
Example: Silicic acid (H4SiO4).
1.1.3 Classification of acids Based on their Strength
Acids ionise in the aqueous solution to produce hydronium ions. The strength of an acid depends upon the
degree of ionisation, usually denoted by the letter alpha (.
112
Number of molecules of the acid undergoing ionisation

Degree of ionisation of acid (   100
Total number of acid molecules
Greater the degree of ionisation ( of an acid, the stronger it will be. If the degree of ionisation ( of an acid
is greater than 30%, it is considered to be a strong acid and if less than 30%, weak acid.
On the basis of degree of ionisation, the acids can be classified as under :
A) Strong Acids
Acids which undergo almost complete ionisation in dilute aqueous solution to produce high concentration of
hydronium ions (H3O+) are known as strong acids.
Examples
(i) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
(ii) Sulphuric acid  H 2SO4 
(iii) Nitric acid  HNO3 
These mineral acids are considered to be strong acids because they ionise almost completely in their dilute
aqueous solutions.
B) Weak Acids
Acids which undergo only partial or incomplete ionisation in dilute aqueous solution and produce a low
concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) are known as weak acids.
Examples
(i) Acetic acid  CH3COOH 
(ii) Formic acid  HCOOH 
(iii) Oxalic acid  COOH  2 
(iv) Carbonic acid  H 2CO3 
(v) Sulphurous acid  H 2SO3 
(vi) Hydrogen sulphide  H 2S
(vii) Hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
Aqueous solution of weak acids contain both ions as well as undissociated molecules.
1.1.4 Classification of Acids on the Basis of Concentration
By the term concentration, we mean the amount of water present in the given sample of acid solution in water.
A) Concentrated Acid
The sample of acid which contains very small or no amount of water is called a concentrated acid.
B) Dilute Acid
The sample of an acid which contains far more amount of water than its own mass is known as a dilute acid.
1.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The important chemical properties of acids are the following :
(i) Metals displace hydrogen from acids
Metals like zinc, magnesium, etc., reacts with dilute HCl or dil. H 2SO 4 evolving hydrrogen gas. The metal
displaces hydrogen and combine with the remaining part of the acid to form salt.
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Acid  Metal 
 Metal salt  Hydrogen
Zn  s   H 2SO 4  aq  
 ZnSO4  aq   H 2  g 
Mg  s   2HCl  aq  
 MgCl 2  aq   H 2
Metals which displace hydrogen from acids are called active metals, e.g., Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, etc.
(ii) Acids liberate CO2 from carbonates and metal bicarbonates
Acids react with metal carbonates and metal bicarbonates and liberate carbon dioxide. Metal salt and water
are the other products formed. The reaction between sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid is,
Na 2CO3  s   2HCl  aq  
 2NaCl  aq   H2O  l   CO2  g 
The reaction between sodium bicarbonate and hydrochloric acid is
NaHCO3  s   HCl  aq  
 NaCl  aq   H2O  l   CO2  g 
The gas evolved is identified to be CO2 by using lime water.
Lime water is calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]. On passing CO2 through lime water, it is turned milky. The
milkiness is due to fomation of CaCO3 in solution.
Ca  OH 2  aq   CO 2  g  
 CaCO 3  s   H 2 O  l 
CaCO3 is formed as a precipitate and it makes the solution appear milky. When more CO2 gas is passed
through the milky solution it becomes clear. This is because the precipitated CaCO3 is converted to soluble
calcium bicarbonate.
CaCO3  s   H2O  l   CO2  g  
 Ca  HCO3 2  aq 
All metal carbonates and bicarbonates react with acids the same way as Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 with dil. HCl.
For example, calcium carbonate exists in nature as limestone, chalk, marble, sea shell, etc. All these react with
dil.HCl to form calcium chloride, CO2 and water.
CaCO3  s   2HCl  g  
 CaCl2  aq   CO2  g   H2O  l 
(iii) Acids react with metallic oxides to form salt and water
MgO  s   H2SO4  aq  
 MgSO4  aq   H2O  l 
ZnO  s   2HCl  aq  
 ZnCl2  aq   H2O  l 
(iv) Reaction of acids with bases
Acids neutralise the effect of bases. Acid and base react to form salt and water. The reaction is called
neutralisation.
HCl  aq   NaOH  aq  
 NaCl  aq   H2O  l 
1.3 Release of H+ ions in aqueous solution
Acids produce H+ ions in aqueous medium. This is the reason for all acids behaving similarly.
We have seen earlier that dilute acids liberate hydrogen gas with metals. The liberated hydrogen comes from
the acid. In dilute acid, hydrogen is not present as hydrogen molecules but as hydronium ions (H+). But the
acid molecule as a whole is neutral. This is because the remaining part of the acid molecule exists as negative
ion (anion). Thus, in dilute solution, acids contain positive ions and negative ions. Since ions are carriers of
charge, the solution can conduct electricity. Solutions that conduct electricity are called electrolytes, i.e.,
aqueous solutions of acids are electrolytes.
114
Experiment : Take a dilute solution of HCl in a glass beaker. Fix two small iron nails on a rubber cork (non-
conductor of electricity) and place it inside the beaker as shown in the figure. Connect the nails to the terminals
of a 6 volt battery through a bulb and switch. When current is switched on, the bulb starts glowing. This shows
that electric current has passed through the solution. As the current is carried by the movement of ions, it is
clear that HCl has ionised to give H+ and Cl- ions in aqueous solution. Current will also pass through aqueous
solutions of H2SO4 (H+ and SO42– ions), HNO3 (H+ and NO3– ions), etc.
The bulb will not glow if glucose (C6H12O6) or ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) solution is taken in the beaker. This
means that both of them will not give any ions in solution.
In aqueous solution of acid, H+ ions are present. H+ ions cannot exist as free ions, but combine with water
molecules to form H 3O  ions (hydronium ions).
Aqueous solution of HCl turns blue litmus red and exhibits all the properties of acid. When a dry blue litmus
paper is introduced into hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas, its colour does not change, but when a wet blue litmus
paper is introduced, it turns red. This is because dry HCl gas do not contain H+ ions. In the absence of water,
formation of H+ ions will not occur in acids.
Hence, acids are defined as a substances that liberate H+ ions in aqueous solution.
Strength of acids depend on the number of H+ ions produced. Acids that give more H+ ions at the same
concentration are called strong acids and those that give lesser number of H+ ions, weak acids.
1.4 Dilution of acids
Mixing of water with acid leads to decrease in concentration of H3O+ ions per unit volume of the solution. The
process of adding water to acid to bring about a decrease in its concentration is called dilution.
The concentration of an acid simply tells the amount of water in the acid. It should not be confused with
strength of an acid, which is a measure of the concentration of hydronium ions produced in aqueous solution.
Thus, a concentrated acid may not necessarily be a strong acid while a dilute acid may not necessarily
be a weak acid. A strong acid will remain strong even if it is dilute because it produces a large concentration
of hydronium ions in aqueous solution. On the other hand, a weak acid will remain weak even when concentrated
because it will produce lesser concentration of hydronium ions in aqueous solution
2.0 BASES
Substances with bitter taste and soapy touch are regarded as bases. Many bases like sodium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide, etc., have corrosive action on the skin and can even harm the human body. According to
the modern definition, a base may be defined as a substance capable of releasing OH– ions in aqueous solution.
2.1 Characteristics of Bases
(i) They change the colour of red litmus to blue.
(ii) Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
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Base  Acid   Salt  Water

(iii) Bases combine with carbon dioxide to form carbonates.
(iv) Base is slippery like soap and tastes unpleasant and bitter.
When bases like NaOH dissolve in water, OH- ions are produced.
NaOH  s  
H2 O
 Na   aq   OH  aq 
Ca  OH  2  s  
H 2O
 Ca 2  aq   2OH  aq 
Distinction Between Alkali and Base
Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis. Thus, all alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis.
For example, ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH)3] and cupric hydroxide [Cu(OH)2] are bases but not alkalis because
they are insoluble in water while NaOH and KOH are examples of alkalis since these are soluble in water.
2.2 Classification of Bases or Alkalis
(i) Classification on the basis of strength.
(ii) Classification on the basis of concentration.
(iii) Classification on the basis of acidity.
2.2.1 Classification of the Bases or Alkalis on the Basis of Strength
We know that alkalis ionise in aqueous solution to produce hydroxyl (OH-) ions. The strength of an alkali
depends on its degree of ionisation, usually denoted by the letter alpha (
Number of molecules of the alkali undergoing ionisation
Degree of ionisation of alkali (=  100
Total number of alkali molecules
Greater the degree of ionisation ( of an alkali, stronger it will be.
On the basis of degree of ionisation, alkalis can be classified as strong alkalis and weak alkalis :
(A) Strong alkalis or bases
The alkalis or bases which undergo almost complete ionisation in aqueous solution to produce high concentration
of hydroxyl (OH-) ions are known as strong alkalis or strong bases.
Examples : Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), barium hydroxide [Ba(OH)2], etc.
NaOH  aq  
 Na   aq   OH   aq 
KOH  aq  
 K   aq   OH   aq 
Ba  OH 2  aq  
 Ba 2  aq   2OH   aq 
(B) Weak alkalis or bases
The alkalis or bases which undergo only partial ionisation in aqueous solution to produce a relatively low
concentration of hydroxyl (OH-) ions are known as weak alkalis or weak bases.
Examples of weak alkalis or bases : Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2].
magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2], etc.
 NH 4  aq   OH   aq 
NH 4 OH  aq  
 Ca 2  aq   2OH   aq 
Ca  OH 2  aq  
 Mg 2  aq   2OH   aq 
Mg  OH 2 
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Since these alkalis are not ionise completely, there is a dynamic equilibrium between the undissolved (unionised)
alkali and the ions produced by it.
2.2.2 Classification of Bases or Alkalis on the Basis of Concentration
On the basis of concentration, alkalis can be classified as concentrated alkali and dilute alkali :
(A) Concentrated alkali
A solution containing relatively high percentage of alkali in its aqueous solution is known as concentrated alkali.
(B) Dilute alkali
A solution of alkali having a relatively low percentage of alkali in its aqueous solution is known as dilute alkali.
If the concentration of alkali in the solution is less than 1 mole per litre, then it is considered as dilute alkali.
2.2.3 Classification of Bases or Alkalis on the Basis of Acidity
Acidity of alkali : It is the number of hydroxyl (OH–) ions produced by one molecule of an alkali on complete
dissociation in water. It may also be defined as the number of hydrogen ions (from acid) with which a molecule
of the alkali reacts to produce salt and water only.
For water insoluble hydroxides, acidity of the base is equal to the number of hydroxyl ions present in one
molecule of that base.
On the basis of acidity, bases can be classified as under :
(A) Monoacidic Bases (or alkalis)
When one molecule of the base on complete ionisation produces one hydroxyl (OH-) ion in aqueous solution,
the base or alkali is said to be a monoacidic base.
A monoacidic base may be defined as one whose single molecule reacts with only one hydrogen (H+) ion to
form salt and water.
Examples : Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), etc.
These substances produce only one hydroxyl ion on complete ionisation in aqueous solution
NaOH  aq  
 Na   aq   OH   aq 
KOH  aq  
 K   aq   OH   aq 
The dissociation of monoacidic bases or alkalis takes place in a single step.
(B) Diacidic Bases
When one molecule of a base or alkali on complete ionisation produces two hydroxyl ions in aqueous solution,
the base or alkali is said to be diacidic.
A diacidic base may also be defined as one whose single molecule reacts with two hydrogen (H+) ions to form
salt and water.
Examples : Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] and magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2].
Ca  OH 2 (aq) 
 Ca 2  aq   2OH   aq 
Mg  OH 2 (aq) 
 Mg 2  aq   2OH   aq 
One molecule of both the bases produce two OH– ions in aqueous solution, therefore, these are termed as
diacidic bases.
(C) Triacidic Bases
When one molecule of a base or alkali on complete ionisation produces three hydroxyl ions in aqueous solution,
the base or alkali is said to be triacidic base.
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Examples : Aluminium hydroxide [Al(OH)3], Ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH)3], etc.

Al  OH 3  aq  
 Al3  aq   3OH   aq 
One molecule of Al(OH)3 produces three OH– ions and these OH– ions react with three hydrogen H+ ions
produced from acids like HCl to form water.
Al  OH 3  3HCl  aq  
 AlCl3  3H 2O
2.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The important chemical properties of bases are the following.
(i) Action with metals
Metals like zinc, tin and aluminium react with strong alkalies like NaOH (caustic soda), KOH (caustic potash)
to evolve hydrogen gas.
Zn  s   2NaOH  aq  
 Na 2 ZnO 2  aq   H 2  g 
Sodium zincate
Sn  s   2NaOH  aq  
 Na 2SnO 2  aq   H 2  g 
Sodium stannite
2Al  s   2NaOH  2H 2O 
 2NaAlO2  aq   3H 2  g 
Sodium meta aluminate
(ii) Action with non-metallic oxides

Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water, similarly bases react with oxides of non-metals to form
salt and water, e.g.
2NaOH  aq   CO2  g  
 Na 2CO3  aq   H 2O  l 
Ca  OH 2  s   SO2  g  
 CaSO3  aq   H 2O  l 
Ca  OH 2  s   CO2  g  
 CaCO3  s   H 2 O  l 
The process of dissolution of an acid or a base in water is highly exothermic. The acid must always be added
slowly to water in a thin stream with constant stirring. If water is added to concentrated acid, the heat generated
may cause the mixture to splash out and cause burns. The glass container may also break due to excessive
local heating.
To sum up
(i) Acids can release H+ ions only in aqueous solution.
(ii) Bases can release OH– ions only in aqueous solution
(iii) Hydration helps in the release of ions from acids and bases.
3.1 THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
In order to explain the behaviour of acids and bases, various theories have been proposed.
3.1.1 ARRHENIUS THEORY
This theory was developed by Swedish scientist, Savante Arrhenius around 1884. According to this theory
(i) When an acid or base is dissolved in water, it splits into ions. The process is called ionisation.
(ii) On adding more water (dilution), the ions get separated from each other. This is called dissociation.
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The fraction of acid or base molecules that dissociate into ions is called degree of dissociation. It is represented
by the greek letter alpha (). It is given by the relation.
No. of acid / base molecules dissociated
Degree of dissociation, α 
Total number of acid / base molecules present
The degree of dissociation depends on the nature of acid/base. Strong acids and strong bases undergo almost
complete dissociation and ‘  ’ is very nearly equal to 1.
Weak acids and weak bases are dissociated only to a lesser extent, therefore, the value of ‘  ’ is very small.
Since acids and bases contain ions in their aqueous solutions, they conduct electricity. Electric current is
carried by the movement of ions. The mobility of ions (ionic mobility) decide conductivity. Greater the ionic
mobility greater is the conductivity of acid or base.
We know that H+ ions cannot exist as such, but combines with water molecules to form H 3O 
 H3O
H   H 2 O 
The overall process when HCl dissolve in water is
 H 3O  Cl
HCl  H 2 O 
For any acid HA, the dissociation in water is represented as

HA  H2O  
 H3O  A

Similarly bases also dissociate in aqueous solution


NaOH  Na  aq   OH  aq 
water
 

NH 4OH  NH 4  aq   OH  aq 
water
 
For any base BOH, the dissociation in water is


BOH  B  aq   OH  aq 
water
 
In order to decide whether a substance is acidic or basic, its aqueous solution is considered. If a substance
produces H+ ions in aqueous solution, it is acidic and if it produces OH–, ions it is basic.
Limitations of Arrhenius theory
(i)It is applicable only to aqueous solutions. In order to exhibit acidic or basic properties, the presence of
water is absolutely necessary.
(ii)The concept does not explain the acidic or basic properties of acids or bases in non-aqueous solvents.
(iii)It could not explain the basic nature of compounds like NH3 , Na 2 CO3 , etc., which do not have OH– in
their molecules.
(iv)It fails to explain the acidic nature of non-protic compounds like SO 2 , P2 O5 , CO 2 , NO 2 , etc., which do
not have hydrogen in their molecules to fumish H+ ions.
(v)It fails to explain the acidic nature of certain salts like AlCl3 .
3.1.2 LOWRY BRONSTED THEORY
A better theory regarding behaviour of acids and bases was proposed by Bronsted in 1923. At about the same
time the same theory was also proposed independently by another scientist Lowry. Now a days the theory is
known as Lowry Bronsted theory or simply Bronsted theory.
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The theory differentiates acids and bases in terms of H+ ions alone.

Bronsted and Lowry concept of acids and bases
According to Bronsted and Lowry concept, an acid is a substance, (molecule or ion) which has a tendency to
release proton and a base is a substance that accepts proton.
Bronsted and Lowry theory is also known as proton donor and proton acceptor theory.
Consider the dissolution of HCl in water.
 H 3O  Cl
HCl  H 2 O 
In this process, HCl acts as an acid because it donates a proton to the water molecule. Water, on the other
hand, behaves as a base by accepting a proton.
When acetic acid and ammonium salts dissolve in water

CH3COOH  H2O  
 CH3COO  H3O


NH4  H2O  NH3  H3O

Water act as a base by accepting H+.

Dissolution of ammonia in water. On dissolving NH3, water acts as acid (proton, H+, donor), and NH3 acts
as base.
 NH 4   OH 
NH3  H 2 O 
Thus, water can donate as well as accept H+ and hence it can act as both acid and base.
Species like H 2 O, NH3 , CH 3COOH , etc., which can act as both acid and base are called amphiprotic.
Conjugate acid and Conjugate base
Acetic acid dissolves in water to form CH3COO– and H3O+ ions
 CH3COO  H3O
CH3COOH  H2O 
Here, acetic acid is the proton donor (acid) and water is the proton acceptor (base), but when CH3COO– and
H3O+ interact, CH 3COO  is H+ acceptor (base) and H 3O  is H+ donor (acid).
 CH3COO 
CH3COOH  H 2O  H 3O 
Acid Base Conjugate base Conjugate acid
CH3COOH, on donating the proton, becomes CH3COO–, a proton acceptor (base), therefore, CH3COO–
is known as conjugate base of the acid, CH3COOH. Similarly, on accepting H+ ion, H2O becames H3O+, a
proton donor (acid), therefore, H3O+ is the conjugate acid of the base H2O.
Such pairs of species like CH3COOH and CH3COO–, H2O and H3O+, etc., which differ by an H+ ion are
called conjugate acid base pair or conjugate pair.
Merits of Bronsted Lowry theory
(i) Besides water, any other solvent which has the tendency to accept or lose a proton may decide the acidic
or basic behaviour of the dissolved substance.
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(ii) This theory states that the terms acid and base are comparative. A substance may act as an acid in one
solvent, while as a base in another solvent, e.g., acetic acid acts as an acid in water while as a base in HF.
Demerits of Bronsted Lowry theory
It cannot account for acid base reactions that proceed without H+ transfer.
CaO  CO 2 
 CaCO3
3.1.3 LEWIS THEORY
In 1921, G. N Lewis put forth a more general definition of acids and bases. According to this theory, an acid
is a species which can accept a pair of electrons, while a base is one which can donate a pair of electrons.
It is also known as electron pair donor and electron pair acceptor theory.
According to this theory, electron deficient molecules such as AlCl3 , BF3 , CH 3 , FeCl3 , etc., are also acids.
The central atom in these compounds do not have octet of electrons in their outermost orbits. They need two
more electrons to complete octet. Hence they act as electron pair acceptors. Such substances are called
Lewis acids. In NH3, the octet is complete for nitrogen atom, but only six electrons are involved in sharing
with hydrogen atoms (3 e– from N and 3e– from 3 H atoms). Two electrons of N atom (lone pair) are not
involved in sharing. This lone pair of electron can be donated to other species. Thus, NH3 molecule can act as
electron pair donor. Such substances are called Lewis bases.
BF3 + NH3 
 BF3 NH3
Acid Base
Other examples are H 2 O, CH 3OH, CH 3 NH 2 , etc.

Thus, Lewis definition does not attribute acidity/basicity to any particular element but rather to unique electronic
arrangement in a molecule.
(i) Characteristics of species which act as Lewis acids
(a) Molecules in which the central atom has incomplete octet, e.g., electron deficient molecules such as BF3,
AlCl3, GaCl3, etc.
(b) Molecules in which the central atom has empty d-orbitals : The central atom in halides such as
TiCl4 , SnCl4 , PCl3 , SF4 , TeCl4 , etc., have vacant d-orbitals. These can, therefore, accept an electron pair
and act as Lewis acids.
(c) Simple cations : All cations are expected to act as Lewis acids, since they are electron deficient in nature.
(d) Molecules having multiple bonds between atoms of dissimilar electronegativity, e.g., CO 2 , SO 2 and SO3 .
(ii) Characteristics of species which act as Lewis bases
(a) Neutral species having at least one lone pair of electrons, e.g., ammonia, amines, alcohols, etc, act as
Lewis bases as they contain a pair of electrons (lone pair).
(b) Negatively charged species or simple anions, e.g., chloride (Cl–), cyanide (CN–), hydroxide (OH–), etc.,
act as Lewis bases.
(c) Multiple bonded compounds, e.g., compounds such as CO, NO, ethylene, acetylene, etc.
All Bronsted bases are also Lewis bases, but all Lewis acids are not Bronsted acids.
Limitation of Lewis theory
Lewis theory fails to explain the relative strength of acids and bases.
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4.1 NEUTRALISATION
The reaction between acid and base in aqueous solution to form salt and water is called neutralisation.
HCl  aq   NaOH  aq  
 NaCl  aq   H 2O  l 
Essentially, neutralisation is the combination of H+ ions of the acid with OH– ions of the base to form H2O.
H  aq   Cl  aq   Na   aq   OH  aq  
 Na   aq   Cl  aq   H2O  l 
On cancelling ions common to both sides, the equation reduces to
H   aq   OH   aq    H 2O  l 
Neutralisation involving acid and base is exothermic, i.e., heat is evolved. If both acids and bases are strong,
the amount of heat liberated remains the same irrespective of their nature.
HCl  aq  NaOH  aq  
 NaCl  aq   H 2O  l   57.1kJ
Strong acid Strong base
HNO3  aq  KOH  aq  
 KNO3  aq   H 2O  l   57.1kJ
Since strong acids and strong bases are completely ionised in solution, no energy is needed for their ionisation.
H  aq   Cl  aq   Na   aq   OH  aq  
 Na   aq   Cl  aq   H2O  l  +57.1kJ
The cation of base and anion of acid on both sides of the equation cancel out completely, the heat evolved is
given by the following reaction.
H   aq   OH   aq  
 H 2 O  l   57.1kJ
Thus, heat of neutralisation of strong acid with strong base is 57.1kJ. Decrease in energy released in the case
of weak acids/weak bases is utilised for ionisation of the weak acid or weak base.
Applications of Neutralisation
i) Acidity in the stomach is due to excessive release of gastric juice (containing HCl). The acid can be neutralised
by using antacids which contain mild bases like sodium hydrogen carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, etc.
ii) Sting of bees and ants contain formic acid. Its corrosive and poisonous effect can be neutralised by rubbing
the affected part with soap (containing alkali).
iii) The sting of wasps contain an alkali. Its poisonous effect can be neutralised by vinegar (dil. acetic acid).
iv) Acidity of soil can be removed by adding slaked lime (calcium hydroxide).
Tests for Acidity and Alkalinity
Acidic, basic or neutral solutions can be tested using indicators like litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein.
They can be ascertained more accurately on the basis of ionisation.
Ionisation Constants of acids and bases
Acids and bases undergo ionisation aqueous medium. Those acids and bases that undergo complete ionisation
are called strong acids and strong bases. Those that undergo partial ionisation are called weak acids or weak
bases. The strength of a weak acid or weak base depends on its degree of ionisation. It is measured by the
dissociation constant of the acid, Ka for acids and dissociation constant of base, Kb for bases. Dissociation
constant of acid or base is the ratio between concentration of ions produced by the acid/base and concentration
of acid/base remaining unionised. Greater the value of Ka or Kb stronger the acid/base.
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4.2 INDICATORS
An acid base indicator is a substance which indicates the presence of acidic, basic or neutral substance either
by change in colour or odour. For example, Litmus is an indicator which is red in an acidic solution and blue in
basic solution.
1. Litmus is a purple coloured natural dye extracted from a plant called lichen.
2. Extract of red cabbage leaves, petals of coloured flowers (hydrangea, petunia, and geranium), turmeric,
etc., act as acid-base indicators.
The anthocyanin, petunin changes from reddish purple in acid solution to violet in basic solution. Geranium
contains the anthocyanin pelargonin which changes from orange-red in acidic solution to blue in basic solution.
4.2.1 TYPES OF ACID-BASE INDICATORS
1. Olfactory indicators
Substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic solutions are called olfactory indicators, e,g., raw onion,
vanilla extract, clove oil, etc.
Just as visual indicators change their colour in respone to acidic or basic solution, olfactory indicators change
their odour or odour intensity with change in acidic or basic nature of solution. For example, odour of onion is
eliminated in strongly basic solution.
2. Visual indicators
These are indicators which indicate the presence of acid or base in aqueous solution by colour change. Litmus,
methyl orange and phenolphthalein are examples.
4.2.2 Action of Acids and Bases with Indicators
i) Litmus
Aqueous solution of acid changes blue litmus red. However red litmus is not affected by acids.
Aqueous solution of base changes red litmus blue. However, bases do not affect blue litmus.
ii) Phenolphthalein
An acidic solution does not change the colour of phenolphthalein, i.e., it remains colourless.
Phenolphthalein turns pink when added to a basic solution.
iii) Methyl orange
An acidic solution changes the golden yellow colour of methyl orange to red or pink.
Bases do not change the colour of methyl orange.
Action of Base on various Indicators. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) changes blue litmus red, does not affect
phenolphthalein, gives pink colour with methyl orange, and yellow colour with turmeric solution.
Action of Base on different Indicators. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) changes red litmus blue, does not
affect methyl orange, gives pink colour with phenolphthalein, and reddish brown colour with turmeric solution.
(iv) Universal indicator.
It is a mixture of indicator dyes which gives different colours depending on the acidic and/or basic strength of
the solution. For example, a universal indicator gives green colour in neutral solution (pH = 7). The colour
changes from blue to indigo to violet as pH increases from 7 to 14. In acidic solution, colour changes from
yellow to pink and red as pH decreases from 7 to 1.
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4.3 Ionisation Constant of water and its ionic product

