TOPIC 2:

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Subtopics
2.1 Prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells
2.2 Structure and functions:
Cell membrane and organelles
2.3 Cells are grouped into tissues
2.4 Cell transport
 2.1 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Learning Outcomes:
a) State the three principles of cell theory
b) Explain the structures of prokaryotic & eukaryotic
cells
c)Illustrate and compare the structures of prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells (pant and animal cells).
A. CELL THEORY
1. All organisms are made up of
one or more cell/s.
2. New cells are always produced
from pre-existing cells.
3. The cell is a structural and
functional unit of all living things.
B. PROKARYOTIC CELL

The structure of common bacteria

STRUCTURES OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS
1. No true nucleus
2. No membrane-bounded/membrane-enclosed
organelles.
3. Very small/ smaller than eukaryotic cells
4. Genetic material is a DNA molecule:
- circular (not linear).
- not enclosed by nuclear envelope
- lies freely in cytoplasm
- not associated with histone protein (naked
5. Plasma Membrane: membrane enclosing
the cytoplasm
- Controls the exchange of waste
materials & nutrients
6. Capsule or slime layers – surrounds the cell
wall
- Protect the bacteria from phagocytosis by
the host’s white blood cell
7. Rigid Cell Wall:
– made up of peptidoglycan or murein.
9. Plasmid: small circular DNA that carry
accessory genes
10. Fimbriae & Pili: for attachment to host
cell or other bacteria/ attachment to cell
surfaces
- Fimbriae is shorter than pili
- There are fewer pili than fimbriae
- Sex pili : transmitting DNA between
bacteria
12. Mesosomes
– infolding of the plasma membrane
surface during cell division
– also similar to mitochondria in
eukaryotic cells
plasma
membrane
C. EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES
OF EUKARYOTIC CELL
1. True nucleus is present
– DNA is enclosed by nuclear envelope
2. Have internal membranes
– Provide different local environments
- Facilitate specific metabolic functions
3. Genetic material: linear DNA molecules
– enclosed in nuclear envelope
4. Contain membrane-enclosed
organelles
i. mitochondria
ii. chloroplast (in plant cells)
iii. Golgi body
iv. endoplasmic reticulum
v. lysosome (in animal cells)
- Cell wall: made up of cellulose (in
5. May have flagella or cilia:
constructed from a system of 9+2
microtubules.

Cilia or flagella in eukaryotic cells

 D. COMPARISONS BETWEEN
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC
CELLS.
Similarities:
1. Both cells are surrounded by plasma
membrane
2. Both cells contain DNA
No Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Differences
1. No true nucleus. True nucleus is present.
DNA is not bounded by nuclear DNA is bounded by nuclear
envelope (DNA lies free in envelope.
cytoplasm).
 No. Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
2. DNA molecule is circular. DNA molecule is linear.
DNA is not associated with DNA associates with histone protein.
histone protein.

3. No membrane-bound organelles. Membrane-bound

organelles are present
(e.g: mitochondria,
Choloroplast, Golgi body
4. Smaller, diameter is Larger, diameter is bigger
less than 10μm. than 10μm.
5. Ribosomes are smaller; Ribosomes are larger; 80S.
70S.
 No. Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
6. Cell wall consists of Cell wall consists of cellulose (in
peptidoglycan / murein. plant cell) or chitin (in fungi)

7. Some have simple flagella Flagella have 9+2 microtubule

(single protein fibre); without 9 arrangement.
+2
microtubules arrangement,

8. Cell divides through binary Cell divides through mitosis or

fission. meiosis.
 Subtopic 2.2 Structures and Functions: Cell
Membranes and Organelles
Learning Outcomes:
a) Show the detailed structures of typical plant & animal cells and state the organelles
present.
b) Explain the structures and functions of the following organelles: Nucleus, rough
endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, lysosome, ribosome,
mitochondria, chloroplast and centriole.
c) Show the structure of plasma membrane based on Fluid Mosaic Model.

d) Explain the structure of the plasma membrane and the functions of each of its
components.
A. ANIMAL CELL AND PLANT CELL
ANIMAL CELL
• It is bounded by a plasma membrane or cell
membrane
• The membrane envelopes a jelly-like
cytoplasm which contains;
– nucleus
– organelles
– mitochondria, endoplasmic

reticulum, Golgi body, centrioles,

lysosomes & ribosomes
– other cell components;
A. ANIMAL CELL AND PLANT CELL
– food granules
– secretory granules
• Lack of cell wall
– shapes can be altered
– no specific shape
• Does not have chloroplast & plastids
• It contains no large, permanent central
vacuoles and tonoplast
– only temporary tiny vesicles or
ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL
• The unique structures possess only by the
plant cell that differ from the animal cell are:
i. cell wall
• consists mainly of cellulose
• gives shape & mechanical support /
strength to the cell
ii. Plasmodesmata runs through the cell wall
allows the movement of ions & small
molecules between cells
iii. Possesses chloroplasts
• organelles / plastids which contain
chlorophyll
• also has other types of plastids
– e.g.: leucoplasts, chromoplasts
iv. has large, permanent central vacuole
which is bounded by tonoplast (specialised
membrane)
v. stored food is mainly starch
PLANT CELL
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMAL CELL & PLANT CELL
Animal Cells Plant Cells
• No cell wall • Have rigid cell wall

