GLUTEUS MEDIUS AND SCAPULA MUSCLE ACTIVATIONS

IN YOUTH BASEBALL PITCHERS

GRETCHEN D. OLIVER, WENDI H. WEIMAR, AND HILLARY A. PLUMMER
School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION

T
Oliver, GD, Weimar, WH, and Plummer, HA. Gluteus medius he overhead throwing motion has been described
and scapula muscle activations in youth baseball pitchers. as sequential in terms of position, movement, and
J Strength Cond Res 29(6): 1494–1499, 2015—The baseball force production, through the kinetic chain in
pitching motion is a total kinetic chain activity that must effi- a proximal to distal pattern (20). The scapula is
ciently use both the upper and lower extremity. Of particular
a critical component of the throwing kinetic chain. It is the
link that provides for the transfer of velocity, energy, and
importance is the scapular motion, which is critical for humeral
forces to the upper extremity, through proper timing and
positioning and proper alignment of shoulder musculature. It
coordination (15). Specifically, the scapula must coordinate
was hypothesized that scapular stability is enhanced by pelvic
the demands of humeral positioning and energy transfer
girdle stability. Therefore, it was the purpose of this study to while providing a stable platform for muscle attachments.
determine the muscle activations of selected pelvic and scap- To fulfill these roles, the scapula must rely on the stability
ular stabilizing muscles during a fastball pitch in youth baseball of the pelvis.
pitchers. Twenty youth baseball pitchers (age: 11.3 + 1.0 During baseball pitching, the scapula must fully retract
years; height: 152.4 + 9.0 cm; weight: 47.5 + 11.3 kg) were to allow for the cocking position. In addition to retraction,
recorded throwing 4-seam fastballs for strikes. Data revealed the scapula must also upwardly rotate and elevate when the
moderate (20–39% maximum voluntary isometric contraction humerus is abducted to 908 (18). This positioning of the
[MVIC]) to moderately strong (.40% MVIC) activation of the scapula maximizes the subacromial space in which the rota-
ipsilateral (throwing arm side) gluteus medius, upper trapezius, tor cuff tendons pass. An inability of the scapular stabilizing
and serratus anterior throughout phases 2 (maximum shoulder muscles to position the scapula appropriately can lead to
subacromial impingement of the rotator cuff tendons causing
external rotation to ball release) and 3 (ball release to maximum
pain and dysfunction in the shoulder. The muscles support-
shoulder internal rotation). Moderately strong activation
ing the scapula must negotiate seemingly contradictory de-
(.40% MVIC) of the upper trapezius and serratus anterior
mands of movement to accommodate the humerus and
was noted during phases 2 and 3 of the pitching motion.
providing a stable platform from which the muscles can pull.
Pearson’s product-moment correlation revealed significant re- The scapula is stabilized by a force couple formed by the
lationships between bilateral gluteus medius and the force upper and lower trapezius, rhomboid, and serratus anterior
couples about the scapula during all 3 phases of the pitching muscles (15). Any inefficiency in scapular position will alter
motion. The results of this study provide important data that lines of pull for these muscles and may lead to injury.
improve the understanding of the muscular relationship During the dynamic movement of the baseball pitch, it is
between the pelvic and scapular stabilizers during the fastball the movement of the proximal (lower extremity) segments
pitch. Training and rehabilitation programs should consider that influence the shoulder and ultimately ball speed. Thus, it
focusing on lumbopelvic-hip and scapular muscle strengthen- is the coordinated sequential movements of the kinetic chain
ing as well as coordinated strengthening of the pelvic and that leads to maximal ball speed. In an attempt to transfer
scapular stabilizers, in baseball pitchers. forces from the lower extremity to the upper extremity, the
pelvis must possess stability for fluid force transfer, through
KEY WORDS electromyography, lower trapezius, serratus the trunk, to the scapula and distally (17, 20). With the lower
anterior, shoulder, upper trapezius extremity generating much of the force and energy for base-
ball pitching, dynamic and efficient movement of the upper
extremity is dependent on neuromuscular interaction with
Address correspondence to Gretchen D. Oliver, [email protected]. the lower extremity.