Water is the solvent for acids, bases and reactions involving them. Water itself can act as both acid and base.
In pure water, a very small amount undergoes ionisation. The degree of ionisation of pure water is very small
and produces 10–7 mol L–1 [H+] ions and 10–7 mol L–1 [OH–] ions at 298 K. The ratio between concentration
of ions produced by water to the concentration of unionised water is called ionisation constant of water Ka.
The product of concentration of H+ ions and OH– ions in water is called ionic product of water Kw. It’s value,
1×10–14 mol2 L–2at 25oC.
On adding acid to water, concentration of H3O+ increases (acidic nature increases) and that of OH– decreases,
but Kw remains constant. When an alkali is added, concentration of OH– increases and that of H3O+ decreases
so that Kw remains constant.
4.4 pH (POWER OF HYDROGEN)
In 1909, Danish chemist Sorensen devised a scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution,
called pH scale. The ‘p’ of pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning power. The hydrogen ion concentration
of most of the aqueous solutions are expressed in negative powers of 10. Using Sorensen’s pH scale, these
values can be converted to simple positive figures.
The pH of a solution is the negative logaritham (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per
litre. pH has no units (it is a mere number).
1
pH  log or pH   log [H  ]
[H  ]
Conversely, we can find out the hydrogen ion concentration, if we know the pH value.
Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value and vice versa. We can measure pH generally
from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).
Generally paper impregnated with universal indicator is used for measuring pH directly.
1. pH of Pure Water
The concentration of hydrogen ions in pure water is 10–7 M which means [H+] = 10–7
pH = –log [H+] = –log [10–7] = –[–7] or pH = 7  log10 7
 7 
Thus, pH of pure water is 7. Whenever the pH of a solution is 7, it will be neutral. Such a solution will have no
effect on litmus solution or any other indicator.
2. pH of an Acidic Solution
Let the concentration of [H+] in an acidic solution be 10–3 M, then
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pH of the solution   log  H     log 10 3     3  3

Thus pH of 10–3 M H+ ion solution is 3. Whenever the pH of a solution is less than 7, it will be acidic. It will turn
blue litmus red and phenolphthalein solution remains colourless.
3. pH of Alkaline Solution
The formula for calculating pH uses hydrogen ion concentration, therefore, we have to calculate the hydrogen
ion concentration of the alkaline solution in order to calculate pH. This can be done by using the formula for the
ionic product of water.
K w  [H  ]  [OH  ] or  10 14 M 2 [ 1M  mol / L ]

Consider, the concentration of hydroxide ions, [OH–] = 10–3 M
1014
Thus, 10–14 = [H+] × 10–3 or [H  ]   1011 M
103
Therefore, the concentration of H+ in this alkaline solution is 10–11 M.
pH of this alkaline solution = –log [H+] = –log [10–11] = – [–11] = 11
All alkaline solutions have pH more than 7. Whenever a solution has pH of more than 7, it is alkaline and it will
turn red litmus blue and colourless phenolphthalein solution pink.
An acid solution having low pH value is stronger than one having higher pH value, e.g., a solution of pH of 2
is a stronger acid than a solution having pH 5. It is just the opposite in the case of alkaline solutions. An alkaline
solution having higher pH value is a stronger alkali than a solution having low pH value e.g., a solution of pH 12
is a stronger alkali than a solution of pH 10.
Table -10 pH values of some common substances
No. Solution pH No. Solution pH
1 Hydrochloric acid (1M) 0 14 Urine 5.5 - 7.5
2 Battery acid (4.8 - 5.2M H2SO4) 0.5 15 Saliva 6.5 - 7.5
3 Dilute hydrochloric acid 1.0 16 Blood 7.3 - 7.5
4 Gastric juices (in stomach) 1.0 - 3.0 17 Egg 7.8
5 Lemon juice 2.2 - 2.4 18 Baking soda solution 8.4
6 Vinegar 2.4 -3.4 19 Sea-water 8.5
7 Soft drinks 3 20 Washing soda solution 9.0
8 Wine 2.8 - 3.8 21 Lime-water 10.5
9 Oranges 3.6 22 Milk of magnesia [Mg(OH)2] 10.5
10 Tomato juice 4.0 - 4.4 23 1 M ammonium hydroxide 11.6
11 Beer 4.0 - 5.0 24 Dilute sodium hydroxide 13
12 Coffee 4.5 - 5.5 25 1 M sodium hydroxide 14
13 Milk 6.5 26 Rain water 5.6
4.4.1 Significance of pH in Daily Life
Plants and animals are pH sensitive. The human body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Living
organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH.
i. pH in our digestive system. Dilute hydrochloric acid produced in our stomach helps the digestion of food.
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However, excess of acid (pH decreases) causes indigestion and leads to pain and irritation. The excessive acid
can be neutralised with the help of antacids. Antacids are usually basic compounds. A popular antacid is ‘Milk
of Magnesia’ which is insoluble magnesium hydroxide. Aluminium hydroxide and sodium hydrogen carbonate
are also used. Antacids bring the pH of the system back to its normal value.
ii. pH Blood. The pH of human blood varies between 7.36 to 7.42. It is maintained by the soluble bicarbonates
and carbonic acid present in the blood.
iii. pH change as the cause of tooth decay. Tooth decay starts when the pH inside the mouth becomes less
than 5.5. Tooth enamel is made up of hydroxyapatite, a crystalline form of calcium phosphate, the hardest
substance in the human body. It does not dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is below
5.5. Bacteria in the mouth produce acids by the degradation of sugar and other food particles. The best way
to prevent tooth decay is to clean the mouth after taking food. Use of toothpastes, which are generally basic,
can neutralise excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
iv. Self defence by animals and plants. Sting of bees and ants leaves an acid (methanoic acid or formic
acid) which causes pain and irritation. Use of mild base like baking soda (or soap) on the stung area gives
relief. Similarly, the effect of sting by wasps (containing alkali) is neutralised by the application of vinegar which
is dilute solution of ethanoic acid (acetic acid). Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid causing
burning pain.
v. Soil pH and plant growth. The growth of plants and the pH of soil are also related. Different plants prefer
different pH range for their growth. Therefore, it is quite important to provide the soil with proper pH. Soils
with high iron minerals or vegetable matter (wood, etc.) tend to become acidic. The soil pH can reach as low
as 4. The acidic effect can be neutralised by ‘liming the soil’ which is carried by adding calcium hydroxide.
These are basic in nature and have neutralising effect.
Similarly, soil with excess of lime stone or chalk is usually alkaline. Its pH may reach as high as 8.3 and is quite
harmful for plant growth. In order to reduce the alkaline effect, decaying organic matter (compost or manure)
can be added. The soil pH is also affected by acid rain and the use of fertilizers.
vi. Acid Rain. When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. This contain acids like sulphuric
acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid etc. which are formed from atmospheric pollutants such as sulphur dioxides,
oxides of nitrogen etc.When acid rain reaches rivers, it lowers the pH of the river water. The survival of
aquatic life in such water bodies becomes difficult.
5.0 SALTS
Salt is a compound formed by the partial or total replacement of the ionisable hydrogen atoms of an acid by
metallic or ammonium ions.
Na 2CO3  HCl 
 NaHCO3  NaCl
Sodium carbonate Sodium hydrogen carbonate
NaHCO3  HCl 
 NaCl  H 2O  CO 2
Thus, salt is an ionic compound which dissociates in water to yield a positive ion other than hydrogen ion (H+)
and a negative ion other than hydroxyl ion (OH–).
NaCl   Na  (aq)  Cl (aq)

A salt is a compound formed by the neutralisation of an acid with a base. H+ ions from acid and OH– ions from
base combine to form water. The anion from acid and the cation from base combine to form salt.
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HCl(aq)  NaOH(aq) 
 NaCl(aq)  H 2O(l )  57.1 kJ
HNO3 (aq)  KOH(aq) 

 KNO3 (aq)  H 2O(l )  57.1kJ
Strong acid base
Neutralisation is an exothermic reaction (heat is evolved). If both acid and base are strong, the value of heat
evolved remains the same (57.1 kJ mol–1). Strong acids and strong bases are completely ionised in solution,
therefore, no energy is needed for their ionisation.
H  (aq)  Cl (aq)  Na  (aq)  OH  (aq) 

 Na  (aq)  Cl  (aq)  H 2O(l )  57.1 kJ
Since cation of base and anion of acid on both sides of the equation cancel out completely, the net reaction is
the formation of one molecule of undissociated water.
H  (aq)  OH  (aq) 
 H 2O(l )  57.1 kJ
The heat evolved, 57.1 kJ, is the heat of neutralisation. This can also be considered as the heat evolved
when 1 mole of H+ ions combine with 1 mole of OH– ions to form 1 mole of water, i.e., 57.1 kJ is the heat of
formation of H2O from H+ ions and OH– ions.
5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SALTS
5.1.1 Classification of salts is based on their mode of formation
1.Normal Salts
The salts obtained by the complete replacement of ionisable hydrogen atoms of an acid by metallic or ammonium
ions are known as normal salts. For example, NaCl and Na2SO4 (normal salts) are formed by the complete
replacement of ionisable hydrogen atoms of HCl and H2SO4 respectively.
HCl  NaOH 
 NaCl  H 2O
Sodium Chloride
(Normal salt)
H 2SO 4  2NaOH 
 Na 2SO4  2H 2O
Sodium sulphate
(Normalsalt)
No. Parent Acid Normal Salts

1 Hydrochloric acid (HCl) NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, AlCl3 , ZnCl2, CaCl2, NH4 Cl
2 Nitric acid (HNO3 ) NaNO 3, KNO3, Mg(NO 3 )2, Al(NO 3)3 , Zn(NO3 )2 , Ca(NO 3)2
3 Sulphuric acid (H2SO 4 ) Na2 SO 4, K 2SO 4 , MgSO 4, Al2(SO 4 )3, ZnSO 4 , CaSO 4
4 Acetic acid (CH3 COOH) CH3COONa, (CH3COO)2Ca, (CH3COO)2Pb, CH3COONH4
5 Carbonic acid (H2CO3) Na2 CO3 , K 2 CO3 , MgCO 3 , ZnCO 3, CaCO 3 , (NH4 )2CO3
6 Sulphurous acid (H2 SO 3) Na2 SO 3, K 2SO 3 , MgSO 3, ZnSO3, CaSO 3, (NH4)2SO 3
7 Phosphoric acid (H3PO 4) Na3 PO 4, K 3PO 4 , Mg3(PO4 )2 , Zn3 (PO 4)2, Ca3 (PO 4)2, (NH4)3 PO 4
2. Acid Salts
Salts obtained by the partial replacement of ionisable hydrogen atoms of a polybasic acid by a metal or
ammonium ion are known as acid salts.
These are usually formed when insufficient amount of base is used the neutralisation of the acid. For example,
when insufficient amount of NaOH is taken to neutralise H2SO4, we get an acid salt NaHSO4.
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H 2SO4  NaOH 
 NaHSO4  H 2O
(Insufficient quantity) Sodium hydrogen sulphate
(Acid salt)
Acid salts ionise in aqueous solution to produce hydronium ions (H3O+), therefore, they exhibit all the properties
of acids.
Table - 07 Examples of Acid Salts and their Parent Acids
No. Parent Acid Acid Salts
1 Sulphuric acid (H2SO 4) NaHSO 4 , KHSO 4 , Ca(HSO 4)2
2 Carbonic acid (H2CO3 ) NaHCO 3, KHCO 3 , Ca(HCO3 )2, Mg(HCO 3)2
3 Sulphorus acid (H2 SO 3) NaHSO 3 , KHSO 3 , Ca(HSO 3)2 , Mg(HSO 3)2
4 Phosphoric acid (H3 PO 4) NaH2 PO 4, Na2HPO 4, KH2PO 4 , K 2 HPO4 , Ca(H2PO 4 )2, CaHPO 4
3. Basic Salts. The salts formed by the partial replacement of hydroxyl (–OH) groups of a di or a triacidic
base by acid radicals are known as basic salts.
These are usually formed when insufficient quantity of acid is used for the neutralisation of base. For example,
when insufficient amount of HCl is added to lead hydroxide, basic lead chloride [Pb(OH)Cl] is formed.
Pb(OH) 2  HCl 
 Pb(OH)Cl  H 2O
Lead hydroxide Basic Lead chloride
(Diacidic base) (Basicsalt)
Basic salts, for example, Pb(OH)Cl further reacts with HCl to form normal salts
Pb(OH)Cl  HCl 
 PbCl2  H 2O
Basic Lead Chloride Lead chloride
(Basicsalts) (Normalsalt)
Examples
(i) Basic copper chloride, Cu(OH)Cl
(ii) Basic copper nitrate, Cu(OH)NO3
(iii) Basic lead nitrate, Pb(OH)NO3
4. Double Salts
A salt obtained by crystallisation from a saturated solution of a mixture of two simple salts is known as double
salt. For example, the double salt, potash alum [K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3.24H2O] is prepared by mixing saturated
solutions of two simple salts, K2SO4 and Al2(SO4)3 and crystallisation from the mixture.
Crystallisation
K 2SO4  Al2 (SO 4 )3  24H 2O 
 K 2SO 4 .Al 2 (SO 4 )3 .24H 2O
Potassium sulphate Aluminium sulphate Potash alum (Double salt)
Examples
(i) Mohr’s Salt, FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O
(ii) Dolomite, CaCO3. MgCO3
(iii) Carnallite, KCl. MgCl2.6H2O
5. Mixed Salts
The salts which contain more than one type of acidic or basic radicals are called mixed salts. For example,
Sodium potassium carbonate (NaKCO3) is a mixed salt containing two basic radicals, sodium and potassium.
Similarly, calcium oxychloride, Ca(OCl)Cl is a mixed salt containing two acid radicals, OCl– and Cl–.
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Examples
(i) Sodium potassium sulphate, NaKSO4
(ii) Disodium potassium phosphate, Na2KPO4
6. Complex Salts
These are salts which on dissociation give one or more simple ions and one complex ion.

[Ag(NH 3 ) 2 ]Cl  Cl  + [Ag(NH 3 ) 2 ]+
Complex salt Simple ion Complex ion
Example : Sodium argentocyanide. Na[Ag (CN)2]
5.1.2 Classification of salts based on nature of acid and base forming the salt
We know that salts are formed by the neutralisation of acid with a base. The acid and base involved in salt
formation can be either strong or weak. Depend on whether the acid and base involved in salt formmation are
strong or weak there are four different types of salts.
(i) Salt of strong acid and weak base : FeCl3, CuCl2, AlCl3, NH4Cl, CuSO4, (NH4)2SO4, etc.
(ii) Salt of strong base and weak acid : CH3COONa, NaCN, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, CH3COOK, etc.
(iii) Salt of weak acid and weak base : CH3COONH4, (NH4)2CO3, NH4HCO3, etc.
(iv) Salt of strong acid and strong base : NaCl, K2SO4, NaNO3, NaBr, etc.
5.2 HYDRATED SALTS
Salts containing a definite number of water molecules are known as hydrated salts. These are crystaline in
nature and the water molecules present are known as water of crystallisation.
In coloured crystalline hydrated salts, water of crystallisation also account for their characteristic colours, e.g.,
CuSO4.5H2O (blue vitriol), FeSO4.7H2O (green vitriol), CoCl2.6H2O (red crystalline; anhydrous salt is blue)
BaCl2.2H2O(colourless crystalline), etc.
When a hydrated salt is heated, its colour changes since molecules of water of crystallisation are removed and
the salt becomes anhydrous. For example, crystals of blue vitriol (hydrated copper sulphate) when heated in a
dry test tube changes to a white anhydrous powder and water droplets appear on the walls of the tube.

CuSO 4 .5H 2O 
 CuSO 4  5H 2O
Copper sulphate (hydrated) Copper sulphate (an hydrous)
On cooling and adding a few drops of water, the white anhydrous powder again acquires blue colour.
5.3 PROPERTIES OF SALTS
i) Salts are electrovalent compounds. They conduct electricity in the molten state as well as in aqueous solutions
(due to dissociation into ions).
ii) Salts are non-volatile solids that form crystals.
iii) Most of the salts are soluble in water. Their solubilities vary with temperature.
If at least 1g of a salt dissolves in 100 mL of water at 298 K, it is called a soluble salt. If only 0.1 g to 1g of salt
dissolves in 100 mL of water at 298 K, it is called a sparingly soluble salt.
5.3.1 Efflorescence
It is the property by which some salts lose their water of crystallisation, wholly or partly, when exposed to dry
air and become powdery. For example,
i) Washing soda, Na 2 CO3 .10H 2O 
dry air
 Na 2 CO 3 .H 2 O  9H 2 O
ii) Glauber’s salt (hydrated sodium sulphate), Na 2SO 4 .10H 2 O 
dry air
 Na 2SO 4  10H 2 O
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iii) Epsom salt (magnesium sulphate heptahydrate), MgSO 4 .7H 2 O 

dry air
 MgSO 4 .H 2 O  6H 2 O
5.3.2 Hygroscopy
It is the property by which salts absorb moisture from the atmosphere without dissolving in it.
Examples : i) Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), ii) Quick lime (CaO), iii) Silica gel (SiO2), etc.
5.3.3 Deliquescence
The phenomenon by which substances absorb moisture from the air and dissolves in it.
Examples : i) Magnesium chloride (MgCl2), ii) Calcium chloride (CaCl2), iii) Ferric chloride (FeCl3),
iv) Zinc chloride (ZnCl2), etc.
5.4 SALT HYDROLYSIS
The reaction of acid with base forming salt and water is neutralisation. When salt react with water and produce
acid and base the reaction is called salt hydrolysis. Thus, salt hydrolysis is the reverse of neutralistion.
 salt  water
Acid  base 
neutralisation
salt hydrolysis
In aqueous solution, all salts do not undergo hydrolysis. Only salts of weak acids and weak bases hydrolyse.
Aqueous solutions of salts that do not hydrolyse are neutral. Salt formed between strong acid and strong base
do not hydrolyse hence they are neutral. Examples are NaCl, KNO3, etc.
Solutions of salts that undergo hydrolysis are either acidic or basic. The acidic and basic nature of solution is
decided by the weak acid or weak base involved in salt formation.
When the salt is formed between weak base and strong acid (e.g., NH4Cl), the salt solution is acidic. This is
because the cation of the salt is from weak base and it removes OH– ions from water. The solution contains
excess H+ ions and is acidic.
 Fe  OH 3  3HCl
FeCl  3H 2O 
3
Ferric chloride Weak base Strong acid
 Cu  OH 2  H 2SO 4
CuSO  2H 2 O 
4
Cupric sulphate Weak base Strong acid
Similarly, in the case of salt between strong base and weak acid (e.g., Na2CO3), the aqueous solution is basic.
Here the anion of the salt is from weak acid and it removes H+ ions from water. The solution contains excess
OH– ions and is basic.
Na CO  2H 2 O 
2 3  2NaOH  H 2CO3
Sodium carbonate Strong base Weak acid
CH 3COONa  H 2 O 
 CH3COOH  NaOH
Sodium acetate Weak acid Strong base
If the salt is formed between weak acid and weak base (e.g., CH3COONH4, ammonium acetate), the aqueous
solution is expected to be neutral. This is because both anion and cation of the salt are from weak acid and
weak base. Both ions together should remove equal number of H+ ions and OH– ions froms solution and the
solution should be neutral. The acidic or basic nature of such a solution is decided by the Ka and Kb values of
the acid and base forming the salt.
When Ka = Kb the salt solution is neutral
When Ka > Kb the solution is acidic
When Ka < Kb the solution is basic
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Degree of Hydrolysis of salt and hydrolysis constant

The extent to which hydrolysis occurs is different for different salts It depends on the degree of hydrolysis of
salt.
Number of salt molecules undergoing hydrolysis
The degree of hydrolysis h 
Number of salt molecules present in solution
The extent of hydrolysis is expressed in terms of a constant known as hydrolysis constant represented by Kh.
Kh is the ratio between the concentration of products of hydrolysis and concentration of unhydrolysed salt. It
is characteristic of the salt at a given temperature.
The acidic or basic strength of the salt solution is decided by its pH. pH of the salt solution depends on
concentration of salt, Ka value of the acid, and Kb value of the base forming the salt.
SOME IMPORTANT SALTS
6.1 SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCl) COMMON SALT OR TABLE SALT
The word ‘salt’ is synonymous with sodium chloride. Its common name is table salt. Sea water is the major
source of sodium chloride where it is present in the dissolved form along with other soluble salts such as
chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. Deposits of salt, known as rock salt are found in different
parts of the world.
When pure, it is a white crystalline solid, but very often it is brown due to the presence of impurities.
Essential for life. Sodium chloride is essential for biological functions such as muscle contraction, conduction
of nervous impulses, etc. It is converted to hydrochloric acid which helps digestion of food in the stomach.
Loss of sodium chloride by excessive sweating may cause muscle cramps. Its loss should be compensated
suitably by giving a salt preparation to the patient. Electral powder is an important substitute of common salt.
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution of NaCl
In aqueous solution, NaCl produces Na+ ions and Cl– ions
 Na  (aq)  Cl  (aq)
NaCl(s) 
Chloride (Cl–) ions discharge at the anode to form Cl2 gas.
2Cl (aq) 
 Cl2 (g)  2e  (anode reaction)
At the cathode two electrons are accepted by 2H2O molecules to form H2 gas and OH– ions.
2H 2 O(l )  2e  
 2OH  (aq)  H 2 (g) (cathode reaction)
Na+ ions and OH– ions in aqueous solution combine to form NaOH.
Na  (aq)  OH  (aq) 
 NaOH(aq)
The overall reaction can be written as
2NaCl(aq)  2H 2 O(l ) 
Electrolysis
 2NaOH(aq)  Cl 2 (g)  H 2 (g)
Uses of Sodium Chloride
(i) It is a raw material for the preparation of NaOH, HCl, washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O), baking soda
(NaHCO3), sodium metal, etc.
(ii) It is used in leather industry for the leather tanning.
(iii) In winter, salt is spread (springled) on icy roads to melt ice.
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(iv) It is also used as a fertilizer for sugar beet.

6.2 SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH)
Preparation. Sodium hydroxide is prepared by electrolysing a concentrated solution of sodium chloride
(brine) in a Castner - Kellner cell (Mercury cathode cell). The following reactions occur.
 2Na   2Cl
2NaCl 
2Cl 
 Cl2  2e  (anode reaction)
2Na   2Hg  2e  
 2NaHg (cathode reaction)
Sodium ama lg am
2NaHg  2H 2 O 
 2NaOH  H 2  2Hg
In the chlor-alkali process, sodium hydroxide is obtained when electricity is passed through an aqueous solution
of sodium chloride (brine).
2NaCl(aq) + 2H 2 O(l ) 
 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2 (g) + H 2 (g)
Chlorine gas is evolved at the anode, and hydrogen gas at the cathode. Sodium hydroxide solution is formed
near the cathode.
Uses of Sodium hydroxide

(i) It is used in soaps, detergents, paper and silk industries
(ii) It is used in refining of petroleum
(iii) It is used as a laboratory reagent
(iv) It is used in dye industry
(v) It is used in concentration of bauxite ore
6.3 WASHING SODA
Washing soda is sodium carbonate decahydrate, Na2CO3.10H2O.
It is manufactured by the Solvay ammonia-soda process. A saturated solution of sodium chloride in water
(brine) is saturated with ammonia and then carbon dioxide gas is passed through it. Sodium chloride is converted
to sodium bicarbonate which, being less soluble, precipitates.
2NH 3 (g)  H 2 O(l )  CO 2 (g) 
 (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 (aq)
(NH 4 ) 2 CO3 (aq)  2NaCl(aq) 

 Na 2 CO3 (aq)  2NH 4 Cl(aq)
132
Na 2 CO 3 (aq)  H 2 O(l )  CO 2 (g) 

 2NaHCO 3 (s)
Sodium bicarbonate is ignited to get sodium carbonate.

2NaHCO3 (s)   Na 2 CO 3 (s)  CO 2 (g)  H 2 O
Sodium carbonate is recrystallized by dissolving in water to get washing soda
Na 2CO3  10H 2O 
 Na 2CO3 .10H 2O
Sodium carbonate Washingsoda
Anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is called Soda ash.

(b) Uses of Washing soda
(i) It is used as a domestic cleaning agent.
(ii) It is used in softening of hard water and controlling the pH of water.
(iii) It is used in the manufacture of glass.
(iv) Due to its detergent properties, it is used as a constituent of soap powders.
(v) It finds use in photography.
(v) It is used in textile and paper industries.
(vi) It is used in the manufacture of borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O)
6.4 BAKING SODA
Baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
(a) Preparation. It is obtained as an intermediate product in the preparation of sodium carbonate by Solvay
process. In this process, a saturated solution of sodium chloride in water is saturated with ammonia and then
carbon dioxide gas is passed into the solution. Sodium chloride is converted into sodium bicarbonate which,
being less soluble, separates out from the solution.
300  310K
NaCl(aq)  NH 3 (g)  H 2 O(l )  CO 2 (g)   NaHCO3 (s)  NH 4 Cl(aq)
(b) Properties
(i) It is a white, crystalline substance that forms an alkaline solution with water. The aqueous solution of
sodium bicarbonate does not change the colour of methyl orange but gives pink colour with phenolphthalein.
(ii) When heated above 543 K, it is converted sodium carbonate.

2NaHCO3 (s)   Na 2 CO 3 (s)  CO 2 (g)  H 2 O
(c) Uses of Baking soda
(i) It is used in the manufacture of baking powder (mixture of potassium hydrogen tartrate and sodium
bicarbonate). During the preparation of bread, evolution of CO2 causes bread to rise (leavening agent).
(ii) It is used in the treatment of acid spillage and in medicine as soda bicarb, which acts as an antacid.
(iii) It is used in textile, tanning, paper and ceramic industries.
(iv) It is also used in a particular type of the extinguisher. In a Soda-Acid Fire Extinguisher, NaHCO3 reacts
with H2SO4 to produce a spray (jet) of CO2 and water which extinguishes fire.
2NaHCO3 (aq)  H 2SO 4 (aq) 
 Na 2SO 4 (aq)  2CO 2 (g)  2H 2 O(l )
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6.5 BLEACHING POWDER

Bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) is commercially called ‘chloride of lime’ or ‘chlorinated lime’.
(a) Preparation. Bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine over slaked lime at 313 K.
2Ca(OH) 2  2Cl 2 (g) 

 Ca(OCl) 2 (s)  CaCl 2  2H 2 O
Slaked lim e Bleaching
powder
Bleaching powder is not a compound but a mixture of compounds; Ca(OCl)2.CaCl2.Ca(OH)2.2H2O.