• No plasmodesmata • Plasmodesmata present in

cell walls
• No chloroplast • Chloroplast present in
photosynthetic cells
• Have small, temporary • Have large, permanent
vacuoles central vacuole filled with cell
sap
 Animal Cells Plant Cells
• No tonoplast • Tonoplast envelopes the
vacuole
• Nucleus often central • Nucleus usually peripheral in
mature cell

• Cytoplasm throughout the • Cytoplasm usually peripheral

cell in mature cell

• Centrioles present • No centrioles

• Energy storage in the form of • Energy storage in the form of

glycogen starch
 Animal Cells Plant Cells
• Some cell have cilia or • Flagella present in lower plant
flagella (male gamete)
• Lysosomes present for • Lysosome usually absent
intracellular digestion
B. ORGANELLES (Structure and Functions)
1. NUCLEUS
Structure
• a double membrane-bound organelle.
• average ~ 5 µm in diameter.
• contains most of the genes that control the
entire cell’s activities.
• consists of
i. Nucleolus
ii. Nuclear Envelope
i. Nucleolus
• spherical structure in the nucleus
• 2 or more per cell
• appears as a mass of densely stained granules &
fibers
ii. Nuclear Envelope
• encloses the nucleus
• consist of 2 membranes;
– the outer & the inner membrane with a
space in between.
– separate the nuclear contents from the
cytoplasm.
• is perforated by pores (protein channel)
– regulate the movement of molecules into &
• is connected to a membranes system called
the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER).
Function of nucleus
▪ Contain the genetic material of the cell.
▪ Acts as the centre to control cell activities &
cell division.
▪ Production of RNA (mRNA, tRNA & rRNA)
The Endomembrane System
• many of the different membranes of
eukaryotic cell are part of an endomembrane
system
• related through
– direct physical continuity or
– by transfer of membrane segment as tiny
vesicles
• Endomembrane system includes:
– nuclear envelope, rough & smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, transport vesicle, Golgi
• Organelles of
endomembrane
system:
i. Rough
endoplasmic reticulum
ii. Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
iii. Transport vesicle
iv. Golgi body
v. Lysosome
vi. Secretory vesicle
2. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• the largest of the internal membranes
• most extensive portion
• continuous with the outer membrane of the
nucleus
▪ ER includes membranous tubules/sacs,
ER lumen, the internal (fluid-filled) spaces
• 2 types:
▪ Rough ER
▪ Smooth ER
 3. TRANSPORT VESICLE
Structure
• membranous sacs contain protein or lipid
Function
• Transport proteins (from rough ER) or lipids
(from smooth ER) to Golgi body for further
modification.
4. GOLGI BODY
Structure
▪ consist of flattened membranous sacs
(cisternae)
▪ 2 poles of Golgi sacs:
■ Function
– Modifying, packaging, sorting and shipping
proteins and lipid receives from ER
– Produce lysosomes
5. LYSOSOMES
Structure
■ single membrane-bound sac
■ originate either from Golgi body or directly
from ER
■ contains hydrolytic enzymes;
■ the enzymes work best in acidic environment
(pH 5)
■ lysosomal membrane:
– resistant to digestion &
■ Function
▪ involves in intracellular digestion of
macromolecules (because of the hydrolytic
enzymes)
▪ The process involved in intracellular digestion:
i. Digest food taken via phagocytosis
(i) Digest food taken via phagocytosis
▪ solid food ingested/taken into the cell through
phagocytosis will be in food vacuole
▪ digested by hydrolytic enzymes released by
lysosomes
▪ after the digestion, the simple food particles will
be absorbed into the cytoplasm
(ii) Autophagy:
▪ The worn-out organelle is enveloped by a double
membrane into a vesicle called autophagosome
(iii) Autolysis / self-destruct
■ digest the entire cell (in old or damaged cells).
■ lysosome’s membrane breaks down,
releasing its enzymes & digesting the whole
cell
6. MITOCHONDRIA
Structure
■ relatively large
organelles,
■ rod-shaped (5 µm x 1
■ µm)
■ enclosed by 2
membranes:
• Outer membrane
• Inner membrane
■ Outer membrane
– Highly permeable to small solutes
– Not permeable to protein & other
macromolecules
■ Inner membrane
– With many infoldings called cristae
■ Inner membrane divides mitochondrion into:
a) intermembrane space
• the narrow region between the outer & the inner
membranes.
■ a semiautonomous organelle.
– able to replicate freely (because it has its own
DNA molecule)
Function
• Site of cellular respiration
– Cellular respiration: the catabolic process
that generates ATP
7. CHLOROPLAST
Structure
▪ biconvex disc shaped
– 3 - 10µm (length) & 2 - 4µm (width)
▪ bounded by a double membrane:
– outer & inner membrane with a narrow
intermembrane space.
▪ a semiautonomous organelle
▪ Inner membrane divides chloroplast into:
• Stroma
– contain many thylakoids, enzymes, DNA,
starch granules & ribosomes
■ Thylakoids:
• found in the stroma
• series of interconnecting flattened
membrane-bounded sacs
• contain chlorophyll to trap light energy
• membranes may be stacked into granum
(plural=grana)
Function
• site of photosynthesis
– Photosynthesis: the
anabolic process that
generates ATP
(light-dependent reaction)
& sugar (light-independent
reaction / Calvin cycle)
• Chlorophyll in thylakoid
membrane trap light energy
• The stroma contains
8. RIBOSOMES
Structure
• small, dense granules
• diameter: 20nm.
• each composed of 2 subunits:
– large subunit
– small subunit
• both made up of rDNA & proteins.
• can be found
– suspended freely in cytosol
Function
• site of proteins synthesis;
– Free ribosomes: synthesise proteins for intracellular
use.
– Ribosomes on rough ER: synthesise proteins to be
exported (eg.: digestive enzymes & hormones).
9. CENTRIOLES
Structure
• hollow cylinders
• present in pairs,
– held at right angles to each other (90°)
• size: 0.5 µm X 0.2 µm
• located in a centrosome (clear area); near the
nucleus.
• Centrosome: microtubule-organising
Function
• help to organise assembly of microtubule
during cell division
– a pair of centrioles replicate & each pair
migrates to the opposite poles of the cell
C. PLASMA MEMBRANE
Structure
•Described by the Fluid Mosaic Model
•Proposed by S.J Singer & G.L Nicolson (1972)

