HSS Local Buckling and Residual Stresses

:
L ICE N T IAT E T H E S I S
High Strength Steel
Mattias Clarin
Local Buckling and Residual Stresses
High Strength Steel

Mattias Clarin
LICENTIATE THESIS
Luleå University of Technology
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Division of Structural Engineering - Steel Structures
:
Universitetstryckeriet, Luleå :|:-|: - -- ⁄ -- 

Licentiate Thesis 2004:54
High Strength Steel

- Local Buckling and Residual Stresses -
Mattias Clarin
Luleå University of Technology

Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Division of Structural Engineering - Steel Structures
Luleå, November 2004
Preface
Preface
Not long ago, I met a man I thought I knew fairly well, you know, one of these acquaintances
not in your inner circle, but still someone you know. This man works with steel and has done
so for a while. During our conversation he exclaimed: “It’s strange, you know about my past,
but do you know that working with steel has changed my life?”. I knew that this man had lost
everything he held valuable in his life, and he further explained to me that through doing an
effort concerning his work, doing these hard things threatening to break you, he found the way
back to his life and new valuable things to embrace. From this we may learn that the things we
are aiming for may bring other, more valuable, consequences. We know that by using steel we
can change the behaviour of a structure, but obviously it may have other effects too. I am not
sure if the change in this man’s life was material dependent, but nevertheless it is a nice thought:
That working with steel just may change your life, isn’t it?
Considering valuable, the support I have acquired in the task of steering my sailing ship to
the Licentiate island in the ocean of knowledge is invaluable. My supervisors Ove Lagerqvist
and Eva Hedman-Pètursson has contributed greatly to this thesis. Thank you for sharing of your
energy and technical expertise. You are the hull of my ship, protecting from the waves and
supporting me from shore to shore.
The personnel at TESTLAB has also contributed very much to this thesis. Especially Lars
Åström, Georg Danielsson, Hans-Olov Johansson and Claes Fahleson who has helped me with
the experimental work. The work you have helped me with is the rig and sails that have brought
the ship forward.
The people at the division, steel structures in particular, you are the deck of the ship. A solid
foundation to support all activities on board. Thanks!
Every ship of dignity has an orchestra bringing joy to the people on board. The orchestra on
this ship has been the members in “The Band of Brodders”. Arvid, Jimmy, Karin and Tobias,
may the KP live for ever and thank you for the music!
I
Another member in the band, as well as vice captain of the ship, that has helped me through
is Jonas Gozzi. Ready to help and support when needed, both at sea and in land. The journey
continues!
To the people waiting at the destination: family and friends. Now this is done and I promise
to improve!
That was it and all.
Luleå, 9th of November, 2004
Mattias Clarin
“And following our will and wind we may just go where no one's been
We'll ride the spiral to the end and may just go where no one's been
Spiral out. Keep going.”
/Maynard James Keenan
II
Abstract
Abstract
High strength steel provide designers with the possibility of creating more slender and
weight efficient structures than would be possible if using steels with lower strength. To be able
to do this, a structural designer needs updated and validated codes as aid in their work. This
thesis addresses the behaviour of high strength steel with respect to local buckling and residual
stresses. The thesis was aiming to determine if there exists any significant differences in the
resistance to local plate buckling of high strength steel (fy > 460 MPa) compared to steels with
lower strength. Furthermore, longitudinal residual stresses induced by welding were also
considered on a basis of material strength. Experimental work considering these two issues was
conducted concerning the three steel grades Domex 420, Weldox 700 and Weldox 1100.
The investigation concerning the local buckling resistance comprises experiments on 48

