ELECTROMAGNETIC BREAKING SYSTEM

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(Mechanical)

SUBMITTED BY: UNDER GUIDANCE:

RAHUL (1801778) Dr. NEEL KANTH GROVER

SURENDRA SINGH (1901900)
ANUBHAV SHAKYA (1818721)
ANKIT RAJ (1803409)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

I.K. GUJRAL PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,
MAIN CAMPUS, KAPURTHALA

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 CERTIFICATE

We hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the major project report entitled
ELECTROMAGNETIC BREAKING SYSTEM by us in partial fulfilment of requirements for the award
of degree of B.Tech. (Mechanical) submitted in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at I.K.
GUJRAL PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, MAIN CAMPUS, KAPURTHALA under I.K.
GUJRAL PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KAPURTHALA is an authentic record of my/our own
work carried out during a period from “DATE OF START OF SEMESTER” to “DATE OF END OF
SEMESTER”. This work is in continuation of my/our Minor Project carried in previous semester. The
matter presented in this major project report has not been submitted by me/us in any other University /
Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

Signature of the Student/s

ANKIT RAJ (1803409)

SURENDRA SINGH (1901900)
RAHUL (1801778)
ANUBHAV SHAKAYA (1818721)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate/s is correct to the best of my/our
knowledge

Signature of the Major Project Guide/s

Dr. NEEL KANTH GROVER

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. tech minor project. We owe
special debt of gratitude of Dr. SHEETAL SHODA, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, I.K. GUJRAL PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR, for
her constant support and guidance throughout the course of our work. Her sincerity,
thoroughness and perseverance’s have been a constant source of inspiration for us. It is only
her cognizant efforts that our endeavors have seen light of the day.

We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Dr. NEEL KANTH
GROVER, Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering for his full support and
assistance during the development of the product.

The author express gratitude to other faculty members of Mechanical Engineering

Department, Head and Staff of Workshops, IKGPTU for their intellectual support throughout
the course of this work.

Finally, the authors are indebted to all whosoever have contributed in this major project
work.

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 CONTENTS
Candidate's Declaration i
Abstract ii
Acknowledgement viii
List of Figures xvi
References xxi

Chapter 1 : ABSTRACT 5
Chapter 2 : INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT 7
Chapter 3 : HISTORY 9
Chapter 4 : REQUIREMENTS 11
Chapter 5 : GENERAL PRINCIPLE 12
Chapter 6 : DESIGN 13
Chapter 7 : DEVICE USED 16
Chapter 8 : APPLICATIONS 20
Chapter 9 : ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 21
Chapter.10 : CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK 23
REFERENCES

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 Abstract
The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of kinetic energy into heat.
This high energy conversion therefore demands an appropriate rate of heat dissipation if a
reasonable temperature and performance stability are to be maintained. While the design,
construction, and location features severely limit the heat dissipation function of the friction
brake, electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and avoid problems that friction
brakes face by using a totally different working principle and installation location. By using the
electromagnetic brake as supplementary retardation equipment, the friction brakes can be used
less frequently and therefore practically never reach high temperatures. The brake linings thus
have a longer life span, and the potential “brake fade” problem can be avoided. It is apparent that
the electromagnetic brake is an essential complement to the safe braking of heavy vehicles.
Most of the braking systems utilize friction forces to transform the kinetic energy of a moving
body into heat that is dissipated by the braking pads. The overuse of friction-type braking systems
causes the temperature of the braking pads to rise, reducing the effectiveness of the system. An
Electromagnetic Braking system uses Magnetic force to engage the brake, but the power required
for braking is transmitted manually. The disc is connected to a shaft and the electromagnet is
mounted on the frame. When electricity is applied to the coil a magnetic field is developed across
the armature. The eddy-current is created by the relative motion between a magnet and a metal
(or alloy) conductor. The current induces the reverse magnetic field and results in the deceleration
of motion. The proposed mechanism implements this phenomenon in developing a braking
system. The potential applications of the braking system can be a decelerating system to increase
the safety of an elevator or any guided rail transportation system. As a result, it develops torque
and eventually the vehicle comes to rest. In this project the advantage of using the
electromagnetic braking system in automobile is studied. These brakes can be incorporated in
heavy vehicles as an auxiliary brake. The electromagnetic brakes can be used in commercial
vehicles by controlling the current supplied to produce the magnetic flux. Making some
improvements in the brakes it can be used in automobiles in future. It also reduces the
maintenance of braking system. An advantage of this system is that it can be used on any vehicle
with minor modifications to the transmission and electrical systems.
A controller is designed that achieves wheel-slip control for vehicle motion. The objective of this
brake control system is to keep the wheel slip at an ideal value so that the tire can still generate
lateral and steering forces as well as shorter stopping distances. In order to control the wheel slip,
vehicle system dynamic equations are given in terms of wheel slip. The system shows the