Fluid Mosaic Model

• Membrane is composed of 2 layers (bilayer) of
phospholipids with globular proteins embedded in
the bilayer
• Fluid: phospholipids & proteins can move
laterally (can move side to side).
• Accounted for the amphipathic characteristic
of phospholipids & proteins
• Amphipathic molecules:
– have both hydrophobic regions & hydrophilic
regions
– Hydrophobic: non-polar / “water hating”
– Hydrophilic: polar / “water loving”
2 layers of
phospholipid
protein
• Phospholipids
■ – The hydrophilic heads of phospholipids facing
outwards and attracted to the aqueous surrounding
■ – The hydrophobic tails of phospholipids facing
inwards
■ – molecules that can pass through
phospholipids: water, urea, gases: O2, CO2 and
lipid soluble substances
■ – molecules that cannot pass through
phospholipids: Ions, polar and large molecules:
eg. Glucose
• Proteins:
– Intrinsic / Integral proteins: partially
embedded or fully embedded: transmembrane
protein
– Extrinsic / Peripheral proteins: attached to
the outer & inner surfaces of the membrane
• Carbohydrate chain / oligosaccharides
– Found on the external surface of the plasma
membrane
• Carbohydrate chain attaches to protein 🡪
glycoprotein
• Carbohydrate chain attaches to phospholipids 🡪
glycolipid
– Function as cell identity markers / recognition
• Cholesterol
– Found between phospholipids
– Function:
• Increase flexibility & stabilizes the
membrane structure by regulating the
fluidity of the membrane.
Cholesterol stabilises the membrane
structure:
• at moderately warm temperatures,
■ at cool temperatures,
– Cholesterol prevent close packing of
phospholipids & slow down solidification
Functions
1. Forms a protective barrier
2. Selectively permeable membranes
– Allow movement of molecules such as
lipid soluble substances, non-polar molecules,
water, urea, gases (O2, CO2) in and out of cell
• Do not allow movement of charged/ions,
polar and large molecules (glucose)
Function of membrane protein
1. TRANSPORT

2. PROTEIN ACT AS ENZYME (INVOLVE IN ENZYMATIC

ACTIVITY)

3. SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
4. INTERCELLULAR JOINING
• membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook
together in various kind of junctions
– Eg: gap junction and tight junctions