The bleaching action of bleaching powder is due to oxidation.
(a) Uses of Bleaching powder
(i) It was commonly used as a bleaching agent in paper and textile industries.
(ii) It is also used for disinfecting water to make it free from germs.
(iii) It is used to prepare chloroform.
(iv) It is also used to make wool shrink-proof.
6.6 PLASTER OF PARIS
(a) Preparation. It is prepared by heating gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) at about 373 K in large steel pots with
mechanical stirrer, or in a revolving furnace.
373K
2(CaSO4 .2H 2O)  (CaSO 4 )2 .H 2 O 3H 2O
Gypsum Plaster of Paris
The temperature is carefully controlled, as at higher temperature gypsum is fully dehydrated to dead burnt
plaster. The properties of deadburnt plaster are completely different from those of Plaster of Paris.
(b) Properties
(i) Action with water : When mixed with water, it gets crystallised and forms gypsum.
(CaSO 4 ) 2 .H 2 O  3H 2 O 
 2(CaSO 4 .2H 2 O)
Plaster of Paris Gypsum
(c) Uses. When Plaster of Paris is mixed with water, it quickly sets into a hard mass (gypsm). In this process,
its volume increases slightly.
(i) It is used in the laboratory for sealing gaps where airtight arrangement is required.
(ii) It is used for making toys, cosmetics and casts of statues.
(iii) It is used as a cast for setting broken bones.
(iv) It also finds use in making moulds in pottery.
(v) It is used for making surfaces smooth and for making designs on walls and ceilings.
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QUESTIONS
LEVEL I
1. The acid present in oranges is
A) acetic acid B) formic acid C) tartaric acid D) citric acid
2. A mineral acid among the following is
A) carbonic acid B) butyric acid C) acetic acid D) formic acid
3. Oil of vitriol is
A) HNO3 B) HCl C) H 2SO 4 D) H 3 PO 4
4. Example of a weak acid is
A) hydrochloric acid B) nitric acid C) carbonic acid D) sulphuric acid
5. How many H  ions does one molecule of CH 3COOH give in aqueous solution?
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4
6. A dibasic acid among the following is
A) HCl B) HCOOH C) H 2SO 4 D) H 3 PO 4
7. Hydrogen gas is liberated from dil.HCl by
A) Zn B) ZnO C) ZnCO3 D) NaHCO3
8. An example for weak alkali is
A) NaOH B) Ba  OH  2 C) KOH D) NH 4 OH
9. Calcium hydroxide is a
A) dibasic acid B) diacidic base C) monoacidic base D) triacidic base
10. The metal that displaces hydrogen gas from caustic soda is
A) Fe B) Mg C) Cu D) Zn
11. Lime water is turned milky due to dissolution of
A) CO 2 B) O2 C) H 2 D) CaO
12. According to Arrhenius theory, acids
A) produce H  ions in solution B) accept H  ions from solution
C) produce OH  ions in solution D) liberate H 2 gas from solution
13. Conjugate acid of NH3 is

A) NH 3 B) NH 4 OH C) N H 4 D) N2
14. Which among the following is not a Lewis acid?

A) BF3 B) AlCl3 C) C H 3 D) NH3
15. The reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water is termed as
A) oxidation B) precipitation C) combination D) neutralisation
135
16. One mole of acid reacts with one mole of base to liberate 57.1 kJ of heat. The reaction is between
A) weak acid × strong base B) strong acid × strong base
C) strong acid × weak base D) weak acid × weak base
17. Under what soil conditions will a farmer treat the soil of his fields with slaked lime
A) acidic B) basic
C) neutral D) amphoteric
18. Methyl orange is a
A) universal indicator B) visual indicator
C) olfactory indicator D) none of these
19. Red litmus is turned blue by an aqueous solution of
A) NaCl B) formic acid
C) washing soda D) lemon juice
20. Which of the following solutions will remain colourless with phenolphthalein indicator?
A) soap solution B) calcium hydroxide
C) vinegar D) baking soda
21. A solution did not give pink colour with phenolphathalein indicator, its pH is likely to be
A) 11 b) 8 C) 15 D) 4
22. If concentration of (H+) ions increases, what effect will it have on the pH of the solution?
A) pH of the solution increases
B) pH of the solution remains the same
C) depends on whether the solution is acidic or basic
D) pH of the solution decreases
23. Normal pH of rain water is 5.6 due to dissolution of atmospheric
A) nitrogen B) carbon monoxide
C) oxygen D) carbon dioxide
24. An aqueous solution of the salt is acidic in nature. Which of the following acids and bases react to give this salt?
A) strong acid and weak base B) weak acid and strong base
C) strong acid and strong base D) weak acid and weak base
25. A salt among the following is
A) NaOH B) CaO C) CO2 D) KCl
26. Which is an intermediate product in Solvay ammonia-soda process?
A) CaHCO3 B) Na2CO3 C) NaHCO3 D) NaCl
27. A salt used in soda-acid fire extinguisher is
A) Na2CO3 B) NaHCO3 C) CaCO3 D) MgCO3
28. The chemical formula of gypsum is
A) CaSO4.1/2H2O B) CaSO4.H2O
C) CaSO4.2H2O D) CaSO4.3H2O
136
LEVEL-II
1. An organic acid among the following is
A) formic acid B) nitric acid C) hydrochloric acid D) phosphoric acid
2. Curd is sour due to the presence of
A) citric acid B) oxalic acid C) lactic acid D) oleic acid
3. The acid that gives only one salt with NaOH is
A) HCl B) H 2 CO3 C) H 2 C2 O4 D) H 2SO 4
4. Which gas is evolved when metal carbonates and bicarbonates react with acids?
A) O2 B) CO2 C) H2 D)N2
5. While diluting concentrated sulphuric acid, we should add
A) concentrated acid into water slowly B) water into concentrated acid
C) first add some water to acid and then add more acid D) any method can be used
6. Which among the following is not an alkali?
A) NaOH B) Ba  OH  2 C) KOH D) Fe  OH 3
7. Which one of the following is correct?
A) both bases and alkalies are soluble in water. B) alkalies are soluble in water but all bases are not.
C) bases are soluble in water but all alkalies are not. D) both bases and alkalies are insoluble in water.
8. According to Bronsted Lowry concept, bases are
A) H  ion acceptors B) H  ion donors C) OH  ion donors D) OH  ion acceptors

9. In aqueous solution, N H 4 behaves as
A) acid B) base C) neutral species D) amphoteric species
10. How many moles of a dibasic acid are required to neutralise 1 mole of a triacidic base?
A) 1.0 B) 2.5 C) 1.5 D) 2.0
11. Ammonia reacts with a proton to form a complex as follows:
  NH 4 

H   : NH 3 
In this reaction ammonia acts as a .............
A) Lewis acid B) Lewis base
C) Bronsted acid D) Bronsted base
12. Which among the following can be used as an antacid?
A) vinegar B) milk of magnesia
C) calcium hydroxide D) sodium hydroxide
13. If Litmus paper, is exposed to dry ammonia gas, what will be the colour change of litmus paper?
A) turns red B) remains unaffected C) turns yellow D) turns black
14. A solution of a base give no colour change with an indicator. The indicator may be
A) phenolphathalein B) methyl orange C) litmus D) none of these
137
15. The pH of a sample ‘X’ is found to be 9. The sample ‘X’ may be of the substance
A) H2SO4 B) KOH
C) Na2CO3 D) CH3COOH
16. Which of the following is a neutral salt?
A) sodium carbonate B) sodium bicarbonate
C) sodium chloride D) sodium acetate
17. What type of salt is Mohr’s salt, (NH4)2 Fe(SO4)2.6H2O?
A) double salt B) mixed salt C) normal salt D) basic salt
18. If for a salt solution Ka < Kb, then the solution will be
A) basic B) acidic
C) neutral D) cannot be predicted
19. Among the following, choose the salt showing basic behaviour in its aqueous solution:
A) NaH2PO4 B) NaHCO3 C) NaCl D) KNO3
20. On electrolysis of brine solution, the gas liberated at cathode is
A) oxygen B) hydrogen C) chlorine D) water vapour
21. Washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O) on exposure to air gives
A) Na2CO3.9H2O B) Na2CO3.7H2O
C) Na2CO3.5H2O D) Na2CO3.H2O
22. Bleaching powder may be chemically represented as
A) Ca(OH)2 B) CaOCl2
C)Ca(OCl)2 D) CaCl2
LEVEL III
Multiple Correct Answer Type
1. Choose the polybasic acids from the following:
A) formic acid B) phosphoric acid
C) nitric acid D) silicic acid
2. Arrhenius theory could not explain the basic nature of
A) NH3 B) NaOH
C) Na2CO3 D) KOH
3. Two beakers containing two different solutions are given to you. How will you find out whether they are acidic
or basic?
A) by adding a drop of phenolphthalein indicator B) by adding turmeric solution
C) by adding common salt D) by using the litmus paper test
4. Which of the following is/are acidic salts?
A) NaH2PO4 B) Na2HPO4 C) Na2HPO3 D) NaHSO4
138
Numerical Type
5. The number of conjugate acid-base pairs present in the aqueous solution of H3PO3 is :
6. The concentration of an HCl solution having pH equal to 2 is 10–x M. Calculate the value of x. Assume
complete dissociation of HCl.
Matching Column Type
7. Match the columns A and B :
Column A Column B
Name of Acid Found/Used in
A) Lactic acid p) Tomatoes
B) Oxalic acid q) Vinegar
C) Formic acid r) Souring of milk in curd
D) Acetic acid s) Found in the stings of ants and bees
8. Match the columns A and B :
Column A Column B
Compound Formula
A) Baking soda p) CaSO4. 2H2O
B) Plaster of paris q) NaHCO3
1
C) Washing soda r) CaSO4. 2 H2O
D) Gypsum s) Na2CO3.10H2O
Statement Type
Each of these questions contains two statements: Statement 1 and Statement 2. Each of these questions has
four alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer.
A) Statement 1 is True, statement 2 is True; Statement 2 is Correct explanation for Statement 1.
B) Statement 1 is True, Statement 2 is True; Statement 2 is NOT a correct explanation for Statement 1.
C) Statement 1 is True, Statement 2 is False.
D) Statement 1 is False, Statement 2 is True.
9. Statement 1 : Dry HCl shows no effect, when brought into contact with dry blue litmus paper.
Statement 2 : Dry HCl cannot produce H+ ions, which cause colour change in litmus paper.
10. Statement 1 : The heat of neutralisation of a strong acid with a strong base is 57.1 kJ.
Statement 2 : Strong acids and strong bases are completely ionised in solution, hence no energy is need for
their ionisation.
11. Statement 1 : Washing soda is used for softening hard water.
Statement 2 : This is because washing soda is basic and hard water has some acidic components.
139
Paragraph
Our stomach produces gastric juice which helps in digestion of food. The main component of gastric juice is
HCl acid. The pH of the gastric juice is about 1.4. The HCl present in gastric juice does not harm the walls of
the stomach but it kills germs and bacteria present in our digestive system. Sometimes excess acid is produced
in the stomatch. This phenomenon is called acidity. To neutralise this excess acid, we take antacid tablets.
12. Low pH of the gastric juice present in stomach is due to
A) presence of highly concentrated HCl acid
B) due to reaction of CO2 with water forming carbonic acid in stomach
C) due to acidic food
D) the water we take after eating, produces an aqueous solution that reduces pH
13. Antacids tablets that we take to reduce acidity contain
A) acid to reduce pH B) salt to neutralise excess acid
C) base to neutralise excess acid D) weak acid
Fill in the blanks
14. Acids liberate .............. from metal carbonates and metal bicarbonates.
15. The process of adding water to acid to bring about a decrease in its concentration is called .............
16. The strength of an alkali ............ with increase in degree of ionisation.
17. The unit of ionic product of water is .............
18. When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called .............
19. The phenomenon by which substances absorb moisture from the air and dissolves in it is called .............
20. Epsom salt is the common name of ............
140
BIOLOGY
CHAPTER - 1
NUTRITION
Nutrition is the process of intake of nutrients (like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and
water) as well as its utilization by an organism.
Nutrients: Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients.
e.g., Carbohydrates and fats are the main source of energy. These nutrients are found in wheat, rice, corn
etc.
Proteins, vitamins and minerals are nutrients used for making body parts like skin, blood, bones etc.
These nutrients are obtained through vegetables, fruits milk, fish, meat etc.
Mode of Nutrition:
Mode of nutrition means method of obtaining food by an organism. There are mainly two modes of
nutrition:
1. Autotrophic mode of nutrition
2. Heterotrophic mode of nutrition
Autotrophic mode of nutrition: ('auto' means 'self' and 'trophe' means 'nutrition')
 Autotrophic nutrition: Nutrition in which an organism makes (or synthesizes) its own food from the
simple inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and water present in the surroundings with the help of
sunlight.
 Organisms which can make their own food from carbon dioxide and water are called autotrophs.
 Example: all green plants, autotrophic bacteria.
 Life on earth depends on carbon based molecules
 Autotrophs are of two types:
(i) Photoautrophs: Autotrophs which utilize sunlight, for preparing their food. e.g., green plants.
(ii) Chemoautotrophs: Autotrophs which utilize chemical energy for preparing their food. e.g., Nitrifying
bacteria, Iron bacteria etc.
Heterotrophic mode of nutrition: ('heteros' means 'others' and 'trophe' means 'nutrition')
 Heterotrophic nutrition: mode of nutrition in which an organism cannot make (or synthesizes) its
own food from simple inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and water.
 It depends on other organisms for its food.
 Those organisms which cannot make their own food from inorganic substances like carbon dioxide
and water and depends on other organisms for their food are called heterotrophs.
 Example: all the animals, most bacteria and fungi.
141
Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition:

Heterotrophic mode of nutrition is of three types:
1. Saprotrophic nutrition: In which organism obtains its food from decaying organic matter of dead
plants, dead animals, rotten bread etc.
 Such organisms are called saprophytes.
 Example: Fungi (likes bread moulds, mushrooms) and many bacteria.
2. Parasitic nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which the organism derives its food from the body of
another living organisms without killing it.
 A parasite is an organism (plant, animal or microbes) which feed on another living organism (host).
 Example: Animals like Tapeworm and roundworms, plants like Cuscuta and several fungi and bacteria.
3. Holozoic nutrition: Mode of nutrition in which organism takes the complex organic food materials
into its body by the process of ingestion, the ingested food is digested and then absorbed into the body
cells of the organism.
 Example: human beings and most of the animal.
Modes of Nutrition in Organisms
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Parasitic Saprotrophic Holozoic

Photo-autotrophic Chemoautotrophic
(=photosynthetic) (=Chemosynthetic)
Most green plants
Nitrifying bacteria
(and all algae)
Iron bacteria
Some photosynthetic Hydrogen bacteria
bacteria Sulphur bacteria
Methane bacteria
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
 Plants are autotrophic in nature.
 They prepare their own food hence they are called as producers.
 They contain a green pigment called chlorophyll which can trap solar energy which is then converted
into chemical energy in the form of food and the process is called as "Photosynthesis".
Photosynthesis : The synthesis of carbohydrate by green plants in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
6CO 2  12H 2 O 

Sunlight
Chlorphyll
 C6 H12O6  6H 2 O  6O 2
Glu cose
Carbohydrates are utilised for providing energy to the plant.

The unutilized carbohydrates are stored as starch in plants and as glycogen in animals
142
Raw material for photosynthesis

1) Sunlight :
 Sunlight is the basis source of energy in all living organisms.
 Plants utilize the light in the visible region of the solar spectra (390 nm - 780 nm.).
 Maximum photosynthesis occurs in red region.
 Minimum photosynthesis in green region because green parts of plants reflect the green light.
2) Pigments: are coloured chemicals which can trap solar energy.

 Major pigments in plants are Chlorophyll, Carotenoides (Carotenes and Xanthophylls) and
Phycobilins
a) Chlorophyll : are green coloured pigments . They are found in the chloroplast of green plants.
There are six different types of chlorophyll. They are chlorophyll a,b,c,d,e and
bacteriochlorophyll.Chlorophyll a and chl. b are the most commonly occurring chlorophylls.
Chlorophyll absorb blue and red region of the spectrum and reflects green wave length.Maximum
absorption in the blue region but rate of photosynthesis is maximum in red region. Chlorophyll a is
the universal pigment.
Chlorophyll a - C55 H72 O6 N4 Mg
Chlorophyll b - C55 H70 O6 N4 Mg
b) Carotenoids pigments produce the bright yellow, red, and orange colors in plants, vegetables,
and fruits. Carotenoids act as a type of antioxidant for humans. There are more than 600 different
types of carotenoids. They act as accessory light-harvesting pigments and also photoprotective agents,
preventing the harmful effect of excessive light .Major carotenoids in plants are
(i) Carotenes : Orange in colour e.g. Carrot. (ii) Xanthophylls : Orange yellow in colour e.g. Maize.
c) Phycobilins: Different colour like red, violet as in Blue-green algae, brown algae etc.
3) Carbondioxide: Terrestrial plants obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through stomata.
'Stomata' are the small pores present on the surface of leaves. They help in exchange of gases and
water. Stomatal opening is guarded by the presence of guard cells (kidney shaped). Aquatic plants
obtain CO2 dissolved in water through their general body surface so they perform more photosynthesis
than terrestrial plants.
143
Plants utilize CO2 during photosynthesis and release it during respiration and both process occurs
simultaneously.
Compensation point : The intensity of light at which amount of CO2 used during photosynthesis
becomes equal to the amount of CO2 released during respiration. Compensation point occurs at low
light intensity ie., during early morning and evening.
4) Water: Plants absorb water from the soil by the process of osmosis. This water is transported to
leaves by a special type of tissue called as xylem.
Site of Photosynthesis:
• In prokaryotes: It occurs in lamellar chromatophore
• In eukaryotes: It occurs in choloroplast
Chloroplast
• Contain green pigment chlorophyll
• Chloroplast was discovered by Schimper.
• In algae there are 1 or 2 chloroplast per cell
• In higher plants its number varies from 40- 100
• Shape of chloroplast is also variable; Cup shaped in chlamydomonas( algae) ; Ribbon shaped in
spirogyra (algae); Discoidal in higher plants
Structure of chloroplast: Chloroplasts are the main site of photosynthesis.It is oval or biconvex structure
found within the mesophyll of the plant cell. They are double-membrane organelle with the presence of
outer, inner and intermembrane space. There are two distinct regions present inside a chloroplast known as
the grana and stroma.
Grana are made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures known as thylakoids. Chlorophyll molecules are
found inside the thylakoid membrane. Grana are interconnected to each other by a channel called as stroma
lamellae'. It perform the light reaction.
Stroma is a colourless homogenous , protein-rich fluid matrix present within the inner membrane of the
chloroplast. Stroma contains various enzymes, DNA, ribosomes and other substances. It is the site of dark
reaction.
144
Chloroplast is also called as green plastid.

Plastids are of 3 different types on the basis of pigments present in them.
(i) Leucoplast : White in colour, found in underground parts, lacks coloured pigment. Helps in storage of
protein (Aleuroplst), oil (Elaioplast), starch (Amyloplst).
(ii) Chromoplast : Colour other than green found in aerial parts on the plants
(iii) Chloroplast : Contain green pigment, called as chlorophyll
 Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR): Spectrum between 400 nm and 700 nm is called
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
 Nature of Light: Action and Absorption spectrum.
 Absorption Spectrum: The curve representing the pigments is called absorption spectrum.
 Action Spectrum: Curve showing rate of photosynthesis at different wavelength of light.
145
Steps of Photosynthesis :
It comprises two steps
1) Light reaction : ATP, NADPH2 and O2 are produced.
2) Dark reaction: CO2 & H2O are converted into glucose.
Differences between light and dark reaction:
Light Re action Dark Re action
takes place only in the presence of It can take place in the pre se nce or
light. abse nce of sunlight.
takes place in the grana of the takes place in the stroma of the
c hloroplast. chloroplast.
NADP utilizes H+ ions to form NADPH. The hydrogen of NADPH combine s
with CO 2 .
The end produc ts are AT P , NADPH G lucose is the end produc t. AT P and
and O 2 . NADPH help in the form ation of
wate rm olecules split into hydroge n glucose.
G lucose is produced. CO is utilized in
2
and oxyge n (Photolysis of wate r) the dark reaction.
Photolysis occurs in PS-II. Photolysis doe s not occur.
Pigment system
Photosynthesis is driven by two photochemical processes.
These processes are associated with two groups of photosynthetic pigments called as pigment system.
A pigment system contain two parts
i) A reaction center: that converts light energy into chemical energy and is always a type of chlorophyll
pigment,
ii) light harvesting complex: that absorbs the light from sun and transfers it to the reaction center and
these include caretenoids and xanthophyll also.
146
Based on the pigment at the reaction there are two types of pigment systems (PS): the PS-1 with
P700 as reaction center and the other PS-2 with P680 as reaction center
Differences between PS1 andPS11
Characteristic Photosystem I (PS I) Photosystem II (PS II)

Reaction center reaction center is P700 reaction center is P680
Location located on the outer surface of located on the inner surface of the
the thylakoid membrane. thylakoid membrane.
Absorbing wavelength absorb longer wavelengths of light absorb shorter wavelengths of light which
which is 700 nm (P700). is 680 nm (P680).
Photophosphorylation Participate in both cyclic and Participate only in cyclic
non cyclic photophosphorylation
photophosphorylation.
Photolysis No photolysis occur. Photolysis occurs.
O2 evolution Molecular O2 do not evolved Molecular O2 is evolved in non cyclic

Function The primary function is in NADPH The primary function is in the photolysis
synthesis, where it receives the of water and ATP synthesis.
electrons from PS II.
(i) Light reaction: It is also called as photochemical process.
It was discovered by 'Robert Hill' therefore it is also called as Hill's reaction.
Site : Grana of chloroplast.
Raw materials : Light and water.
This process is regulated by chlorophyll molecules. It consist of 3 steps :
1) Photo excitation of chlorophyll molecule : During this process chlorophyll molecule receives sunlight
and emits high energy electron. The path of electrons are two types cyclic and non-cyclic.
147
2) Photolysis : splitting of water in the presence of sun light.
2H2O 
 4H+ + 4e - + O2
The protons are used to reduce NADP to NADPH2. Electrons are fed to photosystem II
Oxygen (O2) is liberated to the atmosphere as a waste product.
It takes place in quantasomes. Quantasomes are morphological expressions of physiological
photosynthetic unit.Quantasomes are situated in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts .
3) Photophosphorylation : Synthesis of ATP from ADP and IP in the presence pf sunlight.
(ii) Dark reaction
It was discovered by Melvin Calvin and Benson therefore it is also called as Calvin cycle.
Site :Stroma of chloroplast.
Raw materials : They require CO2, NADPH2, ATP and Enzymes.
Regulated by : Light reaction and enzymes.
It involves three basic steps :
(1) Carboxylation : In this step CO2 is captured by a five carbon compound,RUBP (Ribulose bisphosphate)
with the help of enzyme, RUBISCO. The resultant six carbon compound immediately split up in to two
molecules of three carbon compound Phosphoglyceric Acid (PGA). All those plants which follows this
mechanism are called C3 plants.
(2) Synthesis : In this phase CO2 is assimilated into glucose in the presence of enzymes.
(3) Regeneration of RUBP: In the last phase initial acceptor of CO2 Ribulose Bisphosphate (RUBP) is
regenerated'
148
Factors affecting Photosynthesis:

(a) Light : Normally plants utilize sunlight but marine algae can perform photosynthesis even in the moon
light.
Plants can also perform photosynthesis in the artificial lights.
 Highest rate of photosynthesis : Red light
 Minimum photosynthesis : Green light
Very high light intensity can cause reduction in the rate of photosynthesis.
(b) Temperature : Optimum range = 250o C to 300o C, algae of hot spring can survive in  600o C -
700o C
(c) Carbon dioxide: It is the first limiting factor 0.03 - 0.1% is present in the atmosphere.
Concentration of CO2 increases rate of photosynthesis upto 0.9%
(d) Oxygen : O2 acts as competitive inhibitor of CO2. Over concentration of O2 stops photosynthesis.
(e) Chlorophyll : Chlorophyll content is directly proportional to rate of photosynthesis. No photosynthesis
occurs in etiolated cells, In variegated leaves it occurs only at places where chlorophyll is present.
Significance of Photosynthesis:
(i) Production of food material (ii) Atmospheric control and purification of air.
Photorespiration (C2 pathway/ Glycolate pathway)
 Intake of O2 and release of CO2 during photosynthesis.
 When light ,temperature and level of O2 increases, the carboxylase role of RUBISCO changes
into oxygenase function.
 RUBP is converted into PGA and a 2C-compound phosphoglycolate by this reaction
 Since the first product is a 2C-compound, this cycle is known as C2 Cycle.
 C2 Cycle takes place in chloroplast, peroxisome and mitochondria.
 The oxygenation reaction of RuBisCO is a wasteful process because 3-phosphoglycerate is created
at a reduced rate and higher metabolic cost compared with RuBP carboxylase activity.
 Around 25% of carbon fixed by photorespiration is re-released as CO2
 Glycine and Serine synthesised during this process are precursors of many biomolecules like
chlorophyll, proteins, nucleotides.
 It consumes excess NADH + H+ generated.
149
C4 pathway: In some plants during carboxylation CO2 is captured by a three carbon compound PEP
(Phospho enol Pyruvate) in the presence of enzyme, PEPCO to form a four carbon compound
Oxalo Acetic Acid (OAA). All those plants which follows this mechanism are called C4 plants.
150
Differences between C3 and C4 Plants
C3 Plants C4 Plants
1 The first stable product is 3- carbon The first stable product is a 4 carbon acid:-
acid:- phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) oxaloacetate (OAA)
2 occur only in mesophyll cells occur in mesophyll and bundle sheath cells
3 Leaves do not have showKranz Leaves have Kranz anatomy.
anatomy.
4 exhibit only granal type of chloroplast exhibit granal as well as agranal type of
chloroplast
5 All the steps of dark reaction take The initial steps are carried out in mesophyll
place in mesophyll cells. cells and the subsequent steps are carried out in
bundle-sheath cells.
6 Carbon dioxide fixation occurs only Carbon dioxide fixation occurs twice.
once.
7 Photorespiration takes place No Photorespiration
8 Carbon dioxide fixation is slow. Carbon dioxide fixation is faster.
9 95% of the green plants are C3 plants. 5% of the green plants are C4 plants.
10 requires cool and wet environments requires tropical and dry environments
11 common in temperate climates. common in tropical climates.

12 Examples include rice, wheat, oats, Examples include Maize, Sugarcane, pearl
barley, cotton, , tobacco, , soybeans millet, sorghum .
and spinach
Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis)

 CAM is a carbon fixation pathway that evolved in some plants as an adaptation to overcome arid
conditions.
 It was first reported in the members of family Crassulaceae (succulent; Bryophyllum), hence the
name
 CAM is C4 without Kranz anatomy.
 In such plants the stomata remain closed during the day to reduce evapotranspiration, but they open
at night to collect CO2.
 It allows a plant to photosynthesize during the day, but only exchange gases at night.
 The CO2 is stored as the four-carbon acid malic acid in vacuoles at night, and then in the daytime,
the malate is transported to chloroplasts where it is converted back to CO2, which is then used
during photosynthesis.
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Bacterial photosynthesis
 It is a special type of photosynthesis takes place in certain bacteria.
 H2S serves as an electron donor, rather than water, and there is no release of oxygen.
 Photosynthetic bacteria have only PS I and absence of PSII makes them carry out cyclic
photophosphorylation
 CO2 in these bacteria is assimilated through calvin cycle.