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nonlinearities and uncertainties. Hence, a nonlinear control strategy based on sliding mode,
which is a standard approach to tackle the parametric and modelling uncertainties of a nonlinear
system, is chosen for slip control. Due to its robustness properties, the sliding mode controller
can solve two major difficulties involved in the design of a braking control algorithm:

1. The vehicle system is highly nonlinear with time-varying parameters and uncertainties.

2. The performance of the system depends strongly on the knowledge of the tire/road surface
condition. A nominal vehicle system model is simulated in software and a sliding mode
controller is designed to maintain the wheel slip at a given value. The brake control system
has desired performance in the simulation.

It can be proven from this study that the electromagnetic brake is effective supplementary
retardation equipment. The application and control of electromagnetic brakes might be integrated
with the design of vehicles and their friction braking systems so that an ideal match of the
complementary benefits of both systems might be obtained to increase safety to a maximum while
reducing vehicle operating costs to a minimum.

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 INTRODUCTION

In this project we are trying to make a braking system. Which can be applicable in two wheelers
at high speed and low maintenance cost. Here we are using an electromagnetic coil and a plunger.
There is an electromagnetic effect which moves the plunger in the braking direction.

When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic flux. That flux is then
transferred into a hysteresis disk passing through the field. The hysteresis disk is attached to the
brake shaft. A magnetic drag on the hysteresis disk allows for a constant drag, or eventual stoppage
of the output shaft.

 This projects intends to the design and implementation of new system of

retardation (braking) for automobiles

 The design of the new brakes is based upon the phenomenon of

electromagnetic induction and eddy currents

 The design basically consists of very strong magnet and rotating metallic
wheel

 The wheel develops eddy currents due to the change in magnetic flux
associated to the wheel due to its rotation

 The eddy current development obeys Maxwell’s law of electromagnetic

induction and Lenz’s law of direction of induced current

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The current in turn dissipates the rotational energy of the wheel as heat bringing the wheel to a
stop

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 HISTORY
It is found that electromagnetic brakes can develop a negative power which represents nearly twice
the maximum power output of a typical engine, and at least three times the braking power of an
exhaust brake. (Reverdin 1994). These performance of electromagnetic brakes make them much
more competitive candidate for alternative retardation equipment’s compared with other retarders.
By using by using the electromagnetic brakes are supplementary retardation equipment, the
friction brakes can be used less frequently, and therefore practically never reach high temperatures.
The brake linings would last considerably longer before requiring maintenance and the potentially
“brake fade” problem could be avoided. In research conducted by a truck manufacturer, it was
proved that the electromagnetic brake assumed 80% of the duty which would otherwise have been
demanded of the regular service brake (Reverdin 1974). Furthermore, the electromagnetic brakes
prevent the danger that can arise from the prolonged use of brake beyond their capability to
dissipate heat. This is most likely to occur while a vehicle descending a long gradient at high speed.
Ina study with a vehicle with 5 axles and weighting 40 tones powered by a powered by an engine
of 310 b.h.p travelling down a gradient of 6% at a steady speed between 35 and 40 m.h.p, it can
be calculated that the braking power necessary to maintain this speed to the order of 450 hp. The
brakes, therefore, would have to absorb 300 hp, meaning that each brake in the 5 axels must absorb
30 hp that a friction brake can normally absorb with self-destruction. The magnetic brake is well
suited to such conditions since it will independently absorb more than 300 hp (Reverdin 1974). It
therefore can exceed the requirements of continuous uninterrupted braking, leaving the friction
brakes cool and ready for emergency braking in total safety. The installation of an electromagnetic
brake is not very difficult if there is enough space between the gearbox and the rear axle. If did not
need a subsidiary cooling system. It relays on the efficiency of engine components for its use, so
do exhaust and hydrokinetic brakes. The exhaust brake is an on/off device and hydrokinetic brakes
have very complex control system. The electromagnetic brake control system is an electric
switching system which gives it superior controllability.

Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes) slow or stop

motion using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical resistance (friction). The original
name was "electro-mechanical brakes" but over the years the name changed to
"electromagnetic brakes", referring to their actuation method. Since becoming popular in the
mid-20th century especially in trains and trams, the variety of applications and brake designs
has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same.

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Both electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use electromagnetic
force but electromagnetic brakes ultimately depend on friction and eddy
current brakes use magnetic force directly.

Objective

-To study the electromagnetic braking system

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 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS

Overall –Power supply to power the system –Hub and spindle assembly to simulate the
actual spinning of the rotor –Custom made rotor with metal arranged for the most effective
result –Brake pedal to simulate the real environment –Three electromagnets to generate
braking force

• Reading the braking level from pedal

• Regulating input voltage

• Powering up the 8051 µC

• Amplifying the output voltage to electromagnets

• Varying the braking force through duty cycle –Custom built circuit board

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 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

INSTALLATION LOCATION :-
Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all the energy requirements
of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of friction. Due to its specific installation
location (transmission line of rigid vehicles).
There are in existence several types of electromagnetic retarder. In particular, there are
electromagnetic retarders of the axial type and electromagnetic retarders of the Focal type. An
electromagnetic retarder of the axial type is designed to be placed on a transmission shaft between
a rear axle and a gearbox of the vehicle. In that case, the transmission shaft is in two parts, for
mounting between those of the retarder. An electromagnetic retarder of the Focal type is designed
to be placed directly on a transmission shaft on the output side of the gearbox or on the axle of the
vehicle. The axle of a vehicle drives at least one road wheel; which road wheel drives at least one
wheel of the same vehicle

WORKING : -
The working principle of the electric retarder is based on the creation of Eddy currents within a
metal disc rotating between two electromagnets, which sets up a force opposing the rotation of the
disc. If the electromagnet is not energized, the rotation of the disc is free and accelerates uniformly
under the action of the weight to which its shaft is connected. When the electromagnet is energized,
the rotation of the disc is retarded and the energy absorbed appears as heating of the disc.

In this type of electromagnetic braking system, electromagnet is fixed in the back plate in this way
the unequal braking effect at one shoe are balanced, even if the lining on one shoe is worn more
than other the plunger will move to one side so that shoe still share equal acting force.

In this braking system, any one shoe out of two will remove & instead of it we will use the
electromagnetic coil. As the current passes through this electromagnetic coil, it will produce
the magnetic flux, this flux will attract the shoe with much force, and brake will apply.
A typical retarder consists of stator and rotor. The stator holds 16 Induction coils, energized
separately in groups of four. The coils are made up of varnished aluminum wire mounded in
epoxy resin. The stator assembly is Supported resiliently through anti-vibration mountings on
the chassis frame of the vehicle. The rotor is made up of two discs, which provide the braking
force when subject to the electromagnetic influence when the coils are excited. Careful design
of the fins, which are integral to the disc, permit independent cooling of the arrangement.

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 DESIGN ALTERNATIVE

• Permanent magnets mounted on the wheel –Cleaning issue – Magnet arrangement

issue –Electromagnetic field around other mechanical components issue

• Metallic material region all around the wheel – Electromagnetic field dispersion issue
–Not enough braking force

DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

• Mini-Max 51-C2 8051 Microcontroller

• 2001 Toyota Corolla hub and spindle assembly

• Three GP-2030/24VDC electromagnets

• MC2 Microcap pedals

DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS (CONT’D)

• General view – Pedal – 8015 Microcontroller – Circuit board – Electromagnets – DC power supply
Pedal 8051 µC
EM
DC power supply
Circuit board :- 5 [V] output, Input
Square Wave :- 12 [V] power
Amplified output :- 42 [V] power

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 DESIGN DESCRIPTION

• Circuit board – LM317T voltage regulator to regulate input voltage – BUK-555 60A
MOSFET as a switch
• Programming – Voltage reading by ADC – ADC by convert () function – ON and
OFF state by set bit and clrbit () – Generate delay by generate delay () function
ELET 4308 Team 4 Slide 9 of 13 Start
Parameter Setup
Voltage Reading
Generate Delay
Generate Delay
OFF State
ON State

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 USED DEVICES

CAPACITOR :-
A capacitor is a passive two terminal electrical component used to store electrical energy
temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at
least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store
energy by becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal
or conductive electrolyte, etc. The non-conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge
capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum,
paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many
common electrical devices.