5. CELL-CELL RECOGNITION
• Glycoprotein serves as identification
tags that are specifically recognized
6. ATTACHMENT TO THE CYTOSKELETON &
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM)

Membrane protein for attachment of

cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ecm)
2.3 Cells are grouped into tissues
Objectives:
a) Describe animal tissues and plant tissues
b) Explain the following types of cells and tissues:

i. animal cells & tissues: Epithelial cells (simple squamous, simple cuboidal,
simple columnar, stratified squamous), nerve cell (motor neuron), muscle
cells (smooth, striated and cardiac muscle), connective tissues (compact
bone, hyaline cartilage and blood).

ii. Plant cells & tissues: Meristem, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma,

xylem and phloem.
A. EPITHELIAL CELLS
STRUCTURE
• Shape: polygonal
• Cell arrangement: packed tightly
– forming🡪 continuous layer / sheet called
Epithelial tissue / Epithelium
CHARACTERISTICS
i. one free surface of the layer is exposed to
air or fluid
ii. the other surface of the layer is attached to a
⚫ based on 2 criteria:
1. The shape of the cells on the free
surface;
squamous / cuboidal / columnar
2. The number of cell layer;
simple / stratified
 Epithelial cells/Tissue
ONE LAYER ONLY A FEW LAYERS

Simple Epithelial Stratified Epithelial

flat, thin flat, thin
Simple squamous
Stratified squamous
cubical
Simple cuboidal

elongated
Simple columnar
 Simple Squamous Epithelial Cells
Structure Distribution Functions
• Single layer • lining The alveoli 1. Allow the diffusion
of cells attached of of nutrients & gases
to the basement lungs, mouth 2. As a barrier & regulates
membrane cavity, Bowman’s movement of substances across it
capsule & the 3. protects the underlying tissues
• Thin & flattened loop of Henle of the
with central kidney,
nucleus, • lining of blood
vessels &
lymphatic vessels.
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Cells
Structure Distribution Functions
•single layer of cells attached • Lining of many Specialised for
to the basement membrane. ducts &tubules 1. Secretion ( ducts )
•Cube shape with central 2. Absorption (kidney
eg: pancreatic ducts,
nucleus. tubules )
kidney tubules,
•some have microvilli (for
absorption)
base
ment
mem
bran
e
 Simple Columnar Epithelial Cells
Structure Distribution Functions
• single layer of cells attached • Lining of stomach, 1. With the presence of
to the basement membrane. • Lining small Goblet cells : secrete
• Columnar shape with oval intestine mucus
nucleus near the basal end. • Lining uterus, 2. The presence of
• usually associated with goblet oviducts and nasal microvilli:
cells cavity/ respiratory Increase surface area
(specialised to secrete mucus) tract for absorption
• Apical surface may have cilia 3. The presence of cilia:
or microvilli help movement of mucus
Simple Columnar Epithelial Cells
 STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIAL
CELLS
STRUCTURE
• consists of several layers of cells; thicker
than simple epithelium
• the lowest layer (facing the basement
membrane) are usually cuboidal shape
• metabolically active;
– division of lower cells causes older one to be
pushed upward (surface)
• named according to the features of their
 STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIAL
CELLS
STRUCTURE
• cells attached to the basement membrane form
– germinative layer & divide mitotically to
produce new cells
• to replace damaged or dead cells
– the new cells (cuboidal shape) but become
flattened to form squamous epithelium at the
surface
 STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIAL
CELLS
DISTRIBUTION
• found where protection is required;
– lining of mouth, esophagus, anus, vagina
– Skin
FUNCTION
• protective layer in areas of higher friction
 THE STRUCTURE OF EPITHELIAL CELLS

(lining the trachea)

(esophagus)

(kidney tubule) (lining the alveoli)

(urethra) (lining of small intestine)

B. NERVE CELLS / NEURON
STRUCTURE:
⚫ consist of

- a cell body
- dendrites
- axon
 Structure of a nerve cell ( neuron )
dendrites cell body myelin
sheath
Nodes of
Ranvier

axo
n
axon of another dendrites of another
neuron neuron
Motor neuron (efferent neuron)
• transmit nerve impulses from the central
nervous system (CNS) to the motor organs or
effectors, usually muscles or glands
NERVE CELLS / NEURON
• supporting cells (glial cells) for the
nerve tissue;
– do not conduct electrical impulses
– provide support, protection &
nourishment for the neurons
– Eg: Schwann cells produce myelin
sheath
• Schwann cells;
– form fatty myelin sheath that wraps
NERVE CELLS / NEURON
– the myelin sheath acts as an;
• electrical insulator & speeds up the
transmission of impulses
• nodes of Ranvier;
– the small uncovered parts of axon
between the Schwann cells
• which serve as sites for
accelerating an impulse
 C. MUSCLE TISSUE
3 types of Muscle Tissue:
i. SMOOTH MUSCLE
ii. SKELETAL / STRIATED MUSCLE
iii. CARDIAC MUSCLE