29(6)/1494–1499 Understanding the neuromuscular interactions associated
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research with pitching is critical for improving training and rehabil-
Ó 2015 National Strength and Conditioning Association itation protocols for baseball pitchers. Currently, there have
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been studies examining muscle activation during the baseball Phases were examined vs. the traditional pitching events,
pitch (5,11,13,26); however, no studies have examined both as sEMG studies of pitching have focused on the phases
pelvic and scapula stabilizing muscles and their activations leading to the events (5,25–27).
throughout the baseball pitch. Activations of pelvic and scap-
Subjects
ular stabilizing musculature are also important to identify to
Twenty youth baseball players (age: 11.3 + 1.0 years; height:
better comprehend the role of the kinetic chain during pitch-
152.4 + 9.0 cm; weight: 47.5 + 11.3 kg) participated. Coach
ing. Therefore, it was the purpose of this study to examine
recommendation, years of pitching experience, and freedom
muscle activation of a primary pelvic stabilizer, gluteus med-
from injury within the past 6 months were the selection
ius, and scapular stabilizers during baseball pitching. It was
criteria. Coach recommendation was sought to ensure that
hypothesized that these muscles would be significantly active
the subjects were experienced competitive pitchers. Free-
throughout the fastball pitch in youth baseball pitchers.
dom from injury within the past 6 months was one of the
METHODS criterion for selection; however, the subjects neither reported
that they had suffered any injury nor reported any pain or
Experimental Approach to the Problem
stiffness in their upper or lower extremity after extensive
The goal of the experiment was to determine the muscle
throwing sessions within the past year. The Institutional
activations of a pelvic stabilizer and selected scapular
Review Board of the University approved all testing proto-
stabilizing muscles during a fastball pitch in youth baseball
cols. Before data collection, all testing procedures were ex-
pitchers. The muscles examined were bilateral gluteus
plained to each subject as well as parent(s)/legal guardian(s)
medius and throwing arm side lower trapezius, upper
and informed consent and subject assent was obtained. All
trapezius, and serratus anterior. An observational descrip-
subjects were tested during the fall baseball season and had
tive study was implemented. Descriptive statistics were
not thrown that day before arrival for testing.
used to determine muscle activations by examining nor-
malized surface electromyographic (sEMG) data as Procedures
a percent of the subject’s maximum voluntary isometric All subjects reported for testing before engaging in any
contraction (%MVIC). Pearson’s product correlations were vigorous activity for that day. Location of bilateral gluteus
performed to determine muscle activation relationships medius, throwing arm side lower trapezius, upper trapezius,
between the pelvic and scapular stabilizers during desig- and serratus anterior were identified through palpation of
nated phases of the pitching cycle. The pitching motion the muscle belly. Single differential electrodes (interelectrode
was divided into 3 phases: (a) from foot contact to maxi- distance: 10 mm) were attached over the muscle bellies and
mum shoulder external rotation, (b) from maximum shoul- positioned parallel to the muscle fibers using previously
der external rotation to ball release, and (c) from ball release published standardized methods (2,8,29). Gluteus medius
to maximum shoulder internal rotation (Figure 1). muscle belly was identified as the proximal third of the dis-
tance from the iliac crest and
greater trochanter. And, care
was taken to place the electro-
des anterior to the gluteus
maximus to minimize cross
talk (8). Lower trapezius elec-
trode placement was obliquely
upward and laterally between
the spine of the scapula and
vertebral border of the scapula
and seventh thoracic spinous
process (2). Upper trapezius
placement was at the angle
of the neck and shoulder,
over the muscle belly, parallel
with the muscle fibers (2). And,
the serratus anterior electrode
placement was vertically below
the axilla, anterior to the latis-
simus dorsi, over the fourth to
sixth ribs (2). Before electrode
Figure 1. Phases of the baseball pitch. placement, all identified loca-
tions were shaved, abraded,