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Nutrition is the sum total of the processes by which an animal obtain nutrients which are necessory for
their energy, growth, repair and maintenance.
• Animals are heterotrophic in nature. They are directly or indirectly dependent on plants to obtain their
food.
• The mode of nutrition may be parasitic or saprotrophic but usually animals are holozoic.
• Animals derive their nutrition either by eating plants directly (herbivores) or indirectly by eating animals
which have consumed plants (carnivores).
• All the basic steps of holozoic nutrition are same in unicellular to multicellular organism.
There are 5 steps in the process of nutrition in animals.
1. Ingestion : The process of intake of food.
2. Digestion : It is the breakdown of large and complex molecules into simpler, smaller, soluble and
absorable forms.
3. Absorption : Taking up of the digested food through the wall of alimentary canal to blood or body fluids.
4. Assimilation : In this process absorbed food is taken and utilized by body cells.
5. Egestion : The process by which undigested matter is expelled out.
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NUTRITION IN LOWER ANIMALS :

Nutrition in Amoeba :
It is a unicellular organism living in water.
• Mode of nutrition is holozoic.
• The process of obtaining food is by phagocytosis (cell eating)
• Steps involved in digestion of amoeba are :
(i) Ingestion : Since it is unicellular a single cell is responsible for carrying out all the vital activities.
Food is ingested with the help of pseudopodia. Animal engulfs the food particle lying near it by forming
pseudopodia around it and forming a food vacuole while is considered at its temporary stomach.
NUTRITION IN AMOEBA
(ii) Digestion : The enzymes from surrounding cytoplasm enter the food vacuole and break down the
food into smaller and soluble forms. It is intracellular in amoeba.
(iii) Absorption : The digested food is now absorbed by cytoplasm by simple diffusion.
(iv) Assimilation : The food absorbed in amoeba is used to obtain energy from respiration, for its
growth and reproduction.
(v) Egestion : Undigested food is thrown out of the cell.
NUTRITION IN HUMANS :
• Humans are holozoic.
• Humans have highly evolved and complicated digestive system consisting of an alimentary canal and
different types of digestive glands.
Alimentary canal
Long, hollow, tubular structure extends from mouth to anus.
• It consist of following parts :
(i) Mouth : It is a small opening through which food is ingested.
(ii) Buccal Cavity : Mouth opens into a chamber called as buccal cavity / oral cavity.
Hard palate : Roof of buccal cavity is called hard palate.
Tongue : At the floor of this cavity thick muscular structure is present called tongue. it helps in chewing
swallowing, tasting and speaking. Tongue has various types of papilla having taste buds.
Teeth : Jaws present in buccal cavity are provided with four different types of teeth (heterodont).
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(i) Incisors (I) : For cutting

(ii) Canines (C) : For tearing
(iii) Premolars (P) : For grinding
(iv) Molars (M) : For grinding
ARRANGEMENT OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEETH
LOCATION OF TASTE BUDS ON TONGUE

Dental formula of humans
• Arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaw in the order I, C, P, M is represented by
2123
a dental formula, which in human is
2123
• In human beings two set of teeth appear during their life time (diphyodont).
1) Milk teeth : These are temporary, arise at 6 - 11 month age, 20 in number
Half upper jaw 2102
Half lower jaw 2102
2) Permanent teeth : in adults
Half upper jaw 2123
Half lower jaw 2123
• Salivary glands : Three pairs of salivary glands are found in mouth which release their secretions into
the buccal cavity.
iii) Oesophagus : Also called as food pipe. It leads the food from mouth to stomach with the help of
peristalsis (rhythmic muscular wavy contraction). Oesophagus has highly muscular walls, no diges-
tion occurs here.
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iv) Stomach : It is a ‘J’ shaped bag present on left side of abdomen. It contains several branched and
tubular glands present on the inner surface of its wall, which secrete gastric juice.
v) Small Intestine : It is a coiled and narrow tube having 3 regions : Duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
• On the inner wall of small intestine numerous finger like projections are found which are called as villi,
they increase the surface area for absorption.
• Duodenum is proximal part of small intestine receives secretion from liver and pancreas.
vii) Large Intestine : Small intestine opens into large intestine from where the undigested food material is
passed to anus through rectum. It is divided into three parts: Caecum, Colon and Rectum
Anus : Hindmost part of the alimentary canal, responsible for egestion.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF MAN

DIGESTIVE GLANDS
A) Salivary glands
Three pairs of salivary glands are found in mouth cavity. It helps in chemical digestion. They secrete an
enzyme called salivary amylase or ptyalin. It helps in digestion of starch.
a) Parotid glands : Largest glands present just below the external ear. In this glands, virus causes
mumps disease.
b) Submaxillary glands / Submandibular glands : These lie beneath the jaw-angles.
c) Sublingual glands : Smallest glands which lie beneath the tongue and open at the floor of buccal
cavity.
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B) Gastric glands
Present in the mucosa of the stomach. They secrete hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes
and mucus.
These are of 3 types:
a) Cardiac glands : Secrete an alkaline mucus.
b) Pyloric glands : Secrete an alkaline mucus.
c) Fundic glands : Each gland has 5 types of cells.
1. Peptic/Zymogen cells - secrete pepsinogen and prorennin
2. Oxyntic cells - secrete HCl
3. Goblet cells - secrete muscus
4. Argentaffin cells - produces serotonin, somatostatin and histamine
5. G-cells- secrete and store the hormone gastrin
C) Liver
• It is the largest gland, secrets bile into the small intestine. It consists of a large right lobe, a small left
lobe and two small lobes called quadrate lobe and caudate lobe behind the main lobes.
• On the right lobe lies gall bladder, which, temporarly stores bile juice, secreted by the liver.
• Bile juice contains no enzyme but possesses bile salts and bile pigments (bilirubin-yellow and biliver-
din-green). Bile is alkaline in nature and helps in digestion of fats, it also helps in absorption of fats.
Functions of liver
• Secretion of bile, detoxification of harmful chemicals.
• Emulsification of fats.
• Detoxification of harmful chemicals.
• Formation of glucose from excess organic acids.
• Storage of vitamins : A, D, E, B12 Synthesis of vitamin A from carotene.
• Secretion of blood anticoagulant named heparin.
• Synthesis of blood or plasma proteins, fibrinogen and prothrombin.
• Glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis.
• Elimination of pathogens and foreign particles through phagocytic cells called Kupffer’s cells.
(D) Pancreas
• Pancreas lies parallel and below the stomach.
• It is a heterocrine gland and have two parts.
Exocrine part : Secretes pancreatic juice into small intestine.
Endocrine part : Secretes two hormones i.e. :- insulin and glucagon so it has both exocrine as well
as endocrine functions.
• Pancreatic juice contains trypsin and pancreatic amylase.
• Both bile and pancreatic juice are released into the duodenum by a common duct (hepato-pancreatic
duct).
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(E) Intestinal glands

They secrete intestinal juice and mucus.
Duct System
Right Lobe Left Lobe
of Liver of Liver
Right hepatic Left hepatic

duct duct
Common hepatic duct

cystic
Gall Bladder
duct
Common bile duct
Pancreatic
duct
Pancreas
Hepatopancreatic
duct
Duodenum
RUMINANT STOMACH
• Cow or buffalo quickly eat the fodder. Then they relax and chew what they have eaten. This act of
chewing is known as chewing cud. Animals like sheep and deer also chew cud. All the animals who
chew cud are called ruminants. They can digest grass which is rich in cellulose.
• Their stomach shows four chambers (rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum). Such a stom-
ach is called a compound stomach.
STOMACH OF RUMINANT (cow)
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• The food enters the first chamber (Rumen). This chamber is the largest. Here the food gets partially
digested and is called cud. From here the food is transferred into second chamber. (Reticulum).
• Rumen and Reticulum contain bacteria and protozoa which break down cellulose.
• When the animal is relaxing, the soft pulpy food from the second chamber is brought back to the
mouth. It is now chewed thoroughly. This is called the chewing of the cud.
• At this stage, it mixes with saliva and becomes a semi-liquid paste.
• From the mouth, the food is pushed directly into the third chamber (Omasum) which absorbs water.
• From the third chamber, the food enters the fourth chamber (Abomasum). In the abomasum, digestive
juices are mixed with semiliquid food. Digestion of food starts now. From the fourth chamber, the food
enters the small intestine.
PROCESSES OF NUTRITION
This system involves following process :
(i) Ingestion
Intake of food is done through mouth, food is then chewed and masticated and sent to esophagus
through pharynx by swallowing.
(ii) Digestion
The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains salivary amylase which digests starch into maltose.
This partly digested food is then passed to stomach by oesophagus through peristaltic movement.
• Food is churned in stomach for about three hours and broken down into smaller pieces. Due to the
presence of hydrochloric acid, medium of stomach becomes acidic.
• In acidic medium protein digesting enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins into peptones. Gastric Lipase
is also secreted here which partially digest lipids.
• Secretion of gastric juice is stimulated by the sight, smell or thought of food.
• Now the partly digested food moves to small intestine i.e. in the duodenum.
• Duodenum receives the secretion from liver and pancreas through a common duct which contains
bile and pancreatic juice, and alkaline in nature.
• So the digestion and emulsification of fat occurs at this place.
• Here in the duodenum fats are emulsified by bile, remaining proteins are digested by trypsin and starch
by pancreatic amylase.
• Duodenal wall secretes bicarbonate ions which make the medium alkaline.
• This partially digested food now enters into the ileum where intestinal juice i.e. “Succus entericus” is
secreted. At this place digestion is completed.
Carbohydrates 
 Glucose
Proteins 
 Amino acids
Fats  Fatty acids and glycerol
(iii) Absorption
After digestion molecules are broken down into simpler water soluble forms now they are to be utilized,
so they pass through the wall of small intestine which contains blood capillaries and enters into the
blood.
• Fat is absorbed by lymph capillaries.
• Wall of small intestine have tiny finger like projections called villi, they increase the surface area for
absorption.
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Mouth (food is chewed & masticated)

saliva, Ptyalin or
Bolus maltose
strach Salivary amylase
Oesophagus (Peristatic movement-rhytmic

contraction and relaxation of muscles)
Stomach Gastric Juice

HCl : Provides Acidic medium, kills germs
Protein  
Pep sin
 peptones
Chyme Rennin : [In infants converts milk casein to Calcium caseinate
Liver (Bile juice -Bile salts & bile pigments)

Small intestine Common
Duodenum duct Emulsification of fats
Pancreas (pancreatic juice - Amylase, Trypsin, Lipase)
Duodenum secretes bicarbonates which makes medium alkaline
Jejunum (intestinal juice or succus entericus digest carbohydrates and proteins)
lleum
At this place digestion
is completed
(Nutrient absorption)
Caecum
Large Intestine Colon Water Absorption
Rectum Anus (Egestiom)
FLOW CHART : MECHANISM OF DIGESTION
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(iv) Assimilation
• The process of utilization of food is called assimilation.
• The nutrients dissolved in blood are carried to all parts of the body where they are utilized for building
up and replacement of cells and for obtaining energy.
• This energy is released by the process of oxidation during respiration.
(v) Egestion
The undigested food along with water (about 75%) and excess of digestive enzymes is then collected
in large intestine where water is absorbed and remaining waste is expelled out or egested through
anus.
• Colon absorbs water and transports excess of ions as Ca+2, Mg+2 etc. from blood to large intestine.
• The faeces are formed of 75% water, 25% solid matter which contains roughage 30%, fats 20%,
inorganic matter 15%, proteins 2% and bacteria 3%.
• Brown colour of faeces is due to stercobilins.
THE SUMMARY OF ABSORPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF DIG ESTIVE SYSTEM

Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine
Cetain drugs coming in Absorption of Principal organ for absorption Absorption of w ater,
contact w ith the mucosa w ater, of nutrients. The dige stion is some minerals and
of mouth and low er side simple sugars and completed here and the final drugs takes place.
of the tongue are alcohol e tc. takes products of digestion such as
absorbe d into the blood place glucose, fructose, fatty acids,
capillaries glycerol and amino acids are
absorbe d through the mucosa into
the blood stream and lymph.
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TABLE : DIGESTIVE GLANDS, THEIR SECRETIONS AND ACTION

Name of
Secretion Enzyme Site of action Subtrates Products
gland
Salivary Salivary Buccal Maltose
Saliva Starch
gland amylase cavity Isomaltose
a) Pepsin
Stomach Protein Peptones
(Pepsinogen- inactive)
Gastric Gastric
b) Rennin
glands glands
(Prorennin Stomach Casein Paracasein
Inactive)
c)Hydrochloric acid Stomach Pepsinogen Pepsin
a) Pancreatic Small Starch, Maltose
Amylase intestine Glycogen Isomaltose
b) Trypsin (Trysinogen- Small
Pancreatic Proteins Peptides
Pancreas inactive) intestine
Juice
c) Chymotrypsin
Small Casein
(Chymotrypsinogen- Paracasein
intestine milk
inactive)
a) Enterokinase Small Trypsinogen Trypsin
intestine (Inactive) (active)
Smaller
Small
b) Aminopeptidase Peptides peptides,
intestine
Amino acids
Small Amino
c) Dipeptidases Dipeptides
intestine acids
Intestinal Small
d) Isomaltase Isomaltose 2 Glucose
gland Intestinal intestine
(Crypts of Juice Small
e) Maltase Maltose 2 Glucose
Lieberkuhn) intestine
Small Glucose,
f) Sucrase Sucrose
intestine Fructose
Small Glucose,
g) Lactase Lactose
intestine Galactose
Small Monoglycerides,
h) Lipase Triglycerides
intestine Fatty acids
Bile
Liver (Bile salts + No enzymes Duodenum Fats Fat droplets
pigments
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DISORDERS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Many bacterial, protozoan, parasitic and viral infections cause inflammation of the intestine.
 Jaundice : The liver is affected, skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposit of bile pigments.
 Vomiting : It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. This reflex action is controlled by
the vomit centre located in the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes vomiting.
 Diarrhoea: The abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of the faecal discharge
is known as diarrhoea. It reduces the absorption of food.
 Constipation : A condition in which the faeces are retained within the colon as the bowel movements
occur irregularly.
 Indigestion: A condition in which the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness. The
causes of indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over eating, and
spicy food.
S.No. Deficiency Disease Deficient Nutrient S.No. Deficiency Disease Deficient Nutrient
Vitamin A Megaloblastic Folic acid and
1 Xerophthalm ia 9
(Retinol) anaem ia V itamin B 12
Vitamin A Pe rnicious V itamin B 12

2 Night-blindne ss 10
(Retinol) anaemia (Cyanocobalamine)
Vitamin D V itamin - C
3 Ricke ts (in children) 11 Scurvy
(Calciferol) (A scorbic Acid)
Vitamin D
4 Osteomalacia (adults) 12 Osteom alacia Calcium
(Calciferol)
V itamin E
5 Sterility 13 A naemia Iron
(Tocopherol)
V itamin K
14 Goitre Iodine
6 Ble eding disease (Phylloquinone)
V itamin B 1
15 Fluorosis Exce ss of fluorine
7 Be ri beri (Thiamine )
V itamin B 2
16 Kwashiorkor Prote ins
8 Che ilosis (Riboflavin)
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QUESTIONS
LEVEL I
1. The process of intake of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water as well as its
utilization by an organism is called
A) Absorption B) Metabolism C) Nutrition D) Respiration
2. keratin , elastin, collagen etc are
A) Vitamins B) Proteins C) Fats D) Carhohydrates
3. Mode of nutrition in which an organism makes (or synthesizes) its own food from the simple inorganic
materials like carbon dioxide and water present in the surroundings
A) Saprotrophic B) Parasitic C) Holozoic D) Autotrophic
4. All animals are
A) Saprophytes B) Parasites C) Hetertrophs D) Autotrophs
5. Plants are autotrophic in nature, hence they are categorized as
A) Producers B) Trophic level C) Consumers D) Herbivores
6. Chlorophyll absorb….. and…..region of the spectrum and reflects …..wave length.
A) Blue, red, green B) Red, green, Blue C) Voilet, Red, Green D) Green , Blue, Red
7. Major pigments in plants are
A) Chlorophyll, Carotenoides and Anthocyanin.
B) Chlorophyll, Carotenoides and Phycobilins
C) Chlorophyll, Xanthophylls and Phycobilins
D) Chlorophyll, Carotenes and Phycobilins.
8. Photolysis of water takes place in
A) Stroma B) Quantasomes C) Grana D) Thylakoids
9. Steps involved in Light reaction of photosynthesis
A) Photo excitation of chlorophyll molecule, Photolysis of water, Oxidative phosphorylation.
B) Carboxylation, Synthesis, Regeneration of RUBP
C) Photo excitation of chlorophyll molecule, Splitting of water, Photophosphorylation.
D) Photo excitation of chlorophyll molecule, Photolysis of water, Carboxylation.
10. The first stable prodct in C3 Pathway'
A) OAA B) RUBISCO C) PEP D) PGA
11. Partially digested food that leaves the stomach is called:
A) Chyle B) Chyme C) Bolus D) None of these
12. Brunner’s glands are found in :
A) Stomach B) Ileum C) Colon D) Duodenum
13. Gastric juice contains :
A) Pepsin, lipase and rennin B) Trypsin, lipase and rennin
C) Trypsin, pepsin and lipase D) Trypsin, pepsin and rennin
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14. Partial removal of liver is not harmful because :

A) Liver being a large organ can suffice the functions even if a part is removed
B) Liver is not a very essential organ of the body
C) Liver has regenerative capacity and will grow after partial hepatectomy
D) The function of liver can be taken over by kidneys
15. Main function of HCl present in gastric juice is
A) digestion of starch B) emulsification of fat
C) conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin D) detoxification of harmful constituents of food
16. During prolonged fasting, the sequence of organic compounds used by body is :
A) Carbohydrates, fats, proteins B) Fats, carbohydrates, proteins
C) Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids D) Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates
17. Which one of the following is a protein deficiency disease
A) Eczema B) Cirrhosis C) Kwashiorkor D) Night Blindness
18. The human intestine is long because :
A) Bacteria in food can be killed gradually
B) It provides more surface for food storage
C) It increases surface area for absorption of food
D) None of these
19. Glycogenesis refers to
A) conversion of glycogen to glucose B) breakdown of glucose to form pyruvate
C) breakdown of pyruvate to form glucose D) conversion of glucose to glycogen
20. Which one of the following association is incorrect?
A) Protein - Trypsin B) Fat - Lipase
C) Maltose - Pepsin D) Starch - Amylase
LEVEL II
1. Intakeof complex organic food materials into its body by the process of ingestion is called
A) Holozoic nutrition B) ingestion
C) Saprotrophic nutrition D) Autotrophic nutrition
2. Cuscuta is a
A) Saprotrophyte B) Insectivorous C) Host D) Parasite
3. Examples of chemosynthetic bacteria are __________
A) E. coli B) Sulphur bacteria C) Cyanobacteria D) Rhizobium
4. The mode of nutrition in non-green plants is called ____________.
A) Autotrophic B) Heterotrophic C) Holozoic D) Holophytic
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5. Which of the following options is the definition ofPhotosynthesis

A) The synthesis of food by green plants in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll
B) The synthesis of carbohydrate by green plants in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
C) The synthesis of organic compounds by green plants in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
D) The synthesis of carbohydrate by green plants in the presence of sunlight
6. What are the Raw materials utilized for photosynthesis
A) CO2, and water B) Light and water
C) CO2, Light and water D) Light, water and Chlorophyll
7. Visible region of the solar spectra
A) 420 nm - 680 nm B) 390 nm - 780 nm C) 550 nm - 900 nm D) 450 nm - 800 nm.)
8. The unutilized carbohydrates are stored as
A) glucose in plants and as glycogen in animals
A) Glycogen in plants and as starch in animals
B) starch in plants and as Fat in animals
C) Starch in plants and as glycogen in animals
9. Find out the pairs, which are incorrectly matched based on the mechanism of photosynthesis
A) Light reaction : ATP, NADPH2 and O2 are produced.
B) Dark reaction: CO2 & H2O are converted into glucose.
C) Photolysis : splitting of water in the presence of sun light
D) Photophosphorylation :Breaking up of ATP into ADP and IP in the presence pf sunlight.
10. Which one of the following is the Significance of Photosynthesis
A) Production of food material B) Atmospheric control and purification of air.
C) Maitain the respiration rate D)Both A and B
11. Match the names of the glands listed under column I with the location given under column II and select
the correct option from the codes given below :
Column I Column II
A. Crypts of lieberkuhn p. Loop of duodenum
B. Pancreas q. Stomach
C. Adrenal gland r. Intestine
D. Gastric gland s. Kidney
A) A = r, B = p, C = q, D = s B) A = r, B = p, C = s, D = q
C) A = q, B = s, C = r, D = p D) A = p, B = r, C = s, D = q
12. Which part of the human alimentary canal, is the site for complete digestion of carbohydrates.
A) Stomach B) Small Intestine C) Large Intestine D) Rectum
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13. In which one of the following alternatives, the correct order of processes is given?
A) Assimilation  Absorption  Digestion  Ingestion  Egestion
B) Absorption  Digestion  Ingestion  Assimilation  Egestion
C) Digestion  Ingestion  Assimilation  Absorption  Egestion
D) Ingestion  Digestion  Absorption  Assimilation  Egestion
14. Which of the following enzymes is related with digestion of protein?
A) Lipase B) Pepsin C) Sucrase D) Amylase
15. Deficiency of vitamin - ‘A’ causes -
A) Beri-Beri B) Anaemia C) Night blindness D) Scurvy
16. If pepsin is lacking in gastric juice, then the event in the stomach will be affected :
A) Digestion of starch into sugars
B) Break down protein into peptides
C) Break down of fats into glycerol and fatty acids
D) Digestion of nucleic acids
17. Parotid salivary gland are present
A) Below the tongue B) Below the ear
C) Below the eye orbit D) In the angle between two jaws
18. One of the following juices secreted in the body of man does not contain any enzyme?
A) Gastric Juice B) Saliva C) Bile Juice D) Pancreatic Juice
19. Which part of the alimentary canal initiates digestion of protein :
A) Mouth B) Oesophagus C) Stomach D) Small intestine
20. Dental formula of adult human being is
2123 2312 3122 2132

A) B) C) D)
2123 2312 3122 2131
LEVEL III
1. Nutrients may be classified as
A) Energy yielding = Carbohydrates & Fats B) Body building = protein
C) Growth regulating = Vitamins and Minerals D) All the above
2. Life on earth depends on …… based molecules
A) Oxygen B) Nitrogen C) Carbon D) carbon
3. Find out the odd one
A) Saprotrophic nutrition B) Parasitic nutrition
C) Holozoic nutrition D) Autotrophic nutrition
166
4. Match Column I with Column II, and choose the correct combination from the options given below
a) Protein 1) Colour Less Plastid

b) Oil 2) Amyloplast
c) Starch 3) Elaioplast
d) Leucoplast 4) Aleuroplst
A) a-4, b-3, c-2, d-1 B) a-4, b-2, c-3, d-1 C) a-3, b-4, c-2, d-1 D) a-4, b-3, c-2, d-1
5. How many of the following statements are correct
a) Chlorophyll absorb blue and red region of the spectrum and reflects green wave length.
b) Maximum absorption of chlorophyll in the blue region but rate of photosynthesis is maximum in red
region.
c) Chlorophyll absorbgreen region of the spectrum and reflects red wave length
d) Maximum absorption of chlorophyll in the red region but rate of photosynthesis is maximum in
green region.
A) a & b B) Two C) three D) four
6. Select the wrong statement from the following
A) Saprotrophic, Parasitic andHolozoicnutritions are different Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition
B) Chlorophyll a is the universal pigment
C) Aquatic plants obtain CO2 dissolved in water through their general body surface
D) Stroma is the site of light reaction
7. Select the incorrect match
A) Carotenoids: bright yellow B) Carotenes : Orange
C) Xanthophylls : Purple D) Phycobilins : red
8. Among the following characters, which one is not considered as a feature of C4 Pathway
A) During carboxylation CO2 is captured by a three carbon compound PEP
B) RUBISCO is the enzyme which catalyses the first carboxylation
C) OxaloAcetic Acid is the first stable product
D) All those plants which follows this mechanism are called C4 plants.
Column I Column II
a) Light reaction 1) Splitting of water ATP
b) Dark reaction 2) Synthesis of ATP
c) Photolysis 3) Glucose
d) Photophosphorylation 4) ATP, NADPH2
A) a-2, b-4, c-3, d-1 B) a-4, b-3, c-1, d-2

C) a-3, b-4, c-1, d-2 D) a- 4, b-3, c-2, d-1
167
10. Which among the following is True

A) Highest rate of photosynthesis in red light
B) Very high light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis
C) Rate of photosynthesis will increase along with the rate of CO2
D) Photosynthesis occurs in etiolated cells
11. Which of the following is not a digestive enzyme contained in the pancreatic juice?
i) Lipase ii) Hydrochloric acid iii) Mucus iv) Trypsin
A) (i) and (ii) B) (i) and (iv) C) (ii) and (iii) D) (i) and (iii)
12. The enzymes pepsin and trypsin are secreted respectively by
A) Stomach and pancreas B) Salivary gland and stomach
C) Liver and pancreas D) Liver and salivary gland
13. The enzymes contained in pancreatic juice help in the digestion of:
A) Fats and carbohydrates B) Proteins and fats
C) Proteins and carbohydrates D) Proteins, fats and carbohydrates
14. Which of the following help in protecting the inner lining of the stomach from the harmful effect of
hydrochloric acid?
A) Mucus B) Pepsin C) Trypsin D) Bile
15. The muscular contraction in the alimentary cannal is know as
A) Systole B) Diastole C) Peristalsis D) Deglutition
16. The primary dentition in human differs from permanent dentition is not having one of the following type
of teeth
A) Premolars B) Molars C) Incisors D) Canine
17. Select what is not true of intestinal villi among followings
A) They possess microvilli
B) They increase the surface area
C) They are supplied with capillaries and the lacteal vessels
D) They only participate in digestion of fats
18. How many teeth in man grows twice in life
A) 32 B) 28 C) 20 D) 12
19. Mark the right statement among the following
A) Trypsinogen is an inactive enzyme B) Trypsinogen is secreted by intestinal mucosa
C) Enterokinase is secreted by pancreas D) Bile contains trypsin
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20. The following is a scheme showing the fate of carbohydrates during digestion in the human alimentary
canal. Identify the enzymes acting at stages indicates as A, B, C and D. Choose the correct option
from those given
Starch
A