i. SMOOTH MUSCLE
STRUCTURE
• single cell, a central nucleus
Smooth muscle
DISTRIBUTION
• line the walls of;
– digestive tract
– urinary bladder
– uterus
– blood vessels (arteries & veins)
FUNCTION
• Responsible for involuntary (unconscious)
activities
ii. SKELETAL/STRIATED MUSCLE
STRUCTURE
• cylindrical, very
long muscles called
fibres
• contain many
protein fibers;
myofibrils
• has many nucleus (multinucleated)
located below plasma membrane
• Sarcolemma = plasma membrane
• Sarcoplasm = the cytoplasm, contains
many mitochondria
• striated muscle with myofibrils
• each cell divided into units: sarcomere
• functional unit for muscle contraction
• consist of filaments: actin & myosin
DISTRIBUTION
• attached to the skeleton (bones)

FUNCTION
• voluntary (conscious) activities: movement of the
skeleton & organs eg: the eyeball & the tongue
iii.CARDIAC MUSCLE
DISTRIBUTION
• In the walls of the heart
FUNCTION
• involuntary activities: contraction of
the muscle is for pumping of blood
through the heart
• myogenic: have own built-in
system of control to generate
contraction
• moderate rapid & powerful, with
rests between contraction
D. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• protect, support the body & internal
organs
• major types of connective tissues in
vertebrates are:

i. Compact bone
ii. Hyaline Cartilage
iii. Blood
i. Compact Bone
Structure:
Function
1. Give body shape & provide framework for
support,
– eg: skeleton
2. Protect the internal organs
– eg: the cranium protects the brain, the
rib cage protects the heart, lungs
3. Provide surface for attachment of skeletal
muscles to enable movement
ii. Hyaline Cartilage
MAIN LOCATION: end of bones,
nose, air passage of the
respiratory system, parts of the
ear

Function
1. To keep trachea, bronchi -
open
2. It covers the ends of bones
& reduces friction between
joints during movement
3. It forms the skeleton of;
– embryonic in many bony
iii.Blood
• Cells produced in bone marrow
• suspended in the plasma are;
• Trombocytes/platelets (cell
fragments)
• Cells;
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
• Leukocytes (white blood cells)
 ERYTHROCYTES / RED BLOOD CELLS
Structure Adaptation / importance
Small size:
diameter : 7 – 8 µm,
thickness: 2 µm
Biconcave disc shape Increase cells surface area for
diffusion
Lack nuclei & organelles (in mature To provide more space to store
erythrocytes) haemoglobin
Elastic / flexible and thin membrane Can change its shape easily / can
move in narrow blood capillary

Has a lot of haemoglobin To carry more oxygen & carbon

dioxide / respiratory gases.
Function
• transport O2, CO2 (with the presence of
haemoglobin)
• pH buffering

LIFESPAN OF MATURE CELL:

• About 120 days;
• cells are then destroyed by the
macrophages in the liver & spleen
 LEUCOCYTES / WHITE BLOOD CELLS
Structure Functions
Size: larger than erythrocytes Involve in body defense
Shape: spherical / irregular mechanism:
Contains a nucleus & • Destroy foreign cells (T
organelles lymphocytes)
Absent of haemoglobin • Produce antibodies (B
lymphocytes)
• Phagocytosis (neutrophils)
• Form macrophages
(monocytes)
Thrombocytes:
▪ Platelets
▪ cell fragments without nucleus
▪ promote blood clotting

Cells are grouped into tissues

• Specialised cells of same functions are
organised into tissues, organs & systems
• The cells must be connected & grouped
A. MERISTEM TISSUE
• Composed of cells whose function is
– form new cells by mitotic division
Structure:
• small
• thin-walled
• central large nucleus
• densed cytoplasm
Arrangement of Cells:
• closely packed
– no intercellular air spaces
 Two types of meristem:
1. Apical Meristem
Distribution
1. Shoot apex
2. Root tips

Function: For primary growth

(increase in height)

2. Lateral Meristem
Distribution: in the older stems / roots of woody plants
Function:
B. GROUND TISSUE
3 types:
1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma

1. PARENCHYMA

Cell Structure and Shape

STRUCTURE OF PARENCHYMA CELLS

DISTRIBUTION
1. Pith
2. Cortex
FUNCTIONS
1. Basic packing tissue/ stuffing tissue
2. Turgid cell give support (herbaceous plant)
3. Store food (starch)
4. For gaseous exchange (many intercellular
air spaces)
5. For photosynthesis