welded box section specimens made of the three grades. Nominal plate slenderness values were
altered between 0,7 and 1,5. Moreover, the experimental work was founded on plate theory with
respect to local buckling and a survey of other conducted comparable experiments. The results
from the tests and the literature survey were evaluated with respect to Eurocode 3. The gathered
test results from literature and experiments showed that no significant difference between the
local buckling resistance of different steel strengths could be concluded if compared to the
Winter function. However, the Winter function was concluded to overestimate the resistance for
more slender simply supported plates (Op > 0,9) with residual stresses (in as-welded condition).
The residual stress state present in three box sectioned specimens made of the three grades
was measured with the blind hole technique. Evaluation of the test results was made with
respect to the steel strength and complemented with test results collected from a literature
survey. The study showed that the tensile residual stresses induced by welding could not be
directly correlated to the material strength. Results from measurements on high strength steel
specimens showed that the longitudinal residual stresses was lower if made dimensionless with
respect to the strength of the steel.
III
IV
Notations & Symbols
Notations & Symbols
The notations and symbols used in this thesis are described below in alphabetical order,
disregarding being roman or greek letters.
a - Weld size, numerical coefficient or length
A - Area or constant
A5 - Elongation measurement, 5 %
D - Angle
b , bw - Plate width
beff - Effective width
B,C - Constant
'L - Elongation
G - Deformation
D - Flexural plate rigidity
H - Strain or Material depentent parameter
Hr - Radial strain
HT - Tangential strain
E - Modulus of elasticity, Youngs modulus
fu - Ultimate strength
fue - Ultimate strength, electrode
fy - Yield strength
fye - Yield strength, electrode
V
fyk - Characteristic yield strength
F - Force
Fc - Shrinkage force
h - Height
Op - Plate slenderness
k - Weld factor
kcr - Buckling load coefficient
L - Plate length
m,n - Number of half waves over plate
Ncr - Critical load
n - Number of passes in weld
Nel - Buckling load
Nx , Ny - Normal forces per unit distance
Nxy - Shearing force per unit distance
q - Distributed variable load
Q - Heat input (circuit voltage x current)
R - Radius from drill centre
Ro - Drill radius
Rp0.2 - 0,2 % Proof stress
Rm - Ultimate resistance
V - Stress
Vc , Vrc - Compressive residual stress
Vcr - Critical stress
Vr - Residual stress
V’r - Initial radial stress
Vt,rs - Tensile residual stress
Vrs - Residual stress
VI
Notations & Symbols
V´T - Initial tangential stress
Vu - Ultimate strength
Vx - Normal stress
t - Thickness
W'rT - Initial shear stress
v - Welding speed
w - Amplitude of plate deflection
w0 - Initial amplitude of plate deflection
x, y, z - Cartesian coordinates
X - Position
\ - Stress ratio
Throughout the thesis mean values are marked overlined, e.g. fy represents the mean yield
strength.
VII
VIII
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
Notations & Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V
Chapter 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Disposition of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 2: Plate Buckling - Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Bifurcation instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Plate theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Elastic analysis / Calculation of critical load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Simply supported plates under uniform compression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Initial plate imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.4 Geometric imperfections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.5 Residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Non linear theory / Post buckling behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 The von Kármán effective-width formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.2 The Winter function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Chapter 3: Plate Buckling - Survey of Literature . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1 “Experimental Investigation of the Buckling of Plates with
Residual Stresses” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.1 Test Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.2 Test results and conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 “Plate Slenderness Limits for High Strength Steel Sections” . . . . . 23
3.2.1 Test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.2 Residual stress measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.3 Test results and conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
IX
3.3 “Basic Compressive Strength of Steel Plates from Test Data” . . . . 26
3.4 “Local Buckling of Thin-Walled Columns”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 “Welded Steel Plates in Compression” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5.1 Tests made by J.D. Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5.2 Tests made by K.E. Moxham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.6 “Buckling Tests on Rectangular Plates made of two Different
types of Weldox 1100 Steel” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6.1 Test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6.2 Test results and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7 Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Chapter 4: Plate Buckling - Experimental Work . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Experimental investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Uniaxial tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.1 Specimens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.2 Test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3.3 Test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Buckling tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4.1 Specimens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4.2 Test Setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4.3 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.5 Test Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.6 Discussion and conclusions of test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 5: Residual Stresses - Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1 The origin of residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2 Residual stresses due to structural mismatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3 Residual stresses due to thermal or plastic strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3.1 Hot rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.3.2 Cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3.3 Weld induced residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.4 Measurement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.4.1 Destructive residual stress measurement methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.4.2 Non-destructive residual stress measurement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.5 Effects of residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.6 How to reduce residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 6: Residual Stresses - Survey of Literature . . . . . . . . . 63
6.1 Modelling of residual stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
X
Table of Contents
6.1.1 Analytical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.2 Measurements of residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.3 Discussion and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 7: Residual Stresses - Experimental Work . . . . . . . . . 71
7.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.2 Experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.2.1 Test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.3 Test evaluation and test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.4 Discussion and conclusions of test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Chapter 8: Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.1 Residual Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.2 Local Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Chapter 9: References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
APPENDIX A: Plate Buckling - Experimental Work . . . . . . . . 87
APPENDIX B: Residual Stresses - Experimental Work . . . . . . 103
APPENDIX C: Residual Stresses - Survey of Literature . . . . . . 113
XI
XII
Introduction
Chapter1:
Introduction
The world changes around you! Space travelling is privatized, researchers all around find
ways to cure diseases thought not possible to treat, even the very foundation beneath your feet
changes. Innovations, or maybe novelties, are also introduced in the field of materials.
Advanced fibre composites, cheramics or steels with strengths and quality only dreamt of 50
years ago are now available on the market for designers.
These new materials provides product designers working in areas ranging from floorball
sticks, fighter planes and bullet proof armour to vehicles, bridges and buildings, with new
possibilities to develop and construct better merchandises. Nevertheless, the outcome of a
designers new creation, has to be carefully investigated before constructed. A floorball stick
may be replaced, but regarding the bullet proof armour, one needs to be completely certain of
the capabilities and limitations of the new product. This is why researchers bend, pull and twist
new innovations in the purpose of establishing rules concerning the behaviour of the new
product or material. Does new calculation models have to be installed or may “old” be used
regarding the new issue? A malfunctioning product with a possibly lethal outcome (as the bullet
proof armour) is a structure, made to work with or around people. This thesis will hopefully be
a step towards providing the structural designers with some tools regarding an old material,
nevertheless under never ending development, which is named: Steel.
The tree of steel development has many branches; increased toughness, better weldability
and enhanced formability are examples. Another very thick branch is the one containing the
research and development work put into increasing the strength of the steel. Today, steels with
yield strengths of 1100 MPa and above are available on the market. Even though steel has been
used as a structural material over decades, most design models used today are based on
materials with essentially lower yield strengths. This fact once again raises the question as stated
above: Does new calculation models have to be installed or may “old” be used regarding the
new issue?
With this in mind the project LiftHigh - “Efficient Lifting Equipment with Extra High
Strength Steel” was initiated in 2002. The project, partially funded by RFCS - The Research
1
Fund for Coal and Steel, was launched with the purpose of investigating how high strength steel
can be used to produce more efficient lifting equipment. The analogy is simple even for the
layman: stronger material - higher capacity, in this case lifting capacity. Nevertheless, the
calculation rules still needs to be verified for the high strength steel, which in this thesis is
defines as steel with a yield strength > 460 MPa.
Today, one of the ruling design codes concerning plated steel structures in Europe, the
Eurocode 3, is only validated to comprise steels with strength up to 460 MPa.
1.1. Purpose
This thesis was focused on two aims. First, to investigate if the Winter function, in Eurocode
3 used for estimating the local buckling resistance, is adequate especially concerning plates
made of high strength steel. The two main questions to answer was:
• If plates made of steels with higher strength behaves differently than “ordinary”
steel grades, with respect to local buckling.
• If, by using a reference grade in the experimental work (Domex 420), the whole
Winter function concept, established mainly trough tests on cold formed profiles,
can be improved in general terms.
Residual stresses induced by welding is also of great interest, since these may limit the
resistance of a welded member. The second aim of the investigation was to evaluate:
• If a correlation between residual stresses induced by welding can be put in