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DC MOTOR :-
DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct current electrical power into
mechanical power. The most common types rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly
all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to
periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the motor. Most types produce rotary
motion; A linear motor directly produces force and motion in a straight line

DIODE :-
In electronics, a diode is a two terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one
direction (asymmetric conductance) ; It has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow of current in
one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most
common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected
to two electrical terminals.
A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor
diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices.

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RESISTER :-
A resistor is a passive two terminal electrical components that implements electrical resistance as
a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal
levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines among other uses.

TRANSFORMER :-
Transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits
through electromagnetic induction Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force
within a conductor which is eposed to time varying magnetic fields Transformers are used to
increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications varying current in the
transformer primary winding creates a varying magnetic flu in the transformer core and a varying
field impinging on the transformers secondary winding This varying magnetic field at the
secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force E or voltage in the secondary winding
due to electromagnetic induction Making use of faradays law discovered in in conduction with
high magnetic permeability core properties transformers can be designed to change efficiently C
voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks.

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FERROMAGNETISM :-
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form permanent
magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different types of magnetism are
distinguished. Ferromagnetism (including ferrimagnetism) [1] is the strongest type: it is the only
one that typically creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the common
phenomena of magnetism in magnets encountered in everyday life. Substances respond weakly to
magnetic fields with three other types of magnetism, paramagnetic, diamagnetism, and
antiferromagnetic, but the forces are usually so weak that they can only be detected by sensitive
instruments in a laboratory. An everyday example of ferromagnetism is a refrigerator magnet used
to hold notes on a refrigerator door.

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 APPLICATION

• Already in use under some railway system

• Can be used for any road vehicles

• Equally applicable to heavy and light vehicles

• Can be used as additional retarder for aircrafts

• May also find application in virtually any rotating system which have metallic parts

• This brake system can be use in two wheelers.

• Electromagnetic braking system can be used as a modern technology of braking in

automobile.

• Electromagnetic braking system will be used in all types of light motor vehicle like car

and heavy motor vehicle.

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 LIMITATIONS

• Failure to act as a holding device

• Usage of electric power for braking

• Less effective under very low velocities

• The installation of an electromagnetic brake is very difficult if there is not enough

space between the gearbox and the rear axle.

• Need a separate compressor.

• Maintenance of the equipment components such as hoses, valves has to done

periodically.

• It cannot use grease or oil.

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 ADVANTAGES
• Problems of drum distortion at widely varying temperatures. Which is common for
friction-brake drums to exceed 500 °C surface temperatures when subject to heavy
braking demands, and at temperatures of this order, a reduction in the coefficient of
friction („brake fade‟) suddenly occurs.

• This is reduced significantly in electromagnetic disk brake systems.

• Potential hazard of tire deterioration and bursts due to friction is eliminated.

• There is no need to change brake oils regularly.

• There is no oil leakage

• The practical location of the retarder within the vehicle prevents the direct
impingement of air on the retarder Caused by the motion of the vehicle.

• The retarders help to extend the life span of the regular brakes and keep the regular
brakes cool for emergency situation.

• The electromagnetic brakes have excellent heat dissipation efficiency owing to the
high temperature of the surface of the disc which is being cooled.

• Due to its special mounting location and heat dissipation mechanism, electromagnetic
brakes have better thermal dynamic performance than regular friction brakes.

• Burnishing is the wearing or mating of opposing surfaces. This is reduced significantly

here. 11) In the future, there may be shortage of crude oil; hence byproducts such as
brake oils will be in much demand. EMBs will overcome this problem.

• Electromagnetic brake systems will reduce maintenance cost.

• The problem of brake fluid vaporization and freezing is eliminated.

• Electric actuation, no fluid.

• Easier integration with anti-lock, traction, and dynamic stability controls.

• Easy individual wheel braking control.

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 FUTURE WORK
• The proposed winding model should be verified and its validity with respect to
frequency and model parameter settings investigated.