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 Muscle Activation During Pitching

and cleaned using standard medical alcohol swabs for elec-

trode placement. An additional electrode was placed on the
anterior superior iliac spine to serve as a ground lead for the
examined muscles. The use of surface electrodes was chosen
because they have been deemed to be a noninvasive
technique that is able to reliably detect surface muscle
activity (2).
Electromyographic data were collected using a Delsys
Bagnoli-8-channel electromyography (EMG) system
(Delsys, Inc., Natick, MA, USA). The signal was full-wave
rectified and root mean squared at 100 milliseconds. Surface
EMG data were sampled at a rate of 1,000 Hz. After the Figure 2. Mean and SDs of muscle activations as a percent of their
application of surface electrodes, manual muscle testing maximum voluntary isometric contraction.
techniques by Kendall et al. (14) were used to determine
steady-state contraction. A certified athletic trainer, trained
in performing manual muscle tests (MMTs), conducted all After the electrodes were attached and MMTs were
MMTs. Three MMTs lasting 5 seconds were performed for performed, the subjects were given an unlimited time to
each muscle, with the first and last second of each test perform their own specified precompetition warm-up rou-
removed to obtain steady-state results (29). The MMT pro- tine. Average warm-up time was 10 minutes. Once the
vided baseline MVIC data to which all sEMG were normal- subjects deemed themselves prepared, they were instructed
ized. Electromyographic data were collected through The on the protocol. Subjects were instructed to throw maximal
MotionMonitor (Innovative Sports Training, Chicago, IL, effort 4-seam fastballs for strikes over a regulation distance
USA) synched with electromagnetic tracking system (Flock (46 ft; 14.02 m) to a catcher. A JUGS radar gun (OpticsPla-
of Birds Ascension Technologies, Inc., Burlington, VT, USA). net, Inc., Northbrook, IL, USA) positioned in the direction of
Postprocessing analysis was performed through MATLAB the throw determined ball speed. The fastest of the 4-seam
(version 8.2.0; The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA, USA). fastballs for strikes was selected for analysis.

TABLE 1. Muscle activation correlations.*

Scapula force
Gluteus medius couples Correlation, r Significance, p

Phase 1 (foot contact to maximum shoulder external rotation)

Contralateral Lower trapezius 0.32 0.20
Serratus anterior 0.18 0.49
Upper trapezius 0.10 0.71
Ipsilateral Lower trapezius 0.52† 0.03
Serratus anterior 0.68† 0.00
Upper trapezius 0.29 0.27
Phase 2 (maximum shoulder external rotation to ball release)
Contralateral Lower trapezius 0.70† 0.00
Serratus anterior 0.56† 0.02
Upper trapezius 0.71† 0.00
Ipsilateral Lower trapezius 0.48† 0.05
Serratus anterior 0.78† 0.00
Upper trapezius 0.78† 0.00
Phase 3 (ball release to maximum shoulder internal rotation)
Contralateral Lower trapezius 0.68† 0.00
Serratus anterior 0.12 0.64
Upper trapezius 0.41 0.06
Ipsilateral Lower trapezius 0.40 0.11
Serratus anterior 0.23 0.38
Upper trapezius 0.65† 0.00

*Contralateral = left side/nonthrowing side gluteus medius; ipsilateral = right side/throwing side gluteus medius.
†Statistically significant correlation (p # 0.05).