MODIFIED PARENCHYMA
 STRUCTURE FUNCTION
EPIDERMIS • Provides covers and protection
• Secretes cuticle in leaves and stems

MESOPHYLL • Contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis

- Spongy mesophyll
- Palisade mesophyll
ENDODERMIS ∙ Control the amount of water & solutes that
(has Casparian strip, impermeable to enters the vascular system
water & dissolved material)
∙ Ensures all minerals that reach vascular
tissue must pass through plasma membrane
of endodermis

PERICYCLE ∙ It produces the root branches & the root

(between endodermis and vascular cambium.
tissue)
2. COLLENCHYMA
CELL STRUCTURE:
• living cells
• polygonal shaped, elongated with tapering
ends
 STRUCTURE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
• Living cells • below epidermis 1. Support young
• Shape: polygonal, elongated • midribs of leaves and herbaceous
with tapering ends • leaf petioles plant (nonwoody
• Cell wall (cellulose, (“stalk”) plant)
hemicellulose, pectin): thick, 2. Give flexibility
uneven thickness (pectin) (elastic) to plants.
especially in corners
• No secondary wall
• Cell arrangement: closely
packed (small / no intercellular
air spaces)
3. SCLERENCHYMA
i. Sclereids / Stone Cells
Functions:
• form a protective coat around seeds
• gives strength & support
ii. Fibre
Distribution:
• found in woody
stems & certain leaves
Function:
• provide mechanical
 STRUCTURE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
• Dead at maturity • below epidermis Sclereid:
• Cell wall: primary & • midribs of • form a protective coat
secondary wall leaves around seeds (eg: hard
• Secondary cell wall: • leaf petioles casings of nut shell)
thickened by lignin, (“stalk”) • Support & give gritty
strong & hard, texture to pears
impermeable to water,
solutes & gases, has pits Fibres:
• Cell arrangement: • support / give
closely packed (no mechanical strength to
intercellular air spaces) stem of woody plants
D. VASCULAR TISSUE:
1. XYLEM
2. PHLOEM
1. XYLEM
Main components of xylem:
i. Tracheids
ii. Vessel Elements

Tracheids & Vessel Elements

• Have secondary cell wall (lignified)
• When the cells mature;
– they die
– area of protoplasm become hollow
XYLEM: Tracheids
STRUCTURE:
• Long, tapered
• Have pits in the secondary
wall
– DO NOT have large perforated
between the cells;
– less efficient for transport
water & mineral ions than vessel
elements; because water has to
XYLEM: Vessel Element
STRUCTURE:
• The diameter of vessel is bigger than tracheids
• Have perforated (holes) end walls or entirely
dissolve away / break down
– the cells combine to form a continuous long hollow
tubes.
– more efficient: allow more water to flow freely
through the vessels with less friction
• Found only in angiosperms (flowering plants)

2. PHLOEM
PHLOEM: Sieve Tube Element
STRUCTURE:
• cells are elongated & tubular
• living cells
• when mature, organelles that
disintegrates: nucleus, ribosome,
Golgi body
• Organelles remain:
mitochondria & ER
• end walls are perforated
FUNCTION:
• Transport sucrose and other
organic substances throughout
the plants through
translocation.

PHLOEM: Companion cell

STRUCTURE:
• living cells with dense Sieve tube element
cytoplasm
■ linked to the sieve tube
member through
plasmodesmata

FUNCTION:
• Help to transport sucrose
from mesophyll cell to sieve
tube element through active
transport
 2.4 Cell Transport
Objectives:
a) Overview the various transport mechanisms across the
membrane
b) Explain the various transport mechanisms across the
membrane
i. Passive transport: Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and
osmosis