• In the core model the static hysteresis model should be improved, especially regarding
the modelling of minor loops. E.g., the distribution function of the pseudo particles and
the relation between reversible and irreversible processes should be studied more in
detail.

• In the dynamic magnetization model the optimization of the Cover circuit sections and
the frequency and amplitude dependency of the parameter V0 could be studied. If it is
possible to find that dependency for a class of material, this would make this model a
very useful tool. Then the only necessary adapting step would be to fit the static curve
to the measured static curve.

• The composite transformer model should also be validated in other operation modes
like transient overvoltage.

• A more detailed reluctance network model of the transformer including three

dimensional flux paths in tank and construction details should be developed and
verified.

• A static magnetization model that takes B as input and returns H should be developed.

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 CONCLUSION
Electromagnetic brakes are important supplementary retardation equipment in addition to the
regular friction brakes. They have been used in heavy vehicles such as coaches, buses, or
trucks under conditions such as reducing speed on motorways and trunk roads, and braking
for prolonged periods during downslope operations. New types of electromagnetic brakes have
been under development for lighter vehicles as well. Regular friction brakes have an
outstanding and vital load absorbing capability if kept cool. Electromagnetic brakes help
friction brakes to retain this capability under all conditions by absorbing energy at a separate
location based on a totally different working principle. In this study, we proposed a modified
static mathematical model for the electromagnetic brakes. A sliding mode controller is
designed and simulated for a nominal vehicle model under different road surface conditions.
Microcontroller implementation of electromagnetic anti-lock braking system is evaluated. The
performance of the modified mathematical model for electromagnetic brake is better than the
other three models available in the literature in a least- square sense. There is only one “global”
model which can be used at both low speed and high speed regions. Unfortunately, this model
does not agree with the experimental results in the high speed region. Based 80 on the
phenomena summarized from observation in the high speed region, we modified the old
“global” model by taking the “reluctance effect” into account. After this modification, we can
model the speed- torque relationship more accurately. A sliding mode controller is designed
to implement the wheel slip control system. A nominal vehicle system model is used in a Mat
lab /s-function simulation for testing the controller performance in different road surface
scenarios. According to the simulation results, the controller performance is satisfactory. The
wheel slip is kept in the appropriate range and brake torque is controlled to adapt to the new
road surface quickly whenever the road surface changes. The wheel slip control system can be
implemented by using high speed, highly integrated digital microcontrollers such as Motorola
the 68HC11 series. The on-chip input/output hardware like 8-bit analog inputs, the high speed
input capture function, and serial communications allow interfacing with sensors and
actuators. The instruction set and architecture of the Motorola 68HC11 fulfil the requirement
of the wheel slip control design. The new generations of 16-bit microcontroller should have
better real time performance and I/O capability than the Motorola 68HC11. It can be concluded
from this study that the electromagnetic brake is an effective supplementary retardation
device. The application and control of electromagnetic brakes should be integrated with the
design of vehicles and their friction braking systems so that an ideal match of the
complementary benefits of both systems might be obtained to increase safety to a maximum
while reducing vehicle operating costs to a minimum.

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 REFERENCES

• K.D. Hahn, E.M. Johnson, A. Broken, & S. Baldwin (1998) "Eddy current damping of a
magnet moving through a pipe", American Journal of Physics 66:1066–66.

• M.A. Heald (1988) "Magnetic braking: Improved theory", American Journal of Physics 56:
521–2.

• Y. Levin, S.L. Da Silveira & F.B. Rizzato (2006) "Electromagnetic braking: A simple
quantitative model", American Journal of Physics 74:815–17.

• Sears, Francis Weston; Zemansky, Mark W. (1955). University Physics (2nd Ed.). Reading,
MA: Addison-Wesley.

• Siskind, Charles S. (1963). Electrical Control Systems in Industry. New York: McGraw-Hill,
Inc.ISBN0-07-057746-3.

• H.D. Wiederick, N. Gauthier, D.A. Campbell, & P. Rochan (1987) "Magnetic braking: Simple
theory and experiment", American Journal of Physics 55:500–

• US patent 7237748, Steven Sullivan, "Landing gear method and apparatus for braking and
maneuvering", issued 3 July 2007, assigned to Delos

• Fleming, Frank; Shapiro, Jessica “BASIC OF ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES”

(www.ogura.com)

• Zalud ,Todd ”brake selection” (www.ogura.com)

“http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagneticbrake

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