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Statistical Analyses examining baseball (26) and softball pitching (28). Addition-
Data from each muscle were normalized and expressed as ally, during phase 1, the scapula must effectively retract to
a percent contribution of the MVIC. Statistical analyses were allow for the shoulder to be in a position of approximately
performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 19 (Armonk, New 908 of abduction and maximum external rotation (15). Just as
York, USA). Descriptive statistics were expressed by mean retraction is needed to position the humerus in maximum
and SDs. Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficients external rotation, upward rotation allows for adequate sub-
were calculated to identify relationships between bilateral acromial space when the humerus is in the position of 908 of
gluteus medius and scapular stabilizing musculature activa- abduction. Upward rotation of the scapula is necessary for
tion during the 3 specified phases of pitching with a p value efficient pitching mechanics. It has been reported that
of 0.05 being significant. reduced scapular upward rotation may result in shoulder
pathomechanics, reduced lower-extremity energy transfer
RESULTS to the upper extremity, decreased muscular function, and
subsequent risk of injury (15,20). It is the actions of the lower
Normalized muscle activations expressed as a %MVIC are
trapezius and serratus anterior that upwardly rotate the scap-
summarized in Figure 2. Data revealed moderate (20–39%
ula; however, this study revealed low activation of the lower
MVIC) to moderately strong (.40% MVIC) activation of the
and upper trapezius with the serratus anterior low to ap-
ipsilateral (stance leg/throwing arm side) gluteus medius
proaching moderate activity (16 + 6% MVIC) during phase
throughout phases 2 and 3, whereas moderately strong activa-
1. This finding supports the notion that the participants were
tion of the upper trapezius and serratus anterior during phases
experienced in this motion and that minimal activation is
2 and 3 of the pitching motion. Additionally, Pearson’s
required to achieve the scapular position. This finding fur-
product-moment correlation revealed significant relationships
ther suggests that the required scapular stabilization demand
between bilateral gluteus medius and the force couples about
is not high during this phase.
the scapula during all 3 phases of the pitching motion (Table 1).
During phase 2, the acceleration phase, the pitcher moves
from maximum shoulder external rotation to ball release.
DISCUSSION The abduction moment of the ipsilateral hip must progress
The baseball pitching motion is a total kinetic chain activity from maintaining a level pelvis to moving into abduction of
that must efficiently use both the upper and lower extremity. the hip, and assist in the forward momentum of the body
In baseball pitching, pelvic and trunk kinematics influence toward the target. This study revealed strong ipsilateral
the loads placed on the shoulder and elbow joints (1,9). Thus gluteus medius activation (67 + 17% MVIC), which was
the dynamic movement of the upper extremity is dependent again in agreement with the literature examining gluteus
on the interaction of structural and functional components of medius activation during throwing (26,28,30). In addition,
the entire neuromuscular system. Specifically, for normal the scapular stabilizers of the upper trapezius and serratus
shoulder movement to occur, there must be stability at both anterior were moderately strong (45 + 22% MVIC) and
the pelvis and scapula (15), as abnormalities in pelvic or hip moderate (32 + 13% MVIC), respectively. The scapula
motion can lead to kinetic chain alterations (22,32). There- moves from a position of retraction to protraction laterally
fore, it is the lower extremity that provides a base in which and then anteriorly on the thoracic wall. These movements
energy can be transferred through the stable pelvis to the of the scapula are necessary to help dissipate the forces
scapula and on to the shoulder and distal arm. The results of about the shoulder (15). The increased activation in both
this study provide important data that improve the under- muscle groups suggests that this portion of the throw is
standing of the muscular relationship between the pelvic and more demanding than phase 1. Furthermore, the increased
scapular stabilizers during the fastball baseball pitch. activity in the upper trapezius and serratus anterior suggests
Phase 1 of the baseball pitch occurs from foot contact to that these muscles have transitioned into more of a stabilizing
maximum shoulder external rotation. Throughout phase 1, role and not a positional role.
the ipsilateral leg must have adequate hip internal rotation to Phase 3 of the pitching motion encompasses the event of
properly position the pelvis (33). It is the role of the gluteus ball release to maximum shoulder internal rotation. Stance
medius to perform both hip abduction and internal rotation. hip internal rotation occurs again as the stance hip has to
Additionally, the gluteus medius must create an abduction internally rotate and extend, as the pelvis and trunk assist in
moment for the pelvis to remain level during single leg sup- energy dissipation and follow through (24). As the stance hip
port. It has been reported that maximum internal rotation of is internally rotating, the stride hip must externally rotate in
the stance leg occurs during this phase (4). In this study, the an attempt to keep the stride foot in line with home plate
ipsilateral gluteus medius displayed low-to-moderate activa- (12,22). These hip functions are evident by the activations
tion (17 + 23% MVIC) throughout phase 1. These findings of presented in this study as the ipsilateral (stance hip) gluteus
gluteus medius activation are in agreement with Plummer medius exhibited moderate to moderately strong activation
and Oliver (30) who examined gluteus medius activation of (32 + 9% MVIC), whereas stride leg gluteus medius only
catchers throwing down to second base, as well as studies revealed low activation (6 + 1% MVIC). The scapular

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 Muscle Activation During Pitching