Lactose Maltose Sucrose
B C D
  
Galatose Glucose Fructose
A) A = amylase, B = maltase, C = lactase, D = sucrase

B) A = amylase, B = maltase, C = sucrase, D = lactase
C) A = amylase, B = sucrase, C = maltase, D = lactase
D) A = amylase, B = lactase, C = maltase, D = sucrase
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CHAPTER - 02
RESPIRATION
All cellular activities in living organisms require energy.
The energy required for 'life processes is mainly comes from the oxidation of organic molecules.
(i.e., respiration)
Steps of Respiration
1) External respiration: Exchange of gases between an organism and its environment .
2) Internal respiration: Exchange of gases between tissue cells and extra cellular environment.
3) Cellular Respiration: Involves oxidation of food along with release of energy in side the cell.
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the biological oxidation of food materials in a living cell, using molecular O2, producing
CO2 and H2O and releasing energy .
The energy present in the chemical bonds of glucose molecule will be transferred to the phosphate bonds
of ATP
ATP is called as 'Energy Currency' of the cell.
Respiration is catabolic, exergonic and oxidative process.
C6H12 O6  6O2 

enzymes
 6CO2  6H2O energy
glucose oxygen carbon  dioxide water ( ATP)
Respiratory substrates: Compounds that are oxidised during the process of respiration. Carbohydrates,
fats, proteins and even organic acids can be used as respiratory substrate '
Glucose is the common respiratory substrate, but fat yield more energy.
Most of the respiration processes takes place in mitochondria.
170
Types of Respiration: On the basis of the availability of oxygen, there are two types of respiration.
1) Aerobic respiration 2) Anaerobic respiration
BASIS FOR
Sl.No AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
COMPARISON
Definition Breaking down of glucose in Breaking down of glucose in the
1 the presence of oxygen absence of oxygen
Requirement Oxygen and glucose to Does not require oxygen but uses
2 produce energy glucose to produce energy.
Oxidation Complete breaking down Incomplete or partial breaking down
3
(Oxidation) of substrate (Oxidation) of substrate
End products CO2 + H2 O 1) Ethyl alcohol + CO2 ( in yeast)
4 2) Lactic Acid (muscles and
Lactobacillus bacteria).
Energy production High amount of energy is Less amount of energy produced
5 produced.
6 ATP production Net gain of 38 ATP Net gain of 2 ATP
7 Taking place in Cytoplasm to mitochondria Cytoplasm only

8 It involves 1. Glycolysis - also called 1. Glycolysis
Embden Meyerhof-Parnas
(EMP) pathway.
2. The Tricarboxylic acid
Cycle (TCA), also known
as the citric acid cycle or
Krebs cycle.
3. The respiratory chain
(electron transport and
oxidative
phosphorylation).
9 Type of process It is a long process for the It is a fast process in comparison to
production of energy. aerobic respiration.
10 Examples occurs in most plants and Occurs in human muscle cells
animals (eukaryotes). (eukaryotes), bacteria, yeast
(prokaryotes), etc.
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Mechanism of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the process of oxidation of food taking place inside the cell. As this process is at
cellular level, it is called Cellular respiration. It involves three step process.
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
1. Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the splitting or lysis of 6-carbon glucose into two molecules of 3-carbon Pyruvic acid (pyruvate).
• First reported by Embden, Meyerhof and Paranas, hence the name EMP pathway.
• This process occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
• It does not require oxygen.
• No production of Co2.
• Four molecules of ATP are produced. Of these Two ATP are used during this process, thus a net
gain of two ATP from glycolysis.
• 2 NAD molecules are reduced to NADH2, which later produces 6 ATP (in ETC).
• Net production of ATP in glycolysis is 2 ATP + 6 ATP = 8 ATP.
Pyruvate oxidation
• Pyruvate oxidation is the step that connects glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (link reaction).
• During this reaction pyruvate undergo oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA and CO2.
• Besides this 2 NAD molecules are reduced to 2NADH2, which later produces 6ATP.
• Pyruvate is produced in the cytoplasm, but pyruvate oxidation takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
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2. Krebs Cycle
• Cycle of chemical reaction where Acetyl-Co A releases CO2 and energy rich H+
• Discovered by Hans Krebs.
• Taking place in the matrix of Mitochondria
• Also named as TCA cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid cycle) or Citric Acid cycle
• 2CO2, 1 ATP, 1 FADH2, and 3NADH2 are formed in each turn of Krebs cycle
• For each glucose molecule, the Krebs cycle occurs twice , so produces 4 CO2. 2ATP, 2 FADH2, and
6 NADH2
• Net gain of 24 ATP
• Common pathway for the oxidation of carbohydrate, fats and proteins.
3. Electron Transport Chain
• is the utilization of energy rich NADH2 and FADH2 to generate ATP.
• The energy rich hydrogen atom (NADH2 and FADH2) formed in the above reactions are first
broken down into protons and electrons.
• These protons and electrons after passing through various electron carriers release its energy.
• The proton combines with oxygen in terminal part the chain to form water
• This energy is used for the synthesis of ATP. Most of the ATP produced during cellular respiration is
made during this stage.
• Net gain of 38 ATP during respiration.( 8 in glycolysis; 6 in Oxidation of pyruvic acid and 24 in Krebs
cycle)
Fermentation
Fermentation is the incomplete oxidation of glucose under anaerobic conditions, where pyruvic acid is
converted to CO2 and ethanol.
In micro-organisms the term anaerobic respiration is replaced by fermentation which is known after
the name of its major products, e.g., alcohol fermentation, lactic acid fermentation.
Respiratory Habit
Organisms can be grouped into the following four classes on the basis of their respiratory habit
• Obligate aerobes: Strictly aerobes. These organisms can respire only in the presence of oxygen.
Thus, oxygen is essential for their survival (e.g., bacterium Bacillus subtilis).
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• Obligate anaerobes: Strictly anaerobes. These organisms normally respire anaerobically. Such
organisms can't survive in the presence of oxygen (e.g., Clostridium botulinum and C. tetani).
• Facultative aerobes: These are primarily anaerobic organisms but under certain conditions may
also respire aerobically (e.g., yeast).
• Facultative anaerobes : Such organisms usually respire aerobically (i.e., in the presence of oxygen)
but under certain conditions may also respire anaerobically (e.g., Yeast, parasites of the alimentary
canal).
Respiration in plants
Plants exchange gases through stomata.
The large inter-cellular spaces ensure that all the cells are in contact with air.
Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged in and out of the cells by the process of diffusion
The diffusion occurs in all the vegetative parts of plants.
Stomata : Leaves
Roots : marshy plants
Lenticels : woody stem
Whole surface : spirogyra
During night, in the absence of sunlight photosynthesis do not take place and hence carbon dioxide is
released but not used up by the plants.
During the day, there is no carbon dioxide release because the released carbon dioxide is used up by the
plants for photosynthesis.
Oxygen is released instead of carbon dioxide during the day.
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (R.Q.)
The ratio of the volume of CO2 released to the volume of O2 taken in during respiration.
Volume of CO2 evolved

RQ 
Volume of O2 consumed
Value of R.Q. depends upon the nature of respiratory substrate used, It is measured by Ganong’s
respirometer.
R.Q. of Carbohydrates = 1
CO2 6
R.Q.    1 Unity 
O2 6
R.Q of Fat/Protein = Less than 1
R.Q Organic acids = more than 1
R.Q succulents i.e., Bryophyllum, Opuntia) = 0
Respiration in the absence of O2 (anaerobic respiration) = 
CO2 2
RQ = = =
O2 0
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RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
• All living things need energy for perform life activities. Organisms obtain this energy from the food they
consume.
• Energy present in the food (Nutrients) is released by their aerobic / anaerobic oxidation within the cells.
• During oxidation, the stored chemical energy in the food is released and temporarily stored in ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate).
• Then ATP molecules are broken down to release the stored energy for various life activities.
• Respiration is the sum total of physical and chemical reactions involved in the oxidation of nutrients in
the body cells resulting in production of energy and liberation of CO2.
PHASES OF RESPIRATION
1. External respiration : It consists of uptake of O2 from the sorrounding gaseous or liquid medium and
elimination of CO2 into that sorrounding medium. This exchange of gases between an organism and
its environment is called breathing.
2. Internal respiration : Exchange of gases between the individual cells and the extracellular fluid around
them.
3. Cellular respiration : It involves tissue oxidation of food by oxidising enzymes along with release of
energy and CO2 elimination from tissue cells.
Characteristics of respiratory surface for efficient gas exchange
• It should be thin, large and mosit - large surface area helps to get enough O2 and thin walls for easy
diffusion and exchange of gases.
• It should be permeable to respiratory gases like O2 and CO2.
• It must be in direct / indirect contact with source of O2- air/water.
• If the animal has blood, the respiratory surface must have rich blood supply for transport of respiratory
gases. In higher animals presence of respiratory pigment for efficient transport of gases.
RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
• Animals have diferent types of organs for respiration due to which mode of respiration varies accord-
ing to the organism but the basic mechanism is same.
• From phylum Protozoa to Ctenophora respiration is by general body surface.
• In phylums Platyheliminthes to Nematodes mostly are anaerobic and endoparasites.
• In phylum Annelida cutaneous respiration occurs.
• From phylum Arthropoda till Mammals various respiratory organs like trachea, gills and lungs are
developed.
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S.NO. Type of respiration Organs involved Example

1 Cell surface respiration Ge neral body surface Amoeba, Paramecium
2 Tracheal respiration Trachea and trache ole s Insects
3 Branchial re spiration Gills Aquatic animals (Fishes)
4 Cutane ous re spiration Skin Frog
5 Pulmonary respiration Lungs Amphibians, reptiles, birds
6 Buccal respiration Buccal cavity Frog
(a) Respiration in Amoeba :
In unicellular organisms like amoeba and in some lower multicellular animals like sponges and cnidarians,
respiration or exchange of gases occurs through general body surface as these cells are in direct
contact with an aquatic environment so the oxygen dissolved in water diffuses into the cell and brings
about oxidation of food, at the same time carbon dioxide released is expelled out of the cell by the
same process.
(b) Respiration in Earthworm :
• In organisms like earthworm and leech exchange of gases occurs through their skin as their skin is
very thin and moist.
• It is rich in blood supply so the oxygen is absorbed by moist skin of earthworm and is transported to all
the cells of body through blood.
• The carbon dioxide from body cells diffuses into the blood and expelled out through skin.
(c) Respiration in Fish :
• In fish exchange of gases occurs through gills so the respiration is said to be branchial.
• Gills are present on both the sides of its head, they are covered by gill covers.
• During breathing fish takes in water through its mouth and pass it over the gills. The oxygen present in
water is extracted by gills and water is removed out through gill slits.
• This oxygen is now absorbed by blood and carried to all parts of the body and at the same time carbon
dioxide is released from the blood and comes back to the gills and is expelled out into the surrounding
water.
• Same type of respiratory pattern is followed in some other aquatic organisms like prawns.
(d) Respiration in Grasshopper :
• In insects there occurs a system of tiny holes and air tubes all over the body. These tiny holes or
openings are called as spiracles.
• This whole system facilitates the exchage of gases and is called as tracheal system.
• During breathing oxygen of air enters in the spiracle and reaches to each and every part of grasshopper’s
body through trachea and tracheoles and carbon dioxide produced during respiration is carried back
by trachea and tracheoles to the spiracles and is expelled out of the body of insect.
• The same mechanism is followed in other insects like houseflies, mosquitoes, bees etc.
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RESPIRATION IN HUMANS
• Human respiratory tract
(i) External nostrils : First part of respiratory system. It opens into nasal cavity and is meant for inhala-
tion of air from outside.
(ii) Nasal cavity : This cavity is located above the mouth and is separated from oral cavity by means of a
hard and bony palate.
• It is lined by ciliated columnar epithelial cells which help in filtering of air warming and cooling of the
inhaled air.
(iii) Internal nares : Nasal cavity opens into it and it leads to pharynx.
(iv) Pharynx : It is a common passage for food and air.
• Posteriorly it has two openings, dorsal opening or gullet (leading to oesophagus) and ventral opening
or glottis (aperture of trachea).
(v) Larynx : It lies at the back of neck, which is also called as ‘voice box’. It produces voice by passage
of air between vocal cords.
• It contains four different types of cartilages among them a ‘c’ shaped thyroid cartilage protruding out in
neck region is called Adam’s apple.
(vi) Trachea : also called wind pipe. It is a long tube and it’s walls are supported by ‘C’ shaped cartilagi-
nous rings which prevent them to collapse when air is absent in them.
(vii) Bronchi : Trachea is branched into two bronchi (left and right) each of which enters into the lungs.
(viii) Lungs : Present in the thoracic cavity whoes walls are formed by ribs and muscles, and floor is
formed by a muscular diaphragm.
• These are two light weight spongy pouches covered by a membrane called Pleura.
• Bronchi are further branched into several bronchioles, at the end of bronchioles alveolar sacs or
alveoli are present which are rich in blood capillaries.
(vi) Diaphragm : It is a sheet of muscles that lies below the lungs and separates thoracic cavity from
abdominal cavity.
177
Diagrammatic view of human respiratory system
A Diagram of a section of an alveolus with a pulmonary capillary
178
Nostrils
Vestibular region Contain hair and oil glands
Nasal chamber Respiratory region Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, filter air
Olfactory region Region receives smell
Internal nares
Pharynx Oropharynx
Nasopharynx
Laryngopharynx
Larynx (Voice box) Pharynx open into Larynx by glottis which is covered by epiglottis
Thyroid (Male Adam's apple)
Cartilage of larynx Cricoid
Arytenoid
Vocal cords
Trachea or wind pipe Contain C-shaped
cartilaginous rings
Lungs
Covered by pleural membrane
Space b/w both lungs - mediastenum
Right lung - 3 lobes
Left lung - 2 lobes
Tracheal Tree
Trachea
Primary bronchi
Secondary bronchi
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchiole
Respiratory bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Air sac
Alveoli
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Mechanism of respiration
Mechanism of respiration includes 3 steps:
1. Mechanism of Breathing.
2. Transportation of gases and mechanism of Gaseous exchange.
3. Cellular respiration.
Mechanism of breathing
(i) Inhalation : When air is breathed in, the diaphragm and muscles attached to the ribs contract due to
which there occurs expansion of chest cavity, it results increase in volume of chest cavity thus the air
pressure decreases and air from outside rushes into the lungs and alveolar sacs get filled with air
containing oxygen. The oxygen present in air diffuses into the blood and CO2 from blood diffuse out into
alveolar sac.
Mechanism of breathing showing : a) inspiration b) expiration

(ii) Exhalation : When air is breathed out the diaphragm and muscles attached to ribs relax, which brings
about contraction in chest cavity, its volume gets reduced and CO2 is pushed out from lungs into the
air through trachea and nostrils.
• The two types of muscles that help in breathing are:
a. Diaphragm muscles
b. Intercostal muscles (Present between ribs)
• Diaphragm becomes flat during inspiration and becomes convex during expiration.
2. Transportation of gases and Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange Between Tissues and Blood.
• The air enters into the lungs through nostrils, trachea then bronchi from here it enters into the brochioles,
and then it moves into thin walled alveolar sacs or alveoli.
• Alveoli are rich in blood capillaries. At this place oxygen from air diffuses into the blood and is trans-
ported to all the cells and tissues of body.
• This oxygen now diffuses into the cells and is utilized for the oxidation of food and production of energy
in mitochondria.
• As a result of this carbon dioxide is produced in cells, due to this increased concentration of CO2, it
diffuses into the blood and is brought back to alveoli and expelled out of the lungs through trachea and
nostrils.
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• Blood is the medium for the transport of oxygen from the respiratory organ to the different tissues and
carbon dioxide from tissues to the respiratory organs.
Diagrammatic representation of exchange of gases

i) Transport of oxygen : There are two ways for oxygen transport. As much as 97 per cent of the
oxygen is transported from the lungs to the tissues in combination with haemoglobin and only 3 per-
cent is transported in dissolved condition by the plasma.
ii) Transport of carbon dioxide : Carbon-dioxide is transported from the tissues to the lungs by three
methods. When a respiring tissue releases carbon-dioxide, it is first diffused in the blood.
• From here it diffuses into the red blood cells. About 23% of carbon dioxide entering into the erythro-
cytes combines with the globin (protein) part of haemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin, which
is transported to the lungs.
• About 70% of carbon-dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonates dissolved in water. Only 7% is
transported in dissolved form in plasma.
• A normal person has about 15 grams of haemoglobin per 100 ml of blood. Haemoglobin binds about
1.34 ml of O2.
• Thus, 100 ml of blood carries about 20 ml of oxygen. One gram of haemoglobin binds about 1.34 ml of
O 2.
• Thus, 100 ml of blood carries about 20 ml of oxygen.
Control of Respiration
• Respiration is controlled by the respiratory centre situated in medulla oblongata of brain.
i) Breathing occurs involuntarily.
ii) Under normal conditions rate of breathing is 15-18 times per minute. During vigorous excercise breathing
increases by about 20-25 times.
iii) The total area for gas exchange covered through 300 million alveoli is about 36-72 m2 in each lung.
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Volume and capacity of Lungs

i) Tidal volume : It is the volume of air inspired or expired in relaxed position. It is around 500 ml per
breathe.
ii) Residual volume : It is the volume of air left in the whole respiratory tract after forceful expiration. It is
1.5 litres.
iii) Total lung capacity : Maximum amount of air the lungs can hold after forceful inspiration. It is called
total lung capacity. It is about 5 - 6.0 liters.
iv) Vital capacity : Maximum amount of air which can be breathed out through forceful expiration after a
forceful inspiration. It is called vital capacity. It is 3.4 - 4.8 liters.
• Vital capacity is more in athletes, mountain dewellers, non smokers.
Respiratory Disorders
1. Emphysema : It occurs due to infection, smoking etc. It occurs due to obstructions in bronchioles
caused by breaking of alveolar septa. Bronchiodialators and O2 therapy are used for curing this dis-
eases.
2. Asthma : Air passages are narrowed and lead to obstruction in breathing.
3. Pneumonia : Lymph and mucus accumulate in alveoli and bronchioles. It occurs due to bacterial and
viral infection.
4. Bonchitis : Infection of the respiratory tube.
5. Tuberculosis : Bacterial infection in lungs.
6. Pleurisy : Inflammation of lung membrane (pleura) is called as pleurisy.
Mountain sickness : It is also known as altitude sickness. At sea level the concentration of oxygen is
about 21% and the barometric pressure averages 760 mm Hg.
• As altiude increases, the concentration remains the same but the number of oxygen molecules per
breath is reduced.
• At 12,000 feet the barometric pressure is only 483 mm Hg, so there are roughly 40% fewer oxygen
molecules per breathe.
• In order to oxygenate the body effectively, breathing rate (even while at rest) has to be increased. This
extra ventilation increases the oxygen content in the blood, but not to sea level concentrations.
• The fall in oxygenation of blood produces the symptoms of mountain sickness.
• These symptoms include breathlessness, headache, dizziness, nausea, vomitting, mental fatigue
and a bluish tinge on the skin, nails and lips.
• Sudden contraction of diaphragm along with loud closure of glottis causes Hiccough.
• Sudden and violent expulsion of air through mouth and nose is called sneezing.
Carbon monoxide effect : Carbon monoxide binds with haemoglobin about 230 times more readily
than oxygen.
• When a person inhales carbon monoxide, it diffuses from the alveolar air to the blood and binds to
haemoglobin forming carboxyhaemoglobin.
• The latter is a relatively stable compound and cannot bind with oxygen molecules.
• So, the amount of haemoglobin available for oxygen transportation is reduced. The resulting deficiency
of oxygen causes headache, dizziness, nausea and even death.
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QUESTIONS
LEVEL I
1. Energy required for 'life' processes comes from
A) Oxidation of inorganic molecules B) Reduction of organic molecule
C) Oxidation of organic molecules D) Reduction of inorganic molecule
2. Which of the following is the correct equation of respiration
A) 2C6H12O6 + 12O2  12CO2 + 12H2O + ATP
B) C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
C) C6H12O6 + 12O2  6CO2 + 12H2O + ATP
D) 2C6H12O6 + 6O2  12CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
3. Common respiratory substrate
A) Organic acids B) Fat C) Glucose D) Protein
4. Net gain of ATP molecule during Aerobic respiration
A) 38 B) 8 C) 2 D) 24
5. Glycolys is also called as
A) Citric acid cycle B) Embden Meyerhof-Parnas(EMP) pathway
C) Tricarboxylic acid Cycle (TCA) D) Respiratory chain
6. During aerobic respiration , Citric acid cycle and Electron transport chain occurs in
A) Cytopasm B) Mitochondria
C) Mesosomes D) Both A and B
7. Incomplete oxidation of glucose under anaerobic conditions, where pyruvic acid is converted to CO2
and ethanol is named as
A) Glycolysis B) Kreb's cycle C) Fermentation D) Climatrics
8. Select the equation to calculate respiratory quotient ?
Volume of CO2 consumed Volume of CO2 evolved

A) Volume of O2 evolved B) Volume of O consumed
2
Volume of CO2 consumed Volume of CO2 evolved

C) Volume of O consumed D) Volume of O evolved
2 2
9. In woody stem , diffusion of gases occurs through

A) Leaves B) Roots C) Whole surface D) Lenticels
10. R.Q of Carbohydrates is
A) Unity B) Less than 1 C) more than 1 D) Zero
11. At high altitudes where there is less oxygen, the human body adapts itself by
A) producing more red blood cells B) producing more white blood cells
C) producing more blood platelets D) producing less number of RBC
183
12. Which of the following is a characteristic of respiratory organ?

A) Thin walled B) Vascular
C) Moist D) All of these
13. Respiratory quotient is
A) CO2/O2 B) O2/CO2 C) CO2/N2 D) N2/CO2
14. Epiglottis guards the opening of-
A) eustachian tube B) glottis
C) larynx D) internal ear
15. Maximum amount of energy is released by the
A) conversion of glucose into lactic acid
B) conversion of glucose into pyruvic acid
C) oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water
D) conversion of surcose to glucose
16. When there is an increase of carbon dioxide in the blood
A) breathing rate is decreased
B) heart beat is decreased
C) breathing rate and heart beat are increased
D) breathing rate is decreased and heart rate is increased
17. The various parts of the human respiratory system are given below :
i) Nasal passage ii) Pharynx iii) Wind pipe
iv) Bronchus v) Bronchioles vi) Alveoli
Identify the right sequence of air passage during exhalation.
A) vi, v, ii, iv, iii, i B) vi, iv, v, iii, ii, i
C) vi, v, iv, iii, ii, i D) vi, v, ii, iii, iv, i
18. Rate of respiration is directly affected by :
A) Concentration of CO2
B) Oxygen in trachea
C) Concentration of O2
D) Diaphragm expansion
19. Anaerobic respiration in human body occurs inside :
A) Liver B) White muscles
C) Red muscles D) Kidney
20. Book lungs are respiratory organs of
A) mollusca B) arachnida
C) mammals D) aves
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LEVEL II
1. Which of the following are different steps of Respiration
A) Glycolysis and Fermentation B) External, internal and cellular
C) Aerobic and Anaerobic D) Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
2. Respiration is
A) catabolic, exergonic and oxidative process
B) catabolic, endergonic and oxidative process
C) anabolic, exergonic and reductive process
D) catabolic, exergonic and reductive process
3. ‘Energy Currency' of the cell :
A) ADP B) ATP C) NAD D) FAD
4. During Aerobic Respiration
A) Incomplete Oxidation of substrate and the production of high amount of energy
B) Complete Oxidation of substrate and the production of less amount of energy
C) Incomplete Oxidation of substrate and the production of less amount of energy
D) Complete Oxidation of substrate and the production of high amount of energy
5. Find out the correct statement with respect to Anaerobic respiration
A) Does require oxygen and glucose to produce energy
B) Does require oxygen but not uses glucose to produce energy
C) Does not require oxygen but uses glucose to produce energy
D) Does not require oxygen and glucose to produce energy
6. Identify the wrong statement regarding glycolysis
A) Common pathway for aerobic and anerobic respiration.
B) Occurs in cytoplasm
C) Glucose is partially oxidized into two molecules of Pyruvic acid
D) Oxygen is essential for this process
7. which of the following statement is not a feature of fermentation.
A) Incomplete oxidation of glucose
B) In micro-organisms the term anaerobic respiration is replaced by fermentation
C) Formation of Ethyl Alcohol or lactic acid
D) Taking place in mitochondria and cytoplasm
8. These are primarily anaerobic organisms but under certain conditions may also respire aerobically
A) Obligate aerobes B) Obligate anaerobes
C) Facultative aerobes D)Facultative anaerobes
185
9. During aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid is converted into :

A) Acetyl Co. A and CO2
B) Acetaldehyde and CO2
C) Lactic acid
D) DHAP & PGAL
10. Which of the following is an incorrect pair with respect to the vegetative parts involved in the diffusion
of gases in plants.
A) Stomata: Leaves B) Roots: Marshy plants
C) Lenticels: Woody stem D) Whole surface : Ferns
11. Whales respire through :
A) Lungs B) Gills
C) Moist skin D) Buccal cavity
12. The left lung is smaller than the right lung because
A) it has only one oblique fissure
B) it is less active in respiration than right lungs
C) right lung accomodate a cavity, mediastinal space
D) it has a cardiac notch to accomodate the heart
13. Which one of the following has the smallest diameter :
A) Right primary bronchus B) Left primary bronchus
C) Secondary bronchiole D) Respiratory bronchiole
14. Lining of trachea is made of :
A) Simple squamous epithelium B) Simple cuboidal epithelium
C) Pseudostratified epithelium D) Stratified cuboidal epithelium
15. Vocal cords are made up mostly of :
A) Bone B) Cartilage
C) Elastin fibres D) Collagen fibres
16. During inspiration, air passes into lungs due to :
A) Increase in volume of thoracic cavity and fall in lung pressure
B) Fall in pressure inside the lungs
C) Decreased volume of thoracic cavity
D) Muscular expansion of lungs
17. Lungs ventilation movement are due to the movements of
A) coastal muscles and diaphragm
B) coastal muscles only
C) diaphragm only
D) wall of the lungs
186
18. Breathing is controlled by