ii. Active transport: Sodium-potassium pump and Bulk transport

(endocytosis and exocytosis)
 Movement of molecules / substances in & out of
cell
Individual molecules & ions Bulk Transport
Larger quantities of material & involve
formation of food vacuole & vesicle
TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANE
Moved out
Moved of cells
PASSIVE ACTIVE into cells EXOCYTOSIS
transport transport
•DOWN the •AGAINST the ENDOCYTOSIS
concentration concentration
Large solid
gradient gradient phagocytosis
particles:
• Diffusion Sodium- food,
• Facilitated potassium bacteria
Dissolved
diffusion pump materials/ pinocytosis
Importance of Movement of Substance In or
Out of Cell
• supply cells with:
• O2 🡪 respiration
• raw materials 🡪 anabolism
• regulate the pH & [solute]
• maintaining a stable internal environment
for enzymes to function optimally
• secrete useful substances for cell activities
PASSIVE TRANSPORT:
A. DIFFUSION
B. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
C. OSMOSIS
A. DIFFUSION/SIMPLE DIFFUSION
1. Movement of small, non-charged or
hydrophobic molecules (CO2, O2, glycerol &
alcohol) down its concentration gradient without
using energy/ATP through a selectively
permeable membrane until equilibrium is
reached.
2. Why those molecules (small, non-charged &
hydrophobic molecules) can diffuse?
• can slip between the hydrophilic heads &
pass through the hydrophobic tails of the
3. Importance to living organisms:
a. cells that are undergoing respiration always
get the oxygen from outside (of the cells)
because the concentration of O2 is always
higher outside than inside. The concentration
of CO2 is the opposite.
4. plasma membrane (phospholipids bilayer) is
not permeable to:
a. Ions / charged molecules; Na+, K+
b. Large / small polar & hydrophilic molecules;
B. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
1. Movement of charged (Na+, K+), polar
(glucose, amino acid) or hydrophobic
molecules down its concentration gradient
without using energy/ATP through a selectively
permeable membrane aided by transport protein
(carrier/cannel protein) until equilibrium is
reached.
2. How?
• They bind to the carrier protein or move
through the channel protein
• Solutes that move through channel protein:
Charged molecules (K+, Na+, Ca2+, Cl-
& HCO3-)
3. Why they need carrier or channel protein to
diffuse across the membrane?
• Because they CANNOT CROSS
through the phospholipids bilayer
• They are lipid insoluble molecules
4. Eg.:glucose permease; protein (enzyme) that
catalyse the transport of glucose into
Transport via channel protein Transport via carrier protein
C. OSMOSIS
• Movement of water molecules from an area
with higher water potential to an area with lower
water potential (down the water potential
gradient) across a selectively permeable
membrane until equilibrium is reached.
What happen to erythrocytes when placed in
HYPOTONIC solution?

• Water potential in the hypotonic solution is

higher than in the erythrocytes.
• Water molecules will move into the
erythrocytes by osmosis
• The eryhtrocytes will swell and burst 🡪
 What happen to erythrocytes when
placed in ISOTONIC solution?

• Water potential in the isotonic solution is

equal to water potential in erythrocytes
• Movement of water molecules in and out
of the cells is at the same rate or
• No net movement of water molecules.
What happen to erythrocytes when
placed in HYPERTONIC solution?

• Water potential in the erythrocytes is

higher than water potential in hypertonic
solution.
• Water molecules will move out of
erythrocytes to the surrounding by osmosis
How plant cells respond to osmotic
pressure differences?
 What happen to plant cells when
placed in HYPOTONIC solution?

• Water potential in the hypotonic solution is higher than

in the plant cells.
• Water molecules will move into the plant cells from
the surrounding by osmosis.
• The vacuole expands and press against the cell wall
 What happen to plant cells when
placed in ISOTONIC solution?

• Water potential in the isotonic solution is

equal to water potential in plant cell.
• Movement of water molecules in and out of
the cells is at the same rate or no net movement of
water molecules.
 What happen to plant cells when
placed in HYPERTONIC solution?

• Water potential in the plant cell is higher than water

potential in hypertonic solution.
• Water molecules will move out of plant cell to the
surrounding by osmosis
• Cell vacuole shrinks & plasma membrane pulls
 Tonicity Water Net Effect on
of solution potential movement of water cells

Hypertonic Water potential in Water leaves the cell Animal cell:

solution cell higher than in into the solution by shrink/shrivel
the solution osmosis (crenation) Plant cell:
plasmolysed
Hypotonic Water potential in Water from the Animal cell: swell,
solution the solution higher solution move into the burst (lysis)
than in the cell cell by osmosis Plant cell: turgid
(normal)

Isotonic solution Water potential in Movement of water in Animal cell: normal

the solution is the and out of cell is at the Plant cell: flaccid
same as in the cell same rate.
Water movement & the concept of water
potential
• Water molecules possess kinetic energy.
• In liquid or gases form, they move about very
rapidly in random directions.

Water potential
• term given to the tendency for water
molecules to enter or leave the solution by
osmosis.
A measure of the free kinetic energy of water molecules
in solution
• Pure water has the highest water potential: zero (0).