stabilizing muscles exhibited similar activations as presented whereas the lower trapezius acts to stabilize and upwardly
in phase 2. The muscle activations presented by the scapular rotate the scapula at the same time the upper trapezius pro-
stabilizing musculature display the need for adequate scap- duces an upward rotation force complementing the serratus
ular protraction if there is going to be efficient acceleration of anterior (7). Thus, it is the lower trapezius that tries to main-
the shoulder into internal rotation during phase 3. tain vertical and horizontal equilibrium thereby contributing
This study exhibited significant relationships between to the dynamic stability of the scapula. It has been reported
bilateral gluteus medius and scapular stabilizing muscle that often the stabilization function of the lower trapezius is
activations during phase 2 of the pitching motion. Proper slower to activate than the upper trapezius (7), so the stim-
stability of the pelvis is critical for adequate energy transfer ulation of the lower trapezius and gluteus medius may assist
from the lower to upper extremity during baseball pitching in the stability of the scapula. The gluteal and scapular sta-
(17). This was evident with the reported strong relationship bilizing musculature relationship reiterates the need for opti-
between ipsilateral gluteus medius and scapular stabilizers, mal activation of the gluteus medius to stabilize the pelvis in
specifically, the lower trapezius (r = 0.52, p = 0.03) and an attempt to allow for efficient scapula stabilization.
serratus anterior (r = 0.68, p = 0.00), during phase 1. Simi- Alterations in shoulder mechanics are often found in
larly, phase 2 data revealed strong relationships between overhead athletes with scapular instability and are primary
ipsilateral gluteus medius and scapular stabilizing muscula- factors associated with injury (19,34). Thus, it is important that
ture, displaying concomitant activity of both contralateral the entire kinetic chain is examined, especially the relationship
and ipsilateral gluteus medius and all 3 scapular stabilizing between proximal muscle activations and the more distal
muscles. Furthermore, phase 3 displayed strong relationships muscles about the scapula. Furthermore, gluteus medius, upper
between contralateral gluteus medius and lower trapezius (r trapezius, lower trapezius, and serratus anterior activity and
= 0.68, p = 0.00) as well as between ipsilateral gluteus medius their coordinated efforts should be addressed during training
and upper trapezius (r = 0.65, p = 0.00). and rehabilitation protocols. Altered muscle activation of the
As Kibler and Livingston (16) have documented, the scapular stabilizing muscles is most frequently observed in the
lower extremity, pelvis, and trunk provide the stable base serratus anterior and lower trapezius muscles (15). Inhibition of
for efficient arm movement and energy transfer. However, these muscles decreases their ability to exert force and stabil-
for efficiency of coordination between the lower and upper izes the scapula during dynamic movements. If these muscles
extremity, the spine must have appropriate movement in are inhibited and the pelvic stabilizer is ineffective in control-
both the sagittal and transverse plane for any energy transfer ling the pelvis during pitching, then the ability to transfer
(21). The strong relationships between the gluteus medius energy to the upper extremity may be further compromised.
and scapular stabilizing musculature presented in this study One my postulate that to compensate for the inhibited muscle
are in support of previous works (16,17,21–24) indicating the activation, the rhomboids and upper trapezius increase activa-
importance of pelvic and scapular stability in pitching. This tion in an attempt to provide stability to the scapula during
study revealed that throughout the pitching motion, gluteal force transfer to the shoulder.
activation was in agreement with other throwing studies Although this study provides insight into pelvic and
(26,28,30), and it demonstrated a relationship between glu- scapular stabilizing muscle activations during the fastball
teus medius activity and scapular muscle activity. baseball pitch, some important limitations should be noted. A
A key component in pitching is hip motion, as the kinetic homogenous sample of youth pitchers was chosen for
energy produced by pelvic and hip mechanics has a strong analysis; however, this sample might not be representative
impact on ball velocity (24). The relationships presented in of the muscular activations in more experienced baseball
this study are in support of the fact that decreases in hip pitchers. More experienced pitchers likely have more refined
abduction have been seen in 49% of athletes with arthro- mechanics than the subjects examined in this study. How-
scopically diagnosed posterior superior labral tears (3). Fur- ever, although the pitchers who have been throwing longer
thermore, it has been reported that pitchers have decreased may have more experience than the pitchers examined in this
hip abduction strength and internal rotation in their ipsilat- study, they may also have developed altered scapular
eral stance leg compared with position players (22,24). mechanics over time. Further research is needed to deter-
These alterations in motion may lead to breakdowns in mine whether similar muscle activation patterns exist in more
the kinetic chain and increase the risk of upper- and experienced baseball pitchers. Furthermore, the relationship
lower-extremity injuries in baseball pitchers. between scapular stabilizing muscles and upper-extremity
The function of the scapula in baseball pitching is kinetics during pitching should also be investigated.
optimized when it possesses efficient positioning through
balanced force couples (7). It is a general consensus that the PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
lower and upper trapezius along with the serratus anterior The repetitive nature of the overhead pitching motion may
act as the primary force couple that provides dynamic sta- contribute to increased scapular instability and scapular
bility to the scapula (6,10,15,18). The serratus anterior func- musculature inhibition in baseball pitchers. In addition, the
tions to pull the scapula lateral around the thoracic cavity, inability of both the pelvic and scapular stabilizing
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