A) lungs B) trachea
C) hypothalamus D) medulla oblongata
19. After complete exhalation the lungs of a healthy man contains a litre of gas, this quantity is known as :
A) Residual volume B) Functional residual capacity
C) Total lung capacity D) Dead space
20. The volume of air breathe in and out during normal respiration is known as :
A) Vital capacity B) Vital volume
C) Ideal volume D) Tidal volume
LEVEL III
1. Cellular respiration is
A) Biological oxidation of food materials in a living cell, using molecular O2 and CO2 only
B) Complete oxidation of glucose into CO2 and ethanol
C) Incomplete oxidation of food materials in a living cell, using molecular O2, producing CO2 and H2O
and releasing energy
D) Biological oxidation of food materials in a living cell, using molecular O2, producing CO2 and H2O
and releasing energy
2. Which are the types of respiration on the basis of the availability of oxygen,
A) External, Internal andCellular B) Aerobic and Anaerobic
C) Obligate and Facultative D) None of the above
3. Which among the following statement is not correct regarding respiratory substrate
A) Compounds that are oxidised during the process of respiration
B) Glucose is the common respiratory substrate,
C) Carbohydrates, fats, proteins and even organic acids can be used as respiratory substrate
D) Carbohydrate yield more energy than fats
4. Which among the following is the correct sequence of aerobic respiration'
A) Glucose  pyruvate  carbon dioxide + water + energy..
B) Glucose  pyruvate + energy..
C) Glucose  ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy..
D) Glucose  Lactate + energy
5. Identify the end products of Anaerobic respiration
A) Ethyl alcohol + CO2 ( in yeast)
B) Lactic Acid ( muscles and Lactobaccilus bacteria).
C) CO2 + H2O
D) Both A and B
187
Column I Column II
a Obligate aerobes 1. Strictly anerobes
b. Obligate anaerobes 2. Usually respire aerobically
c. Facultative aerobes 3. Strictly aerobes
d. Facultative anaerobes 4. Primarily anaerobic
A) a-4, b-3, c-2, d-1 B) a-4, b-2, c-3, d-1

C) a-3, b-1, c-4, d-2 D) a-3 b-1, c-2, d-4
7. Find out the correct statement regarding the Respiration in plants
A) During night carbon dioxide is released
B) During the day, there is no release of carbon dioxide
C) The released CO2 is used up by plants during day
D) All the above
Column I Column II
a. Carbohydrate 1. m ore than one
b. Fats and Proteins 2. less than one
c. O rganic Acids 3. zero
d. Sacculents 4. unity
A) a-4, b-3, c-2, d-1 B) a-4, b-2, c-1, d-3

C) a-3, b-1, c-4, d-2 D) a-3 b-1, c-2, d-4
9. How many of the following statements are correct
i) R.Q is the ratio of the volume of CO2 released to the volume of O2 taken in during respiration
ii) Plants exchange gases through stomata.
iii) Fermentation is the complete oxidation of glucose under anaerobic conditions
iv) Glycolysis is common pathway for aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4
Column I Column II
a. Glycolysis 1. TCA cycle
b. oxidative phosphorylation 2. ATP
c. Fermentation 3. EMP pathway
d. Krebs cycle 4. Anaerobic respiration
A) a-4, b-3, c-2, d-1 B) a-3, b-2, c-4, d-1

C) a-3, b-1, c-4, d-2 D) a-3 b-1, c-2, d-4
188
11. The phenomenon of normal breathing in a human being comprises

A) an active inspiratory and a passive expiratory phase
B) a passive inspiratory and an active expiratory phase
C) both active inspiratory and expiratory phases.
D) both passive inspiratory and expiratory phases.
12. The cellular respiration differs from breathing in that in cellular respiration
A) air rich in O2 is taken in and air poor in O2 is given out.
B) glucose is oxidised to CO2 and H2O with release of energy.
C) Oxygen bound to haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin.
D) exchanged of gases between an organism and its environment.
13. Which of the following is correct about efficient gaseous exchange?
A) Respiratory surface should be thick
B) Respiratory surface must have rich blood supply
C) Respiratory structures should not have contact with air or H2O
D) Respiratory membrane should be impermeable to CO2
14. Nasal cavity is line by ciliated and sensory epithelial cells which help in
A) Warming or cooling of the inhaled air
B) Filtering of air and prevent the entry of dust particles
C) Prevent the entry of food into trachea
D) All except ‘C’
15. Select the incorrect statement regarding larynx?
A) It is cartilaginous box formed of thyroid, cricoid and arytenoid cartilages
B) Thyroid cartilage form Adam’s apple in males
C) Larynx contains vocal cords
D) Pharynx open into larynx by gullet.
16. Which of the following is wrong with respect to lungs?
A) Spongy organ formed of bronchi and bronchioles
B) Lungs are covered and protected by pericardial membrane
C) Bronchiole ends in groups of alveoli which provide the surface for the exchange of gases.
D) Alveolus is surrounded by rich capillaries.
17. With reference to human inspiration, which of the following is incorrect?
A) Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
B) Expansion of chest cavity
C) Increase in pulmonary pressure
D) Air from outside rushes into the lungs
189
18. Select the incorrect statment with respect to transportation of respiratory gases?
A) About 70% of CO2 transported in the form of bicarbonates
B) About 23% of CO2 transported in the form of carboxyhemoglobin
C) About 7% of CO2 transported in dissolved form in plasma
D) About 97% of O2 transported by RBCs as oxyhemoglobin
19. Findout the false statement regarding respiration?
A) Diaphragm and intercostal muscle relax during exhalation.
B) Diaphragm becomes convex/dome shaped during expiration.
C) Normal rate of breathing is 20-25 times per minute.
20. During expiration foul air rush out from the lungs due to
A) Increased volume of thoracic cavity and fall in lung pressure.
B) Decreased volume of chest cavity and rise in lung pressure.
C) Contraction of diaphragm and intercostal muscle.
D) Both A and C.
190
MATHEMATICS
CHAPTER - 1
NUMBER SYSTEM
SURDS & EXPONENTS
BASE SYSTEM
The number system that we work in is called the ‘decimal system’. This is because there are 10
digits in the system 0-9. There can be alternative system that can be used for arithmetic operations.
Some of the most commonly used systems are: binary, octal and hexadecimal.
These systems find applications in computing.
Binary system has 2 digits : 0,1
Octal system has 8 digits: 0,1,....7
Hexadecimal system has 16 digits: 0,1,2,.....9,A,B,C,D,E,F
After 9, we use the letters to indicate digits. For instance, A has a value 10, B has a value 11, c has a
value 12,..... so on in all base systems.
The counting sequences in each of the systems would be different though they follow the same
principle.
Conversion: Conversion of numbers from (i) decimal system to other base system. (ii) other base
system to decimal system.
(i) Conversion from base 10 to any other base:
Ex: Convert (122)10 to base 8 system
Sol:
8 122 :
8 12 : 2

8 1: 7
0 :1
The number in decimal is consecutively divided by the number of the base to which we are converting
the decimal number. Then list down all the remainders in the reverse sequence to get the number in
that base. So, here 122 10  172 8 .
191
Ex: Convert (169)10 in base 7.
7 169 :
7 24 :1

Sol : 7 3 : 3
0:3
Ex: Convert (0.3125)10 to binary equivalent
2  0.3125  [0.625]
Sol: Integer
2  0.625  [1.25]
0
2  0.25  [0.50]
1
2  0.50  [1.00
0
Thus
1
(0.3125)10   0.0101 2
Ex: Covert (1987.725)10  ......8

Sol: First convert non-decimal part into base 8.
8 1987
8 248 3
8 31 0 
8 3 7
0 3
 1987 10   37036
Now we have to convert  0.725 10  ......8 Multiply
0.725  8  [5.8] .....5

0.8  8  [6.4] .....6
0.4  8  [3.2] .....3 
0.2  8  [1.6] .....1
0.6  8  [4.8] .....4
Keep on accomplishing integral parts after multiplication with decimal part till decimal part is zero.
  0.725 10   0.56314.....8

 1987.725 10   3703.56314.....8
192
(ii) Conversion from any other base to decimal system:

Ex. Convert (231)8 into decimal system
Sol. (231)8, the value of the position of each of the numbers (as in decimal system) is :
1  80  1
3  81  3
2  82  2
0

Hence,  2318  8  1  8  3  8  2
1 2

10
 2310  1  24  12810
 2310  15310
Ex: Convert (0.03125)10 to base 16
Sol : 16  0.03125  0.5 0
16  0.5  8.0 8
So  0.0312510   0.0816
Ex : Convert  761.56 6  .....16
Sol : In such conversion which are standard form conversions, it is easier to
 761.56 6  .....2  .....16

Converting every digit in base 8 to base 2,
111110001.101110 2  1F1.B816
Ex: Convert (3C8.08)16 to decimal
Sol.  3C8.0816  3 16  C 16  8 16  0 16  8 16

2 1 0 1 2
 768  192  8  0  0.03125
  968.0312510
So,  3C8.0816   968.03125 10
193
ALPHA NUMERICS NUMBERS
a a
Ex: If a  b  2, and  b b then find the value of a,b and c.
cc 0
Sol. These problems involve basic number
(i) aa  bb  11 a  b 
ii) aa, bb are two-digit numbers. Hence, their sum cannot exceed 198. So, c must be 1.
iii) Hence, cco  110 . This implies a  b  10 or a  6 and b  4
Such problems are part of a category of problems called alpha numerics
a 3 b
 a c
Ex: If then find a,b and c if each of them is distinctly different digit
a a 9
Sol. i) since the first digit of (a 3 b) is written as it is after substracting ac carry over from a to 3
ii) there must be a carry over from 3 to b, because if no carry over is there, it means 3  a  a
3
 2a  3  a 
2
which is not possible bcause a is a digit. For a carry over 1, 2  a  a
 a 1
iii) It means b and c are consecutive digit (2,3), (3,4),.....(8,9)
Ex: The sum of first n natural numbers is a three-digit number, all of whose digits are the same. What
is the value of n?
n  n  1
Sol. In 5 seconds, you can solve the equation  aaa 111, 222, etc  . How do you proceed
2
next? If you think its hit-and-trial from this point, you are wrong. Here goes the simple logic. It might
strike you instantly if you have been working with numbers:
n  n  1
 aaa  a 111  a  3  37
2
 n  n  1  6a  37
Look at the L.H.S of a equation, n  n  1 is a product of two consecutive natural numbers. Therefore,
R.H.S. should also be a product of two consective natural numbers. One of the numbers is 37. Therefore,
what could the other number 6a, consecutive to 37 be? It can only be 36, giving a  6 and n  36 .
Therefore, 36 numbers have been summed up and their sum is equal to 666.
194
Ex: If ABC×CBA =65125, where A,B and C are single digits, then A  B  C  ?
Sol. As the unit digit of the product is 5, therefore, the unit digit of one of the numbers is 5 and the unit
digit of the other number is odd. Therefore, AB5  5BA  65125, where A  1,3,5, 7 or 9
As the product of two three-digit numbers is a five-digit to IB5×5B1=65125
The digit sums of both numbers, 1B5 and 5B1 will be same. Therefore, the product would give digit
sum of a perfect square. The digit sum on the R.H.S. is 1.
Therefore, the digit sum of each number can be 1 or 8. Correspondingly B will be 4 or 2 (as digit sum
cannot be equal to 1)
Keeping B = 2, we can see that 125×521 =65125
Ex: Find the four-digit number ABCD such that ABCD  4  DCBA
Sol. Any number multiplied by 4 will give us an even number. Hence, the digit D when multiplied by 4
will give us an even number.
Since A is the unit digit of the product it is even. Hence, A  2, 4, 6 or 8 ( it cannot be 0) . A is also the
first digit of the multiplicang and if A =4,6 or 8 the product ABCD×4 will become a 5 digit number.
Hence A = 2. Writing the value of A we get 2BCD  4  DCB2
Now for the value of D looking at the first and last digits of the multiplicand, we can see that 4×D gives
the unit digit of 2 and 4×2 gives the first digit of D. Yes, you got it right D =8. Writing the multiplication
again with the value of D we get 2BC8  4  8CB2
Now for the value of B. A number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by the last two digits is divisible
by 4. Since the number 8CB2 is a multiple of 4, the number B2 should be divisible by 4. Or, the number
B2 = 12, 32, 52 , 72 or 92. Hence the original number ABCD is 21C8,23C8,25C8,27C8 or 29 C8. But
the last 4 numbers when multiplied by 4 will not give you the first digit of 8 in the product. Therefore
B  1 and the original number is 21C8 . We write the multiplication again 21C8  4  8C12.
Now for the value of C notice that when you multiply 8, the unit digit of 21C8, by 4 you write 2 in the unit
digit of the product and carry 3. The tenth digit of the product is
1. Therefore, 4×C+3 (carry over) gives a unit digit of 1. Hence, C is 2 or 7. You can easily check by the
hundreds digit in the product (which is C again) that C = 7.
Therefore, our answer is 2178×4=8712.
CYCLICITY
We are having 10 digits in our numbers systems and some of them shows special characteristics like
they, repeat their unit digit after consecutive power. So, its cyclicity is 1 on the other hand digit 2 repeat
its unit digit after every four power, hence the cyclicity of 2 is four. The cyclicity of digits are as follows:
Digit Cyclicity
0,1,5 and6 1
4 and 9 2
2,3,7 and 8 4
So, if we want to find the last digit of 245, divide 45 by 4. The remainder is 1 so the last digit of 245 would
be same as the last digit of 21 which is 2.
195
To Find the Unit Digit in Exponential Expressions:
i) When there is any digit of cyclicity 4 in unit’s place.
Since, when there is 2 in unit’s place then in 21 unit digit is 2, in 22 unit digit is 4, in 23 unit digit is 8, in 24
unit digit is 6, after that the unit’s digit repeats. e.g unit digit (12)12 is equal to the unit digit of, 24 i.e.6.
Ex: In (32)33 unit digit is equal to the unit digit of 21 i.e.2.
Ex: In (23)15 unit digit is equal to the unit digit of 33 i.e.7.
Ex : In (57)9 unit digit is equal to the unit digit of 71 i.e.7.
Ex : In (678)22 unit digit is equal to the unit digit of 82 i.e.4
(ii) When there is any digit of cyclicity 2 in unit’s place.
Since, when there is 4 in units place then in 41 unit digit is 4, in 42 unit digit is 6 and so on.
Ex: In (34)33 unit digit is 4.
(iii) When there is any digit of cyclicity 1 in unit’s place.
Since, when there is 5 in unit’s place then in51 unit digit is 5, In 52 unit digit is 5 and so on.
Ex: In (25)15 unit digit is 5
Ex: In (46)13 unit digit is 6
Ex: Find the last digit of (i) 357 (ii) 1359
57
Sol. (i) The cyclicity of 3 is 4. Hence, gives the remainder 1. So, the last digit of 357 is same as the
4
last digit of 31, i.e.3.
ii) The number of digit in the base will not make a difference to the last digit. It is last digit of the base
which decides the last digit of the number itself.
59
For 1359, we find which gives a remainder 3. So the last digit of 1359 is same as the last digit of 33,
4
i.e.7.
Ex: Find unit’s digit in y  717  7 34
Sol. 717  7 34  71  7 2  56, Hence the unit digit is 6
6476
What will be the last digit of  7375
196
6476
Sol. Let  7375   73 where x  7564   75 
x even power
76
 Cyclicity of 3 is 4
 To find the last digit we have to find the remainder when x is divided by 4.
x   75    76  1
even power even power
, where n is divided by 4 so remainder will be 1.
64 76
Therefore, the last digit of  7375 will be 31  3
55
87 
7563
Ex: What will be the unit digit of
6355
Sol. Let  87 75   87  x where x  7563   75 
odd
55
 Cyclicity of 7 is 4.
 To find the last digit we have to find the remainder when x is divided by 4.
x   75  odd power   76  1
odd power
where x is divided by 4 so remainder will be -1 or 3, but remainder should be always positive

6355
Therefore, the last digit of  87 75 will be 7 3  343
63 55
Hence, the last digit is of  87 75 is 3.
LOGARITHM
John Napier was born in 1550. He died on 4th April, 1667 in Edinburgh. A mathematician John Napier
introduced the concept of logarithm for the first time in 17th century. Later, Henry Briggs, a British
mathematician born in Feb. 1561 in Yorkshire England, prepared and published logarithm tables. He
died on 26th January, 1663 in Oxford England. Logarithm tables made complicated numberical
calculations both easy and fast. Today with the advent of desk calculators and computers, the work of
numerical calculations has become easier and faster, thus reducing the useful for calculations in the
study of science and mathematics
If ‘a’ is a positive real number, other than 1 and x is a rational number such that ax =N, then x is the
logarithm of N to the base a
 If a x  N then log 8 N  x . [Remember N will be +ve]

Systems of Logarithm:
There are two systems of logarithm which are generally used
(i) Common logarithm : In this system base is always taken as 10
197
(ii) Natural logarithm: In this system the base of the logarithm is taken as ‘e’. Where ‘e’ is an irrational
number lying between 2 and 3. ( The approximate value of e upto two decimal places is e =2.73)
Some Useful Results:
(i) If a > 1 then
(a) log a x  0 [for all x satisfying 0  x  1 ]
(b) log a x  0 for x  1
(c) log a x  0 for x  1
(d) x  y  log a x  log a y i.e. log a x is an increasing function.
 Graph of y  log a x1 a  1
(ii) if 0  a  1, then
(a) log a x  0 for all x  1
(b) log a x  0 for all x = 1
(c) log a x  0 for all x satisfying 0 < x < 1
(d) x  y  log a x  log a y i.e. log a x is a decreasing function.
 Graph of y  log a x, 0  a  1
Fundamental Laws of Logarithm:
Logarithm to any base a (where a > 0 and p n1 )
(i) log a a  1
198
(ii) log a 0  not defined
[As a n  0 is not possible, where n is any number]
(iii) log a   ve no   not defined [ As in loga N , N will always be (+ve)]
(iv) log a  mn   log a m  log a n [Where m and n are +ve numbers]
m
(v) log a    log a m  log a n
n
(vi) log a  m   n log a m

n
log b m
(vii) log a m 
log b a
(viii) log a m. log m a  1
(ix) If ‘a’ is a positive real number and ‘n’ is a positive rational number, then a logan  n
p
(x) If ‘a’ is a positive real number and ‘n’ is a positive rational number, then log a n n 
p
log a n
q
(xi) p loga q  q loga p
(xii) log a x  log n y  x  y
Ex: If log 3 a  4, find value of a.
Sol,  log 3 a  4
 a  34  a  81
9 27 3
Ex:Find the value of log  log  log
8 32 4
Sol. Given:
9 27 3  9 27  3
log  log  log  log     log
8 32 4  8 32  4
 9 32 3 
 log    
 8 27 4 
 log1  0 [ log a 1  0]
Ex: 2 log 4 x  1  log 4  x  1 , find the value of x.
199
Sol. Given 2 log 4 x  1  log 4  x  1
 log x x 2  log 4  x  1  1
x2 x2
 log x 1  4 
1
x 1 x 1
 x 2  4x  4  x 2  4x  4  0
  x  2  0
2
 x2
Ex: Evaluate : 32 log3 5
Sol. Given 32 log3 53 .3log3 5 [ a m  n  a m .a n ]

2
9
9.3 log 3 51  g  51 
5
Ex: If A  log 27 625  7 log11 13 and B  log 9 125  13log11 7, then find the relation between A and B
Sol. A  log 27 625  7 11  log 33 5  7

log 13 4 log11 13
4
Or A  log 3 5  7 log1113 ........  i 
3
and, B  log g 125  13 11

log 7
or, B  log32 53  7log11 13
3
or, B  log 3 5  7log11 13 ............(ii)
2
By (i) and (ii) we have,
4 3
A  log 3 5  B  log 3 5
3 2
4 3
 log 3 5  log 3 5
3 2
AB
Ex. Find the value of log 25 125  log 8 4
Sol. Given, log 25 125  log 8 4
3 2
 log 52 53  log 23 22  log 5 5  log 2 2
2 3
200
3 2
  [ log a a  1]
2 3
5
 .
6
SURDS & EXPONENTS
SURDS
Let a be a rational number and n be a positive integer, then irrational number is of the form n a is given
a special name surd, where ‘a’ is called radicand and it should always be a rational number. Also the
symbol n is called the radical sign and the index n is called order of the surd. n
a is read as “nth root
1
of a” and can also be written as a n .
LAWS OF SURDS
n
 1 1
 a
n .n
(i)
n
 an   an  a
 
(ii) n
a. n b  n ab
n
a n a
(iii) 
n
b b
 a
m
(iv) n
 n a m  a m/n
(v) m n
a  mn a  n m
a
n p
(vi) n
a a p [ important for changing order of surds]
n p
or, n
am  am p
1
Ex : Simplify : 3
2. 3 4  3 2  4  3 23   23  3  2
OPERATION OF SURDS
a) Addition and Subtraction of Surds:
Addition and subtraction of surds are possible only when order and radicand are same. i.e. only for like
surds
Ex: 5 3 250  7 3 16  14 3 54
Sol : 5 3 250  7 3 16  14 3 54
 5 3 125  2  7 3 8  2  14 3 27  2
201
 5  5 3 2  7  2 3 2  14  3  3 2
  25  14  42  3 2
 3 3 2
b) Multiplication and Division of Surds:
Ex:Simplify  8a 5 b  3 4a 2 b 2
Sol.  8a 5 b  3 4a 2 b 2
 8 83 a15b3  8 42 a 4b4
 6 213a19b7
 22 a 3b 6 2ab
 4a 3 b 6 2ab
Ex: Divide : 24  3 200
 24 
3
6
24 216
3   6
200  200  625
2
6
c) Comarison of surds :
It is clear that if x  y  0 and n  1 is a positive integer then n

xny
Ex: Arrange 2, 3 3 and 4

5
L.C.M. of 2,3,4 is 12.
2 6
 2 26  12 64
3 4
3
3 34  12 81
4 3
4
5 53  12 125
As, 64 < 81 < 125
12 64  12 81  12 125
 2 33 45
RATIONALIZATION OF SURDS
Rationalizing factor: If the product of two surds is a rational number. then each surd is called a
rationalising factor (RF) of the other.
202
Rationalisation of surds:
The process of converting a surd into rational number by multiplying it with a suitable RF, is called the
rationalisation of the surd
Monomial surds and the their RF:
1
The general form of a monomial surd is n
a and its RF is a1 n
Ex: Find rationalisation factor of 3

5
1 2
1
Sol. Rationalisation factor of 3
5 is 5 3
 5 3  3 52  3 25
Binomial surds and their RF:
The surds of the types a  b, a  b, a  b and a  b are called binomial surds.

Conjugate Surds : The binomial surds which differ only is sign between the terms
separating them are known as conjugate surds. In binomial surds, the conjugate surds are RF of
each other
For example:
i) RF of a  b is a b
ii) RF of a  b is a b
1
Rationalize the denominator
75 3
1
Sol.
75 3
1 7 5 3
 
75 3 7 5 3
75 3 75 3 5 3 7
  
49  75 26 26
Trinomial surds:
A surd which consists of three terms, atleast two of which are monomial surds, is called a trinomial
surd.
Example : 7  3  5
x
In order to ratioalize =
a b c
i) Multiply and divide by a b c
ii) Multiply and divide by  a  b  c   2 ab
203
1
Ex: Rationalize :
6 3 5
1
Sol.
6 3 5

1

 6 3  5
 6 3  5  6 3  5
6 3 5 6 3 5
 
   5
2 2
6 3 6  3  2 18  5
6 3 5 6  3  5 46 2
  
46 2 46 2 46 2 
4 6  4 3  4 5  6 12  6 6  6 10

16  72
2 6  4 3  4 5  12 3  6 10

56
6  4 3  2 5  3 10

28
EXPONENTS
The repeated multiplication of the same factor can be written in a more compact form, called
exponential form
Laws of exponents:
If a is any non-zero rational number and m, n are whole numbers, then
(i) On the same base in multiplication, powers are added. a m  a n  a m  n
For example: 32  34  32  4  36
am
(ii) On the same base in division, powers are subtracted.  a mn
an
35
For example  35 2  33
32
am 1
(iii) n
 n m , n  m
a a
204
23 1 1
For example 4
 4 3 
2 2 2
 
n
(iv) a m  a mn
 
3
For example : 2 2  223  26
v) a n  a  n  a 0  1
vi) a m  b m   ab 
m
Fpr example : 2  32   2  3  62  36
2 2
viii) a bn  a b  b  b.....n times

where a, b are positive real numbers and m, n are rational numbers
 25   243
3/ 2 3/5
Ex: Simplify:
16    8
5/ 4 4/3
 25   243
3/ 2 3/5
Sol: We have
16    8
5/ 4 4/3
5  2 3/2
  35 
3/5

2 4 5/4
  23 
4/3
523/2  353/5 53  33
 
245/4  234/3 25  24
125  27 3375
 
32  16 512
Ex: If 25x 1  52x 1  100, find the value of x.