• Any solution (at atmospheric pressure) has

negative water potential value.
• Effect of dissolving solute molecules into
pure water is to reduce the concentration of
• Water diffuses from region of high water
potential (< negative or zero value) to a region of
lower water potential (> negative value).
Components of water potential
• Two important factors:
– Direction of water movement depends on
solute concentration and physical pressure
called pressure potential.
Water potential Ψ = solute potential(Ψs) +
pressure potential (Ψp)
Solute Potential
• The measurement about the change in the water
potential of a system due to the presence of solute
molecules.
• Solute potential is the negative component of
water potential.
• The value of solute potential is always negative.
• A cell/solution that contains a lot of solute
molecules
– is said to have a low solute potential.
– the cell /solution does not release its water
molecules easily.
Solute Potential
– solute molecules hold stronger to the water
molecules.
• This makes it harder for the water molecules
to leave the solution.
• Therefore, water molecules always move
from a solution that has less solute molecules
(high solute potential) to a solution that has
more solute molecules (low solute potential).
Pressure Potential
• If a pressure (> atmospheric pressure)
is applied to pure water or to a solution
inside a partially permeable bag,
– water potential increases.
• Hydrostatic pressure to which water is
subjected is called pressure potential.
• In most cells (eg.: turgid plant cell),
pressure potential is positive.
Pressure Potential
• As water diffuses into a plant cell;
– solutes in the cell sap makes ψS lower
– cell contents (protoplast) expand;
• press the plasma membrane against the
cellulose cell wall
• causing a pressure (turgor pressure)
• cell wall develops an inward pressure
(pressure potential, ψP) to resist the influx of
water.
Example of question:
Question 1
Plant cell A has a solute potential of -300 kPa & a
pressure potential of 200 kPa. Lying next to it is plant cell
B which has a solute potential of - 400kPa & a pressure
potential of 100kPa. Use the water potential equation to
predict the direction of net movement of water in each
cell.
Answer:
• Water potential Ψ = solute potential (Ψs) + pressure potential
(Ψp)
Ψ = Ψs +Ψp
Question 2
Calculate Ψ for cell A, B, C, D, E & F. State the direction
of water movement.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Meaning
– movement of ion or molecule across the
plasma membrane against its concentration
gradient
• Process involve active transport:
– Sodium-potassium pump

• Sodium-potassium pump
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
– to move against its concentration
gradient
– actively pumps;
- 3 Na+ out of the cell
- 2 K+ into the cell
– maintains low [ Na+ ] & high [K+ ]
inside most animal cells
Sodium-potassium pump
Extracellular fluid:
[Na+] high
[K+] low

Cytosol:
[Na+] low
[K+] high

1. 3 sodium ions bind to the carrier protein

171
Sodium-potassium pump
Extracellular fluid:
[Na+] high
[K+] low

ATP

Cytosol:
[Na+] low
ADP [K+] high

2. The binding triggers phosphorylation by

ATP 172
Sodium-potassium pump
Extracellular fluid:
[Na+] high
[K+] low

Cytosol:
[Na+] low
[K+] high
3. The phosphorylation causes the protein to
change its conformation/ shape. The
conformational change will cause the Na+ to be 173
Sodium-potassium pump
Extracellular fluid:
[Na+] high
[K+] low

Cytosol:
[Na+] low
[K+] high

4. 2 K+ bind to the carrier protein

174
Sodium-potassium pump
Extracellular fluid:
[Na+] high
[K+] low

Cytosol:
[Na+] low
[K+] high

5. K+ binding triggers the

dephosphorylation of protein. 175
Sodium-potassium pump
Extracellular fluid:
[Na+] high
[K+] low

Cytosol:
[Na+] low
[K+] high

6. The loss of a phosphate group restores the

protein to return to its original conformation.
K+ is released to the inside of the cell and the 176
Bulk Transport
i. ENDOCYTOSIS
ii. EXOCYTOSIS

I. ENDOCYTOSIS
• Meaning:
– Cell takes in substance (in large
amount/quantity)
Bulk Transport
• Two types: Phagocytosis & Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
• Phagocytosis = ‘Cell Eating’
– cell ingests/engulf large solid particles
– by wrapping pseudopodium around the
particle & forming a food / phagocytic
vacuole
- lysosome will fuse with the food vacuole
forming phagolysosome and release its
hydrolytic enzyme to digest the particle.
• Example:
i. Phagocytes (leucocytes) engulf foreign substances like
bacteria by phagocytosis
ii. Amoeba engulf food particles
Pinocytosis
• Pinocytosis = ‘Cell Drinking’
– the ingestion of dissolved materials
– by forming tiny pinocytic vesicles as the
plasma membrane
invaginate inwards & pinches off
– liquid contents of the vesicle are then slowly
transferred to the cytosol
– doesn’t involve lysosome
• Example:
– Reabsorption of amino acids by the proximal tubule in
nephron (kidney tubule)
II. EXOCYTOSIS
• Meaning: vesicle or vacuole fuses with cell
surface membrane & the contents are released
outside the cells