Sol.We have,
25x 1  52 x 1  100
  52 
x 1
 52x 1  100
 52x  2  52x 1  100

 52x  2  52x  251  100
 52x  2 1  5   100
205
 52x  2  4   100
 52x  2  25
 52x  2  52
 2x  2  2
 2x  4
x2
Standard form of Number

In general, any positive number n can be put in the form n  t  10 p , where 1  t  10 and p is an
integer. We shall call this representation of a positive number as presentation of number in the standard
form .
If the standard form of a number is 8.97×106, its decimal form is 8.97×1000000=8970000.
A positive number expressed in its decimal form can be expressed in its standard form by applying the
following rules:
1) To shift the decimal point p places to the left, multiply by 10p
2) To shift the decimal point p place to the right, multiply by 10-p
Ex: Write the following numbers in the standard form
1) 703251 2) 603.328 3) 0.0000168
Sol:
1) 703251  7.03251 105
2) 603.328  6.03328  102
3) 0.0000168  1.68  105

Ex: Write the following numbers in decimal form:
1) 3.72  10 2
2) 1.798  10 3  0.001798
3) 83.596 102  0.83596

The Characteristic and Mantissa of Logarithm:
Let the standard form of a positive number n be t  10p , where 1  t  10 and p is an integer..
log n  log  t  10p 
 log t  log 10p

 log t  p log10
 log t  p
206
Since 1  t  10, we have log 1  log t  10. i.e.0  log t  log10.i.e. 0  log t  1
We note log n = log t+p consist of two parts : (1) p (2) log t
Here p is called the characteristic and log t is called the mantissa of log n.
For example:
83.628  8.3628 101 , p  1
894.82  8.9482 102 , p  2
0.0329  3.29  102 , p  2
0.000487  4.87  104 , p  4
279389  2.79389 105 , p  5

Form above examples, we note that
1) When the integral part of a number is non-zero, p is one less than the number of digits in the integral
part.
2) When the integral part of the number is zero. p    n  1 , where n is the number of zeros between
the decimal point and the first non-zero digit of the number.
How To Use of Logarithmic Tables:
Ready tables of logarithms and antilogarithms shortly called log tables and antilog tables are available.
The log tables consist of three parts: In the first part, there is one column, the first column from left,
which contains two digit numbers from 10 to 99. Next there are ten columns headed by numbers
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. The last ‘part called ‘mean difference’ has nine columns headed by numbers from
1 to 9.
The antilog tables are of the same type, except that the first column contains numbers from 0.00 to
0.99
Finding Log of two digit number:
For example we wish to find log 81. Here 81 = 81 + 0.Its characteristic is 1. The mantissa can be
obtained from log tables. Look for the number formed by first two digits in the first column. For this,
find 81 in the first column and look at row against it. At the intersection of this row and the column
headed by 0 is the number 9085. The mantissa of log 81 is 0.9085. Hence, log 81  1  0.9085  1.9085 .
Finding Log of three digit number:
To obtain the mantissa of the logarthm of a three digit number, first find the number formed by the first
two digits of the given number in the column to the extreme left of the logtables. Look at the row
against this number. In this row, the number in the column headed by the third digit of the given
number gives the mantissa. For example to find mantissa of log 723, look at the row against 72 in the
first column and in the column headed by 3. The number 8591 appears there. Hence mantissa of log
723 is 0.8591. Since the characteristic of log 723 is 2, we have log 723  2.8591 .
Finding Log of Four digit number:
For finding the logarithm of a number with four digits, the colums of mean difference will also be used.
For examples suppose we want to find the mantissa of log 3986. The number 3986 is divided into
three parts 39, 8 and 6. Now look for 39 in a first enigma. Then find the number in the row against 39
207
in a first enigma. Then find the number in the row against 39 in the column headed by 8. This is 5999.
Finally look for the number in the same row in the column headed try 6 mg the columns of mean
differences. this number is 7. Adding 7 to 5999, we get 6006. Hence the manitissa of log 0.6006,
Since the characteristic of 3986 is 3, log 3986  3.6006.
Note if fifth digit of the given number is less than 5, this four digit number is taken as approximation. If
the fifth digit is 5 or greater, then add 1 to the last digit of the four digit number obtained by truncation.
The characteristic of the logarithm of a given number is obtained in the usual way. The mantissa is the
mantissa of the logarithm of the four digit number which approximates the given number. For example,
let x  5.79881 . Then the characteristic of log x is 0. The four digit approximation of x is 5.799. Hence
the mantissa of log x = the mantissa of log 5.799  0.7634. Hence log
5.79881  0.7634 . When the characteristic of a logarithm is a negative number -n it is denoted by n
(read as n bar). For example, log  0.002675   3.4273
Use of Antilog tables:
The antilogarithm is used to get the number from its logarithm. The first column from the left of the
antilog tables contain numbers from 0.00 to 0.99. In all other respects, antilog tables are similar to
logtables. The antilogs are also used in the same way as logtables. Since the logtable gives only the
mantissa part of the logarithm of a number, the antilog table will give a number corresponding to the
mantissa part only. Then by using characteristic the actual number for the given logarithm can be
obrained.
For example, suppose we want to find antilog (1.5278). From antilogtables, we find that antilog 0.5278
= 3.371 (Meaning that log 3.371 = 0.5278). Hence, antilog 1.5278 = 3.371×101=33.71 Also antilog
3.5278  3.71103  0.003371 .Note that power of 10 is (-1) means no zero between decimal point
and first non-point and first non-zero digit etc.
In fact antilog is obtained from first four digits after decimal point (the truncated four digit number). If
the characteristic is p, we multiply antilog obtained by 10p.
Ex. Find value of x   41.23 

3
 log x  3log  41.23
 3 1.6152   4.8456
 antilog (log x) = antilog (4.8456)
 x = 70080
Ex: Find value of 49.673 ×9.4891
 log x  log  49.673  log  9.4891
 1.6961  0.9772  2.6733

 antilog (log x ) = antilog (2.6733)
 x =471.3
 8432    0.1259 
2
Find value of x 
 27.478
5
208
1
  8432 2   0.1259   2
Sol. log x  log  
 27.478
5
 

1
2
log  8432   log  0.1259   log  27.478 
2 5

1

2
2 log 8432   log  0.1259   5 log  27.478
1

2
2  3.9259   1.1000  5 1.4391
1

2
 7.8519   1.1000  7.1955
1 1
 1.7563  2  1.7563  1.8782
2 2
 antilog (log x) = antilog (1.8782)
 x=0.7554
209
QUESTIONS
LEVEL I
1. When  55 10 is represented in base 25 then the expression is:
A)  25  25 B)  35  25 C)  55  25 D) none of these
2. In a number system, the product of 44 and 11 is 3414. The number 3111 of this system, when converted
to the decimal number system, becomes:
A) 406 B) 1086 C) 213 D) 691
3. Convert the number 1982 from base 10 t o base 12. The results is :
A) 1182 B) 1912 C) 1192 D) 1292
4. What is the decimal equivalent of the 25 digits or hexadecimal number 100....00116 ?
A) 223  1 B) 224  1 C) 292  1 D) 296  1

5. Find out (A+B+C+D) such that AB×CB=DDD, where AB and CB are two -digit numbers and DDD is
a three digit number
A) 21 B) 19 C) 17 D) 18
6. A 3-digit number 4a3 is added to another 3-digit number 948 to give the four-digit number 13b7, which
is divisible by 11. The (a+b) is:
A) 10 B) 11 C) 12 D) 15
7. If log x y  100 and log 2 x  10, then the value of y is :
A) 21000 B) 2100 C) 22000 D) 210000
8. If log x  n then 2n is equal to:
A) log x  
2
B)  log x 
2
C) log  x  2  D) log 2x
9. Given log 2  0.3010, then log 16 is :

A) 2.4080 B) 1.2040 C) 0.2408 D) 1.9030
10. The value of x, when log 3  log 2 x   2log g  log 7 8   2, is:
A) 243 B) 27 C) 343 D) 64
11. The value of log10  3 / 2   log10  4 / 3  ......... up to 99 terms
A) 0 B) 2 C) 2.5 D) None of above

12. If the eight digit number 2575d568 is divisible by 54 and 87, the value of the digit ‘d’ is:
A) 4 B) 7 C) 0 D) 8
210
4 3 4 2 3
13. The value of  is:
3 1 2  3
A) 0 B) 1 C) 8 3 D) 15
3 2 3 2
14. If x  and y  the value of x 2  xy  y 2 is:
32 3 2
A) 99 B) 100 C) 1 D) 0
15. The simplest rationalising factor of 4

48 is:
A) 4
9 B) 4
27 C) 3
9 D) None of these
 5  125 
0.25 0.25
16. The value of is:

 256    256 
0.10 0.15
5 5 25 25
A) B) C) D)
2 4 2 16
17. If 2a  4c and 3b  9a and a, b, c all positive, then:\
A) c  a  b B) b  c  a C) c  b  a D) a  b  c
22009  2 2007
18. Simplify:
22006  2 2008
A) –4 B) –2 C) –1 D) 2
If 4 x  41  24, then the value of  2x  equals

x
19.
A) 5 5 B) 5 C) 25 5 D) 25
20. If 2a 2b 2c  256, then the average of a, b and c is
8 256 4
A) B) C) D) 8
3 3 3
21. If x  0.5 then which one of the following has the smallest value
1 1 1
A) B) C) 2 x D)
2x x x
22. Which is the greatest number amongst 21/ 2 ,31/3 ,81/8 and 91/9 ?
A) 91/9 B) 81/8 C) 31/3 D) 21/2
211
23. If in 3  3 5, x  3 and y  3 5, then its rationalising factor is

A) x  y B) x  y
C) x 5  x 4 y  x 3 y 2  x 2 y3  xy 4  y5 D) x 5  x 4 y  x 3 y 2  x 2 y 3  xy 4  y5
1 1 1
 x b  bc  x c  ca  x a  ab
24. The value of  c  .  B  .  b  on simplifying is
x  x  x 
A) x B)1/x C) 1 D) –1
25. Value of the expression
1 3 4
 
11  2 30 7  2 10 8 4 3
A) 30 B) 2 10 C) 1 D) 0
LEVEL-II
1. If aabb is a four digit number and also a perfect square then the value of a + b is :
A) 12 B) 11 C) 10 D) 9
2. Find the value of ‘x’ if 2 log x 7  log 7 x 7  3log 49x 7  0
4
A) x  B) x  7 1/ 2 C) x  7 4/3 D) Either (B) or (C)
3
The value of log10  5log10 100   is:

2
3.
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 10
If log10  5 log10 100  

2
4.
A) x  103 B) x  1010 C) x  155 D) None
1
5. If log 3 M  3log 3 N  1  log 0.008 5, then :
3
9 9
A) M  B) N 
9 9
N M
3 3
C) M  D) N 
3 9
N M
6. 
The units digit of 1  9  9  9  ........9
2 3 2009
is: 
A) 0 B) 1 C) 9 D) 3
212
7. In the familiar decimal number system the base is 10. In another number system using base 4, the
counting proceeds as 1,2,3,10,11,12,13,20,21 ..... The twentieth number in the system will be:
A) 40 B) 320 C) 210 D) 110
8.  
If x  0 and log 7 x  5x  65  0, then x is:
2
A) -13 B) -11 C) -6 D) -5
3 1
9. If x  , find the value of 4x 3  2x 2  8x  7
2
A) 0 B) 100 C) 11 D) 10
10. The value of the expression

34  24 2  4  3 2 is: 
A) -2 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4
1
11. If Y  2  1 , then the value of Y  is :
Y
3 3 2 4
A) B) C) D)
2 2 2 2
12. The number N  3

2  5  3 2  5 equals :
A) 1 B) 5 1 C) 3
2 D) 53 2
6r s  12r s
13. Let r and s be integer. The is an integer if:
8r  9r  2s
A) r  s  0 B) s  0 C) r  0 D) r  s
14. Real numbers a and b satisfy the equations 3a  81b  2 and 125b  5a 3 . The value of ab, is:
A) 17 B) 9 C) 12 D) 60
1 1 1
15. If 2 x  3y  6  z , then     is equal to:
x y z
3 1
A) 0 B) 1 C) D) 
2 2
16. Solve for n in 4n  4n  4n  4 n  22010
A) 1005 B) 2010 C) 1004 D) 1003
213
5 2 52
17. If N   3  2 2 then the value of N is
52
A) 2 2  1 B) 2 C) 1 D) 5 2
18. Of the following four numbers the largest is
C) 17  D)  31
105 84
A) 3210 B) 7140
2  2 6  2  3  2  3 is
19. The value of
3 2 3
3 4 6 43 6 3 4 6 43 6
A) B) C) D)
3 3 4 3
a
20. The rationslizing factor of n is
b
a a a n 1 a n 1
A) ab n B) n C) n
D) n
b b b n 1 b n 1
LEVEL-III
1. The sum of the digits of two digit number is 11, if the digits are revesed the number decreases by 45.
The number is:
A) 38 B) 65 C) 74 D) 83
 1  1  1  1 
2. log10 1    log10 1    log10  1    ....  log10 1   . When simplified has the value equal
 2  3  4  1999 
to:
A) 1 B) 3 C) 10 D) 100
3. 
If x  0 and log 7 x  5x  65  0, then x is
2

A) -13 B) -11 C) -6 D) -5
4. The number N 
5 
3  50 5  24 
75  5 2
A) an irrational number
B) rational which is not an integer
C) unity
D) an even prime
214
5. Suppose that P  2 m and Q  3n . Which of the following is equal to 12mn for every pair of integers
(m,n) ?
A) P n Q m B) P n Q2m C) P 2m Q 2n D) P 2n Q m
6. The product of 2050 and 5020 is written as an integer in expanded form. The number of cyphers at the
end of the resulting integer is
A) 70 B) 71 C) 90 D) 210
1 1
2007
 2009
x x
7. For x  0, 1 , the expression 1 1 is eqivalent to
2008
 2010
x x
1
A) x B) x–1 C) x 2  1 D)
x
8. 273  272  271 is the same as
A) 259 B) 2 70 C) 2 71 D) 2 72
 
q q
9. If x p  x p , then p 
1 1
A) q q B)1 C) q q D) q q 1
4 32 31
10. The value of 3   is
9 9 9
1
A) 3 B) 3
3
3
3
3 3
C) D)
3
2 1 3
2 1
Numerical type
1. If the decimal number 2111 is written in the octal system, then what is its unit place digit?
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3
2. Find x if log10 1250  log10 80  x
A) 5 B) 4 C) 8 D) 7
3.  
If x  7  4 3 , then the value of x
1
x
is
A) 8 B) 6 C) 5 D) 4
215
 0.6    0.1
o 1
4. The value of
 3 / 23   3 / 2 3   1/ 31 is
1
3 3 20 1
A) B) C) D) 
20 20 3 20
4  
2
x3
5. If  3  3 , then x is equal to:
6
A) 22 B) 6 C) 3 D) 1
216
CHAPTER - 2
COMMERCIAL MATHEMATICS II
PROFIT, LOSS & DISCOUNT

DEFINITIONS
(i) Cost price (C.P): The amount for which an article is bought is called its cost price, abbreviated to CP
(ii) Selling price (S.P): The amount for which an article is sold is called its selling price, abbreviated to
SP
(iii) Gain: When S.P.> C.P. then the there is a gain Gain= S.P.-C.P.
(iv) Loss : When S.P. < C.P. then there is a loss
Loss = C.P. - S.P.
 REMARK
The gain or loss is always calculated on the cost price
SOME IMPORTANT FORMULAE
(i) Gain = S.P.-C.P. (ii) Loss = C.P.-S.P.
 Gain 
(iii) Gain % =   100  %
 C.P. 
 Loss 
(iv) Loss % =   100  %
 C.P. 
(v) To find S.P. when C.P. and gain % or loss % are given
100  Gain %   C.P.

a) S.P. 
100
100  Loss %   C.P.

b) S.P. 
100
(vi) To find C.P. when S.P. and gain % or loss % are given
100
a) C.P.  100  Gain %  S.P.
217
100
b) C.P.  100  Loss %  S.P.
 If the S.P of two objects are equal and one of them is sold at x% profit and other is at x% loss then
there is always a loss of
2
 Common Loss or Gain %  x2
   %
 10  100
 Overhead:
Sometimes, after purchasing an article, we have to pay some more money for things like transportation,
labour charges, repairing charges, local taxes, etc. These extra expenses are called overhead. For
calculating the total cost price, we add overhead to the purchase price
Examples
Ex. A grocer buys 20 kg of sugar at a cost of Rs. 18 per kg and 30 kg of an inferior sugar at a cost of
Rs. 15 per kg. He mixes the two kinds of sugar and sells the mixture at a cost of Rs. 16.50 per kg. Find
his profit or loss percent
Sol. C.P. of 20 kg of sugar = 18h0=Rs.360
C.P. of 30 kg of sugar = 15i0=Rs.450
Total C.P. = 360+450=Rs.810
S.P . of (20+30) kg = 50 kg of sugar = 16.50×50=Rs. 825
 Profit = S.P.-C.P. = 825–810=Rs.15
15 50 23
 Profit percent =  100  1
810 27 27
23
Hence, the required profit = 1 %
27
Ex. If the selling price of 20 articles is the same as the cost price of 23 articles, find the profit or loss
percent in the transaction
Sol. Let the C.P. of an article be Rs x.
Then C.P. of 23 articles = Rs. 23x
and C.P. of 20 articles = Rs. 20x
S.P. of 20 articles = C.P. of 23 articles = Rs. 23x
Since, S.P. of 20 articles > C.P.of 20 articles, hence
there is a profit in the transaction
Hence, profit on 20 articles = S.P.-C.P.
= Rs. (23x–20x) = Rs. 3x
3x
 Profit percent =  100  15%
20x
 Required profit = 15%
218
Ex. A man bought 2 boxes for Rs. 1300. He sold one box at a profit of 20% and other box at a loss of
12%. If the selling price of both the boxes is the same, find the cost price of each box
Sol. Let the C.P. of the first box which was sold at a profit of 20% be Rs.x. Then the C.P. of the second
box which was sold at a loss of 12% will be Rs. (1300-x). Since the first box was sold a profit of 20%.
120
Its S.P. = Rs. x
100
88 1300  x 
Hence, its S.P.= Rs.
100
Since the S.P, of both the boxes are the same,
We have,
120x 88 1300  x 

100 100
 15x  111300  x 
 15x  11x  11  1300
11  1300
x  550
26
Hence, C.P. of the first box = Rs. 550
And that of the second box = Rs. (1300–550) = Rs. 750
Ex. A man buys an article and sells it at a profit of 20%. If he would buy it at 20% less and sell it for Rs.
75 less, he would have gained 25%. What is the cost price of the article?
Sol. Let the C.P. of the article be Rs. x.
He makes a profit of 20%
120x 6x
Hence S.P. = Rs.  Rs.
100 5
If he would buy it at 20% less, then
 20   1 4x
The new C.P.= Rs.x 1    Rs.x 1    Rs.
 100   5 5
If he would sell it for Rs. 75 less, then the new S.P
 6x 
 Rs.   75 
 5 
If he gains 25%, then the new S.P.
125 4x
 Rs.   Rs.x
100 5
219
6x
Hence,  75  x
5
6x
  x  75
5
x
  75
5
Hence, the required C.P. = Rs. 375
Ex. A vendor bought oranges at 20 for Rs. 56 and sold them at Rs. 35 per dozen. Find his gain or loss
percent.
Sol. Let the number of oranges bought
= LCM of 20 and 12 = 60
C.P. of 20 oranges = Rs. 56
56
 C.P. of 1 orange = Rs.
20
 56 
Hence, the C.P. of 60 oranges = Rs.   60   Rs.168
 20 
S.P. of 12 oranges = 35
35
 S.P. of 1 orange = Rs.
12
 35 
Hence, the S.P. of 60 oranges =   60   Rs.175
 12 
Thus, C.P. = Rs. 168 and S.P. = Rs. 175
Since, (S.P.) > (C.P.) the vendoir has made a gain
Gain = (175-168) = Rs. 7
 Gain   7  1
 Gain % =  C.P  100  %   168 100  %  4 6 %
   
Ex. A reduction of 10% in the price of sugar enables a man to buy 25kg more for Rs. 225. What is the
original price of sugar (per kilogram)?
Sol. Let the original price be x
225
Original quantity =
x
New price = 0.9 x
225
New quantity =
0.9x
220
225 225
Equating   25  x  Re.1
0.9x x
Ex. A man sold two flates for Rs. 875958 each. On one he gains 16% while on the other he loses 16%.
How much percentage does he gain or lose in the whole transaction?
2
 Common loss and Gain % 
Sol. Loss % =  
 10 
2
 16   64 
   %    %  2.56%
 10   25 
DISCOUNT
(i) Marked price: In big shops and department stores, every article is tagged with a card and its price is
written on it. This is called the marked price of that article, abbreviated to MP. For books, the printed
price is the marked price.
(ii) List price: Items which are manufactured in a factory are marked with a price according to the list
supplied by the factory, at which the retailer is supposed to sell them. This price is known as the list
price of the article
(iii) Discount: In order to increase the sale or clear the old stock, sometimes the shipkeepers offer a
certain percentage of rebate on the marked price. This rebate is known as discount.
 Discount = Marked Price - selling price
M.P.  Rate of discount

 Discount % =
100
 199  Discount % 
 S.P.= M.P.×  
 100 
100  S.P.
 M.P. 
100  Discount %
 Two successive discounts of x% and y% allowed on an item are equivalent to a single discount of
 xy 
x  y  %
 100 
 An important fact: The discount is always calculated on the marked price

Clearly, Selling Price = Marked Price - Discount
 NOTE : This discount is always less than the sum of individual discounts
Examples
Ex. The marked price of a woolen coat is Rs. 2000. It is sold at a discount of 15%. The shopkeeper
has allowed a further discount of 5% due to off season. Find the selling price of the coat
Sol. The marked price = Rs. 2000
Ist discount = 15% of Rs. 2000
221
15
 Rs.  2000  Rs.300
100
 The reduced marked price after the Ist discount
 Rs.2000  Rs.300  Rs.1700
2nd discount due to off-season = 5% of Rs. 1700
5
 Rs.  1700  Rs.85
100
Hence, the final reduced price after the 2nd discount
 Rs.1700  Rs.85  Rs.1615  S.P.
Hence, the required S.P. of the coat is Rs. 1615
Ex. Find a single discount equivalent to the discount series 25%, 20% and 10%
Sol. Let the marked price of the article be Rs. 100
Then a single discount equivalent to the discount series is
 100  25 100  20 100  10 

100     100  %
 100 100 100 
 75 80 90 
 100     100  %
 100 100 100 
 3 4 9 
 100     100  %
 4 5 10 
 100  54  %  46%
Hence, the given discount series is equivalent to a single discount of 46%

Ex. At what percentage above the C.P. must an article be marked so as to gain 33% after allowing a
customer a discount of 5%
Sol. Let C.P. = Rs. 100. Then S.P> = Rs. 133
Let marked price be Rs. x
Then 95% of x = 133
95  100 
  133  x   133    140
100  95 
Hence, percentage above the C.P. of an article be marked as = 140–100=40%
MIXTURE AND ALLIGATION
Alligation: It is the rule that enables us to find the ratio in which two or more ingredients at the given
price must be mixed to produce a mixture of a desired price.
Mean Price: The cost price of a unit quantity of mixture is called the mean price.
222
Rule of Alligation : If two ingredients are mixed, then,
Quantity of cheaper

 C.P.of dearer    Mean CP 
Quantity of dearer  Mean price    C.P.of cheaper 
We can also represent this thing as under
 Suppose a container contains x units of liquid from which y units are taken out an replaced by water..
After n operations, the quantity of pure liquid
  y n 
  x 1    units
  x  
Ex. The cost of Type 1 rice is Rs. 15 per kg and type 2 rice is Rs. 20 per kg. If both type-1 and type-2
are mixed in ratio of 2:3 then find the price per kg of the mixed variety of rice
Sol. Let the price of the mixed variety be Rs. x per kg. By the rule of alligation, we have

 20  x   2
 x  15  3
 60  3x  2x  30
 5x  90
 x  18
So, price of the mixture is Rs. 18 per kg
Ex. A milk vendor has 2 cans of milk. The first contains 25% water and the rest milk. The second
contains 50% water. How much milk should he mix from each of the containers so as to get 12 litres
of milk such that the ratio of water to milk is 3:5?
Sol. Let cost of 1 litre milk be Rs. 1
3
Milk in 1 litre mixture in Ist can = litre
4
3
C.P. of 1 litre mixture in Ist can = Rs.
4
223
1
Milk in 1 litre mixture in 2nd can = litre
2
1
C.P. of 1 litre mixture in 2nd can = Rs.
2
5
Milk in 1 litre of final mixture = litre
8
5
Mean price = Rs.
8
By the rule of alligation, we have
x 3/ 45/8

y 5 / 8 1 / 2
x 1/ 8 1
 
y 1/ 8 1
 We will mix 6 from each can

Ex. Tea worth Rs. 126 per kg and Rs. 135 per kg are mixed with a third variety in the ratio 1:1:2. If the
mixture is worth Rs. 153 per kg, then find the price of the third variety per kg
Sol. Since first and second varieties are mixed in equal proportions, so their average price
 126  135 
= Rs.   Rs.130.50
 2 
So, the mixture is formed by mixing two varieties, one at Rs. 130.50 per kg and the other at say, Rs. x
per kg in the ratio 2:2, i.e.1:1. We have to find x. By the rule of alligation, we have
224
x  153
1
22.5
153  22.5  x
x  Rs.175.50
SIMPLE & COMPOUND INTEREST
 DEFINITION
(i) Principal: The money borrowed or lent out is called principal
(ii) Interest: The additional money paid by the borrower is called the interest
(iii) Amount: The total money (interest + principal) paid by the borrower is called the amount  A  P  1
(iv) Rate of interest: If the borrower paid interest of Rs. x on Rs. 100 for 1 year, the the rate of interest
is x percent per annum
(v) Time: The period for which the sum is borrowed is called the time
(vi) Simple interest: If the principal remains the same throughout the loan period, then the interest
paid by the borrower is called simple interest.
PR T
S.I. 
100
Examples
Ex. How long will it take a sum of money invested at 5% p.a. S.I. to increase its value by 40%?
2
Sol. Let sum is P then S.I is P
5
2 P5T
 P
5 100
 T  8 years
Ex. The rate of interest on a sum of money is 4% p.a. for the first 2 years, 6% p.a for the next 3 years
and 8% p.a. for the period beyond 5 years. If the simple interest accrued by the sum for a total period
of 8 years is Rs. 1,280 what is the sum?
Sol. Let the sum be Rs. x
x  4 2 x  6 3 x 8 3
Then,    1280
100 100 100
 50x  1280  100
 sum  x  Rs.2,580
Ex. Madhav lent out Rs. 7953 for 2 years and Rs. 1800 for 3 years at the same rate of simple interest
if he got Rs. 2343.66 as total interest then find the percent rate of interest
Sol. Let the percent rate of interest be x%
225
7953  2  x 15906
  x
100 100
and interest on Rs. 1800 for 3 years at the rate of x%
1800  3  x
  54x
100
According to problem:
15906x
 54x  2343.66
100
15906x  5400x 234366

 
100 100
 21306x  234366
234366
x
21306
 x  11%
Hence, the required rate of interest = 11%
COMPOUND INTEREST
 If the borrower and the lender agree to fix up a certain interval of time (Say, a year or a half year or a
quarter of year etc) so that the Amount (=Principal+Interest) at the end of an interval becomes the
principal for the next interval, then the total interest over all the intervals calculated in this way is called
the compound interest and is abbreviated as C.I.
 NOTE: S.I. and C.I are equal for Ist year.
Important Formulae: If A is the amount, P is the principal, R% is the rate of interest compounded
annually and n is the number of intervals, then
n
 R 
A  P 1  
 100 
 R 
n

and, C.I.= A-P= P   1    1
 100  
 If compound interest calculated half-yearly, then
R
Rate = % per half year and Time = 2n half years
2
2n
 R 
So, A   1  
 2  100 
226
 If compound interest calculated quarterly, then
R
Rate = % per quarter, Time = 4n quarters
4
4n
 R 
So, A  P 1  
 4  100 
 Let P be the principal and the rate of interest be R% per annum. If the interest is compounded k-times
in a year, then the amount A and the compound interest C.I. at the end of n years are given by
nk
 R 
A  P 1   ,and
 100K 
 R 
nk

C.I.  A  P  P 1    1  respectively
 100k  
 Let P be the principal and the rate of interest be R1 % for first year, R2% for second year, R3% for third
year and so on and is last Rn% for the nth year. Then, the amount A and the compound interest C.I. at
the end of n years are given by
 R  R   R 
A  P 1  1 1  2  .... 1  n 
 100  100   100 
 R 1  R2   Rn  
& C.I.  A  P  P 1  1   .....  1    1
 100  100   100  
 Let P be the principal and the rate of interest be R% per annum. If the interest is compounded annually
1
but time is the fraction of a year, say 5 years, then amount A is given by
4
 R 
 R 
5
 4  an C.I.  A  P
A  P 1   1  
 100   100 
 
Example
Ex: At what rate percent per annum will a sum or Rs.2000 amount to Rs 2205 in 2 years, compounded
annually?
Sol. Let the required rate be R% per annum
Here, A = 2205, P = Rs 2000 and n = 2 years.
n
 R 
Using the formula A  P  1   , we get
 100 
2
 R 
2205  2000   1   ;
 100 
227
2
 R  2205
 1    ;
 100  2000
2
 R  441
 1   
 100  400
2 2
 R   21 
 1    
 100   20 
2
 R  21
 1   
 100  20
R  21  1
    1 
100  20  20
 1 
 R  100    5
 20 
Hence, the required rate of interest is 5% per annum.
1
Ex: Find the compound interest on Rs. 8000 for 1 years at 10% per annum, interest being payable
2
half yearly.
Sol. We have
Rate of interest = 10 % per annum = 5% per half year,
1
Time = 1 years = 3 half year
2
Original principal = Rs. 8000
 8000  5  1 
Interest for the first half year  Rs    Rs.400
 100
Amount at the end of the first half year  Rs.8000  400  Rs.8400
Principal for the second half year = Rs. 8400
 8400  5  1 
Interest for the second half year =  Rs.    Rs.420
 100 
Amount at the end of the second half year  Rs.8400  Rs.420  Rs.8820
Principal for the third half year = 8820
 8820  5  1 
Interest for the third half year  Rs.   =Rs .441
 100 
228
Amount at the end of third half year  Rs.8820  Rs.441  Rs.9261
 Compound interest  Rs.9261  Rs.8000  Rs.1261

Ex. Find the compound interes on Rs.10,000 for 1 year at 20% per annum interest being payable
quarterly.
20
Sol. We have Rate of interest = 20% per annum =   5% per quarter
4
Time = 1 year = 4 quarters
Principal for the first quarter  Rs.10000
 10000  5 1 
Interest for the first quarter  Rs    Rs.500
 100 
Amount at the end of first quarter  Rs.10000  Rs.500  Rs.10500
Principal for the second quarter = Rs.10500
 10500  5 1 
Interest for the second quarter  Rs.    Rs.525
 100 
Amount at the end of second quarter = Rs. 10500+Rs.525=Rs.11025
Principal for the third quarter  Rs.11025
11025  5  1
Interest for the third quarter  Rs.  Rs.551.25
100
Amount at the end of the third quarter = Rs. 11025+Rs.551.25=Rs.11576.25
Principal for the fourth quarter = Rs. 11576.25
 11576.25  5  1 
Interest for the fourth quarter  Rs.    Rs.578.8125
 100 
Amount at the end of the fourth quarter = Rs. 11576.25 + Rs.578.8125= Rs .12155.0625
Compound interest = Rs. 12155.0625-Rs.10000 = Rs. 2155.0625
Ex. What is the C.l. received on a sum of Rs.26,000 at rates 10%,12%, and 8% each, prevailing in that
order for years 1st,2nd, & 3rd, interest being compounded semi-annually for the given three years?
2 2 2
 5   6   4 
Sol. Amt  Rs.26, 000  1   1   1  
 100   100   100 
Amount =  Rs.34.836.17
Cl  Rs.34,836.17  26, 000  Rs.8,836.17
229
Ex. The difference between the Cl and Sl on a certain amount at 10% per annum for 2 years,
compounded annually is Rs.372. Find the principal
Sol. Let the principal be P
P  10  2 P
Sl= 
100 5
2
 10  21
Cl  Amount  P  P  1   P  P
 100  100
Cl  Si  Rs.372
21 P
P   Rs.372
100 5
 P  Rs.37, 200
Application of compound interest:
 Let P be the population of a city or town at the beginning of a certain year and the population grows at
a constant rate of R% per annum, then
n
 R 
Population after n years = 1   P
 100 
 Let P be the population of a city or a town at the beginning of a certain year. If the population grows at
the rate of R1% during first year and R2% during second year, then
 R1   R 
Population after 2 years  P 1    1  2 
 100   100 
This formula may be extended for more than 2 years
 If Vo is the value of an article at a certain time and R% per annum is the rate of depreciation, then the
value Vn at the end of n years is given by
n
 R 
Vn  Vo  1  
 100 
 If Vo is the value of an article at a certain time and the rate of depreciation is R1% for first n1 years, R2%
for next n2 years and so on and Rk % for the last nk years, then the value at the end of n1  n 2  ....n k
years is given by
n nk
 R  1 R   R 
V  Vo  1  1   1  2  .... 1  k 
 100   100   100 
Ex. The present population of a town is 25000. It grows at the rate of 4%, 5% and 8% during the first
year, second year and third year respectively. Find its population after 3 years
Sol. Population after 3 years
 4  5  8 
 25000 1   1  1 
 100   100   100 
230
26 21 27
 25000     29484
25 20 25
Hence, the population after 3 years = 29484
Ex. The value of a machine depreciates at the rate of 10% every year. It was purchased three years
ago. If its present value is Rs. 8,748. Find its purchase price.
Sol. Let the purchase price be P.
Rate of depreciation = 10%
3
 10 
 P 1    8748
 100 
 10 10 10 
 P   8748      Rs.12,000
 9 9 9
Therefore, purchase price of machine was Rs. 12,000
2
Ex. What annual payment wil ldischarge a debt of Rs. 7,620 due in 3 years at 16 % per annum
3
compound annually?
Sol. Let each instalment be Rs. x
Then,
x x x
   7620
 50   50 
2
 50 
3
 1   1 1 
 100   3  100  
 3  100 
6x 36x 216x
    7620
7 49 343
 294x  252x  216x  7620  343
7620  343
x  3430
762
 Amount of each instalment = Rs. 3, 430
TIME AND WORK
DIRECT AND INDIRECT PROPORTION
A. Direct Proportion: Two quantities are said to be directly proportional, if on the increase (or decrease)
of the one, the other increases (or decreases) to the same extent
 Cost is directly proportional to the number of articles. (More Articles, More Cost)
 Work done is directly proportional to the number of men working on it (More Men, More Work)
B. Indirect Proportion: Two quantities are said to be indirectly proportional, if on the increase of the one
the other decreases to the same extent and vice-versa
 The time taken by a car in covering a certain distance is inversely proportional to the speed of the car
(More speed, Less is the time taken to cover a distace)
231
 Time taken to finish a work is inversely proportional to the number of persons working at it
(More persons, less is the time taken to finish a job)
WORK AND TIME
Work is defined as the amount of job assigned of the amount of job actually done.
Work is always considered as a whole or 1
Units of work: Work is measured by many units i.e. men - days, men-hours, men-minutes, machine-
hours or in general person-time, machine time
 If A and B can do a piece of work in x and y days respectively while working alone, then they will take
 xy 
  days to complete the work if both are working together
xy
1
Proof: A’s one day work =
x
1
B’s one day work = y
1 1
and  A  B  's one day work = x  y
xy
 A  B  's one day work = xy
xy
 Time taken by both A and B (working together) to complete the work = x  y
 If A,B,C can do a piece of work in x,y,z days respectively while working alone, then they will together
1
take 1  1  1 days to complete the work.
x y z
Examples
A,B and C together can finish a piece of work in 4 days. A alone can do it in 9 days and B alone in 18
days. How many days will be taken by C to do it alone
Sol. Let;s time taken by C alone to complete the work in x days
1 1 1 1
   
4 9 18 x
 x  12days
Ex. A,B and C can do a piece of work 6,8 and 12 days respectively B and C work together for 2 days,
then A takes C’s place. How long will it take to finish the work
 1 1  5th
Sol. Work done by B & C in 2 days = 2    = part of the work
 8 12  12
232
th
 5 7 th
Remaining work =  1    part
 12  12
th th
1 1  7 
A and B’s one day work =       part
 6 8  24 
7 th
So, part of work is completed in 1 day
24
7 th
 part of work will be completed in
12
1 7 24 7
     2 days
7 12 7 12
24
x
 A can finish a work in x days and B is k times as efficient as A (i.e. B will complete the work in dats)
k
x
Then time taken by both A & B working together to finish the job will be
k 1
 If A is k times as good as B and takes x days less than B to finish the work. Then the amount of time
kx
required by A and B working together is days
k 1
2
Ex. A is thrice as good a work man as B and takes 60 days less than B for doing a job. Find the time
in which they can do it together
Sol. Here k = 3, x = 60
 Time in which they can do it together
3  60 3  60 1
   22 days
3 1
2
8 2
Ex: 25 men were employed to do a piece of work in 24 days. After 15 days. 10 more men were
engaged and the work was finished a day too soon. In what time could they finished a day too soon. In
what time could they finish the work if extra men were not employed.
Sol. Actual work done   25 15    25  10   8  655 man days
655
Time required by 25 men to complete this work is   26.2 days
25
Ex. If 12 men or 18 women can reap a field in 7 days, in what time can 4 men & 8 women reap the
same field,
Sol. 12 men = 18 women
 4 men  6 women
4 men + 8 women = 6 women +8 women = 14 women Total work done  18  7 women  days
233
18  7
 No. of days required to complete this work by 4 men and 8 women = 14 women is =  9 days
14
Ex. A and B undertake to do a piece of work for Rs.600. A alone can do it in 6 days, while B alone can
do it in B days with the help of C, they finish it in 3 days. Find B’s share
1 1 1 1
Sol.C’s 1 day’s work     
3  6 8  24
1 1 1
Ratio of work done in 1 day for A : B : C  : :  4 : 3 :1
6 8 24
 600  3 
B’s share  Rs    Rs.225
 8 
PIPES AND CISTERNS
Here the work done is in terms of filling or emptying a cistern
Inter pipe: It is the pipe connected to cistem which fill the cistern (time taken is in +ve)
Outlet pipe: It is the pipe connected to cistem which empties the cistem (time taken is -ve).
th
1
 If an inlet pipe fills a cistern in ‘a’ hours, then  
a
 mn 
 lf two inlet pipes A & B can fill a cistem in ‘m’ & ‘n’ hours respectively then together they will take   hrs.
mn
to fill the cistern
 lf an inlet pipe fills a cistem in ‘m’ hours and an outlet pipe empties it in ‘n’ hours, then the net part filled in 1hr.
 1 1 mn
when both the pipes are opened is    hours and the cisterm will get filled in hours. for cistem
m n nm
to get filled , m < n
 mn 
 lf m > n, the cisterm will never get filled, in this case a completely filled cistern gets emptied in   hours.
mn
 lf an inlet pipe fills a cistem in m hrs. and takes in hrs. longer to fill the cistem due to leak in the cistem, then the
 m
time in which the leak will empty the cistem is m  1  
 n
Ex:A tank is emptied by 2 pipes and filled by a third. If the 1st two can empty the tank in 2 and 3 hrs.
th
4
respectively and third can fill it in 4 hours how much time will it take to empty the tank   full when all three
5
are open.
Sol. Let the time taken to completely empty the tank is x hrs.
1 1 1  1
   
x 2 3  4
234
1 7
 
x 12
12
x hrs
7
12
Complete tank will be emptied in hrs
7
th
4 12 4 48
   tank will be emptied in =   hrs
5 7 5 35
Ex. Two pipes M & N can fill a cistem in 12 & 16 hrs. respectively. If both the pipes are opened
together, then after how many minutes N should be closed so that the tank is full in 9 hrs
Sol. Let N be closed after x hrs. Then
1 1 1
x     9  x   1
 12 16  12
3
 x  16 
12
 x  4 hrs  240 minutes
Ex. Two pipes A and B can fill a tank in 36 min and 45 min respectively. Pipe C can empty it in 30 min.
A and B are opened and after 7 min C is also opened. In how much time will the tank be full?
 1 1  7
Sol. Part filled in 7 min = 7     
 36 45  20
7 13
Remaining part = 1  
20 20
1 1 1 1
Net part filled in one minute when A,B and C are opened =   
36 45 30 60
13 13
part is filled in 60   39 mins
20 20
Total time taken to fill the tank =  39  7   46 mins
235
QUESTIONS
LEVEL I
1. If the cost price of 12 books is the same as the selling price of 16 books, the gain or loss per cent is
A) 15% gain B) 25 % loss C) 20% loss D) 30% gain
2. A man loses the selling price of 4 apples on selling 36 apples. His loss per cent is
A) 12.5 B) 11.11 C) 10 D) 9
3. By selling a table, Aditya eamed a profit equal to one-fourth of the price he bought it. If he sold it for Rs.
375, what was the cost price?
A) Rs. 281.75 B) Rs. 300 C) Rs. 312.50 D) Rs. 350
4. Rice is mixed in the ratio 2:3 and sold at Rs. 22 per kg, resulting in a profit 10%. If the cost of the
smaller quantity be Rs. 14 per kg, then the cost per kg of the larger quantity is
A) Rs. 24 B) Rs. 23 C) Rs. 25 D) Rs. 28
18
5. A dealer declares to sell his goods at cost price, but he uses a false weight and gains 6 % for a
47
kilogram, he uses a weight of
A) 953g B) 960g C) 940g D) 947 g
6. A bought a cycle and spent Rs. 110 on its repairs. He then sold it to B at a profit of 20%. B sold it to C
at a loss of 10%. C sold it at a profit of 10% for Rs. 1,188. What is the price A paid to buy that bicycle.
A) Rs. 850 B) Rs. 870 C) Rs. 930 D) Rs. 890
7. Two horses were sold for Rs. 12,000 each, one at a loss of 20% and the other at a gain of 20%. The
entire transaction resulted in
A) no loss, no gain B) loss of Rs. 1,000 C) gain of Rs. 1,000 D) gain of Rs. 2,000
8. The difference between the discounts of 40% on Rs. 500 and two successive discounts of 36% and
4% on the same price is
A) Rs. 2 B) Rs. 7.20 C) Rs. 1.93 D) Rs. 7
9. The list price of a slipper is Rs. 160. The first discount offered is 10% and second discount is x% the
SP of the slipper now is Rs. 122.4. Find x
A) 15 B) 10 C) 18 D) 20
10. At what percent per annum, simple interest wil double a sum of money in 12 years?
1 25
A) 8 % B) 24% C) % D) 8.25%
3 4
11. Find the amount of Rs. 12000 after 2 years compounded annually, the rate of interest being 5% p.a.
during the first year and 6% p.a. during the second year, also find the compound interest
A) Rs. 1356 B) Rs. 1200 C) Rs. 1256 D) none of these
3
12. Find the compound interest on Rs. 31250 at 8% per annum for 2 years.
4
236
13. A certain sum amounts to Rs. 72900 in 2 years at 8% per annum compound interest. Find the sum
14. In what time will Rs. 64000 amount to Rs. 68921 at 5% per annum, interest being compounded half-
yearly?
1 2
A) 1 years B) years C) 2 years D) none of these
2 3
15. The value of refrigerator which was purchased 2 years ago depreciates at 12% p.a. If its present value
is Rs. 9680, for how much was it purchased?
A) Rs. 11500 B) Rs. 10500 C) Rs. 12000 D) Rs. 12500
4
16. A tin of oil was full. When six bottles of oil were taken out and four bottles of oil were poured in, it was
5
3
full. How many bottles of oil did the tin contain initially?
4
A) 16 B) 40 C) 32 D) none of these
17. If 5 men can 5 chairs in 5 hours, then 1 man shall cane 1 chair in how many hours
A) 1 hour B) 15 hours C) 5 hours D) 10 hours
18. Harpal is thrice as good a workman as Kewal and takes 10 days less to do a piece of work than Kewal
takes. The Kewal can do that work in
A) 8 days B) 12 days C) 13 days D) 15 days
19. A takes 10 days less than the time taken by B to finish a piece of work. If both A and B together can
finish the work in 12 days, the time taken by B to finish the work is
20. Taps A and B can fill in a tank in 12 and 15 min respectively. If both are opened and A is closed after 3
min, how long will it take for B to fill in the tank?
A) 8 min 15s B) 8 min 5 s C) 7 min 45 s D) 8 min 45 s
LEVEL - II
1. An article was sold for Rs. y after giving a discount of x%. Then, its list price is
100y 100y 10y

A) B) C) 1   x / 100  D) none of these
100  x 1 x
2. Kunal bought a suitcase with 15% discount on the labelled price. He sold the suitcase for Rs. 2880
with 20% profit on the labelled price. At what price did he buy the suitcase?
A) Rs. 2040 B) Rs. 2400 C) Rs. 2604 D) Rs. 2640
3
3. A man puchased sugar worth Rs. 400. He sold th at a loss of 10% and the remaining at a gain of
4
10%. On the whole, he gets
1 1 5
A) a loss of 5% B) a gain of 5 % C) a loss of 5 % D) a loss of 5 %
2 19 19
237
4. By mixing two brands of tea and selling the mixture at the rate of Rs. 177 per kg, a shopkeeper makes
a profit of 18%. If to every 2 kg of one brand cosing Rs. 200 per kg, 3 kg of the other brand is added,
then how much per kg does the other brand cost?
5. A manbought a number of clips at 3 for a rupee and an equal number at 2 for a rupee. At what price per
dozen should he sell them to make a profit of 20%?
A) Rs. 4 B) Rs. 5 C) Rs. 6 D) Rs. 7
6. In what ratio must water be mixed with milk costing Rs. 12 per litre to obtain a mixture worth of Rs. 8
per litre?
A) 1:2 B) 2:1 C) 2:3 D) 3:2
7. Reena borrowed from Kamila certain sum for two years at simple interest. Reena lent this to Hamid at
the same rate for two years compound interest. At the end of two years she received Rs. 110 as
compound interest but paid Rs. 100 as simple interest. Find the sum and rate of interest
A) Rs. 250 and 20% B) Rs. 250 and 25% C) Rs. 200 and 20% D) Rs. 200 and 25%
8. The value of refrigerator which was purchased 2 years ago depreciates at 12 % p.a. If its present
value is Rs. 9680, for how much was it purchased?
A) Rs. 11500 B) Rs. 10500 C) Rs. 12000 D) Rs. 12500
9. If x,y and z are three sums of money such that y is the simple interest on x; z is the simple interest on
y for the same time and at the same rate of interest, than we have
A) x 2  yz B) y2  xz C) z 2  xy D) xyz  1
1
10. A certain sum of money at simple interest amounts to Rs. 1012 in 2 years and to Rs. 1067.20 in 4
2
years. The rate of interest per annum is
A) 2.5% B) 3% C) 4% D) 5%
1
11. What sum will become Rs. 9826 in 18 months if the rate of interest is 2 % per annum and the
2
interest is compounded half-yearly?
A) Rs. 9466.54 B) Rs. 9646.54 C) Rs. 9566.54 D) Rs. 9456.54
12. A can do a piece of work in 7 days of 9 hr each and B can do it in 6 days of 7 hr each. How long will they
42
take to do it working together hr a day?
5
A) 3 days B) 4 days C) 4.5 days D) 6 days
13. A and B can do a job in 12 days and B and C can do it in 16 days. After A has been working for 5 days
and B for 7 days.C finishes rest of the work in 13 days. In how many days can C do the work alone?
A) 16 days B) 36 days C) 48 days D) 24 fays
14. There taps A,B,C fill up a tank independently in 10 hr, 20 hr, 30 hr, respectively. Initially the tank is
empty and exactly one pair of taps is open during each hour and every pair of taps is open at least for
one hour. What is the minimum number of hours required to fill the tank?
A) 8 B) 9 C) 10 D) 11
238
15. A leak in the bottom of a tank can empty the full tank in 8 hour. An inlet pipe fills water at the rate of 6
liters a minutes. When the tank is full, the inlet is openend and due to leak, the tank is empty in 12
hours. How many liters does the cistern hold?
A) 7580 B) 7960 C) 8290 D) 8640
16. A is 50% as efficient as B, C does half of the work done by A and B together. If C alone does the work
in 40 days, then A,B and C together can do the work in
1
3
17. In a camp of 100 students, there is ration which lasts for 8 days. After the first 2 days, 50 more
students join them . How long will the ration last now? (Assume all the students have equal eating
capacity)
A) 4 days B) 6 days C) 8 days D) none
18. The difference between the C.I. and S.I. on an amount of Rs. 18,000 in 2 years was Rs. 405. What
was the rate of interest % p.a.?
A) 10% B) 15% C) 20% D) 25%
19. The price of a T.V set worth Rs. 20,000 is to be paid in 20 instalments of Rs. 1000 each. If the rate of
interest be 6% per annum, and the first instalment be paid at the time of purchase, then the value of
the last instalment covering the interest as well will be
20. The price of an article is raised by 30% and then two successive discounts of 10% each are allowed.
Ultimately, the price of the article is
A) decreased by 5.3% B) increased by 3% C) increased by 5.3% D) increased by 10%
LEVEL - III
1. Sucharitha purchases x pencils at Rs x each, y pens at Rs. y each and z notebooks at Rs z each. She
puchases altogether 50 items and pays Rs. 1000/ The cost of y pencils, z pens and x notebooks is
A) Rs. 600 B) Rs. 750 C) Rs. 500 D) Rs. 350
2. A, B and C can complete a work, working alone in 10, 15 and 20 days respectively. If all of them work
together to complete the work, what fraction of the work would have done by B?
4 1 1 6
A) B) C) D)
13 2 3 13
3. A leak in the bottom of a tank can empty it in 6 hr. A pipe fills the tank at 4L/min. When the tank is full,
the inlet is opened, but due to the leak the tank is emptied in 8 hr. What is the capacity of the tank?
A) 5,260 L B) 5,760L C) 5,846 L D) 6,970 L
4. In what ratio must a grocer mix two varieties of tea worth Rs. 60 per kg and Rs. 65 per kg so that by
selling the mixture at Rs. 68.20 a kg he may gain 10%?
A) 3:2 B) 3:4 C) 3:5 D) 4:5
5. A vendor bought bananas at 6 for Rs. 10 and sold them at 4 for Rs. 6. Find his loss percent
A) 12% B) 8% C) 6% D) 10%
239
1
6. A dealer sold an article at a loss of 2 % . Had he sold it for Rs. 100 more, he would have gained
2
1 1
7 % . To gain 12 % , he should sell it for
2 2
A) Rs, 850 B) Rs. 925 C) Rs. 1080 D) Rs. 1125
7. A certain principal becomes Rs. 96800 in 2 years if compounded annually at a certain rate of interest.
The same principal becomes Rs. 97240 in two years if compounded half yearly at the same rate of
interest. The rate of interest is
1 1
A) 8% B) 8 % C) 10% D) 12 %
3 2
8. A sum of Rs. 10 is lent to be returned in 11 monthly installments of Rs. 1 each, interest being simple.
The rate of interest is
1 9
A) 9 % B) 10% C) 11% D) 21 %
11 11
9. A sum of money lent out at compound interest at a certain rate increases in value by 50% in 5 years.
A person wants to lend three different sums of money ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’ for 10, 15 and 20 years respectively
at the above rate in such a way that he gets back equal sums of money at the end of the three periods.
Then the ratio x:y:z is
A) 4:3:2 B) 5:4:1 C) 9:6:4 D) 11:9:7
10. The present price of car is Rs. 7290. If its value decreased every year by 10% then its value three
years back was
A) Rs. 11,500 B) Rs. 10,500 C) Rs. 10,000 D) Rs. 8,000
Numerical type
1. A pen costs Rs. 13 and a note book costs Rs. 35. Let m be the maximum number of items that can
be bought for Rs. 1000 and n be the minimum number of items that can be bought for the same
amount. Then m + n is
2. A can do a piece of work in 7 days of 9 hr each, and B can do it in 6 days of 7 hr each. How many days
42
will they take to do it working together hr a day?
5
3. Arun purchased 30 kg of wheat at the rate of Rs. 11.50 per kg and 20 kg of wheat at the rate of Rs.
14.25 per kg. He mixed the two and sold the mixture. Approximately what price per kg should he sell
the mixture to make 30% profit?
4. A and B can do a piece of work in 45 days and 40 days respectively. They begin together but A leaves
after some days and B completes the rest in 23 days. For how many days did A work?
5. A person takes a loan of Rs. 200 at 5% simple interest. He returns Rs. 100 at the end of 1 year. In order
to clear his dues at the end of two years, he would pay.
240

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Integrated Programme(Class X ) Module - I

www.brilliantpala.org., email: [email protected]

2. Magnetic Effect of Electric Current and EMI ---------------------------------------------- 43

1. Chemical Reactions and Equations-------------------------------------------------------------- 87

2. Acid, Bases and Salts --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 110

1. Nutrition ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 141

7. Number System, Surds and Exponents ------------------------------------------------------ 191

8. Commercial Mathematics II ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 217

(i) Charging by friction :

Positive Charge Negative Charge

 Note : The object in above table must be in given pair,

a) Properties of Electric Charge :

(ii) Charge is a scalar quantity

Solution: Total charge q  I  t  300  103  60  18 C

III Coulomb’s Law

here 0 is absolute permittivity of free space.

Magnitude of charge on proton and charge on electron are same

9 109  1.6  1019  1.6  1019

1 q1q 2 9  109  10q  q

IV. Electric Field

VI. Electric Lines of Force

ELOF of Isolated positive charge

ELOF of Isolated negative charge

ELOF due to positive and negative charge

ELOF due to two positive charges

Unit of electric flux:

(i) The SI unit of electric flux is Nm 2 C 1 (gauss) or J m C-1 .

c) Electric Potential Difference :

From fig. BD  BC 2  CD 2  82  82  8 2 cm  0.08 2 m

 3 10 6 2  106  9 109  106  2 

 0.08 0.08 2  0.08  2

 2 106 3 106  9 109  106  3 

P.D. btween D and C   496.6  103  238.6  103   258  103 V

 Work done in moving a charge 2 × 10–6 C from C to D is

W  q  VD  VC   2  106  258 103  0.52 J

IX Electric Potential Energy

High potential Low potential

c) Direction of Electric Current :

d) How the Current Flows in a Wire :

e) How to get a Continuous flow of Electric Current :

Experimental verification of ohm’s law :

(iv) Temperature of the conductor. It has heen found by experiments that :

' '   ohm  metre

Substituting for V1 , V2 and V3 in above equation we have,

Solution: All 4 resistances are parallel in the circuit.

XVII Cell, Battery

Second law (Loop rule)

 E1  Ir1    E 2  Ir2   IR1  IR 2  0

XXI Heating Effect of Current

(ii) Directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor i.e. H  R

(ii) Relation between kilowatt hour and Joule.

1 kWh  3.6  106 J

no of appliance  Power of appliance in watt  Time in hour

When they are connected in series Total resistance  R1  R 2  1694 

Energy consumed in bulb A, P1 = I2R1  0.12982  1210  20.38 W

Failed insulation brings wire Metal case of appliance

20. 1 kWh = ................

A) 0.58 A B) 0.22 A C) 1.6 A D) 0.16 A

A) 11.875 B) 26.31 C) 118.75 D) None of these