correlation with the strength of the steel.
1.2. Limitations
This thesis is limited to comprise experimental work of three different steel grades; the hot-
rolled Domex 420, quenched and tempered Weldox 700 and quenched Weldox 1100.
Furthermore, the measurements of residual stresses was limited to the longitudinal direction
(along the welds) and the stress state post-welding.
The evaluation of the experiments and the literature survey is only made with respect to
Eurocode 3 and the evaluation of the residual stresses is limited to consider tensile stresses only.
1.3. Method
An experimental investigation comprising welded specimens of the three different steel
grades was chosen to evaluate the local buckling behaviour of the high strength steel. The
Domex 420 grade was used as a reference enclosed in and validated for Eurocode 3. Uniaxial
tests of welded box specimens were done to investigate the local buckling behaviour of simply
2
Introduction
supported plates in as-welded condition. Moreover, a comprehensive survey of the literature

was done to support the test results.
The longitudinal residual stresses was chosen to be measured in as-welded condition with the
blind hole method. Three different steel grades were considered in the experimental work and
the specimens were of the same type as used for the local buckling tests. The steel grades
Weldox 700 and Weldox 1100 were chosen to represent the high strength steel and Domex 420
as a steel with “ordinary” strength. With measurements within this strength range,
complemented with evaluated results from a literature survey, an eventual correlation between
material strength and tensile residual stresses could be determined.
1.4. Disposition of the Thesis

In chapter 2 the theory behind the plate buckling phenomena is reviewed. Structural stability
with focus on local buckling is regarded. The establishment of equations describing local
buckling of simply supported plates are presented. Furthermore “the effective width approach”,
nowadays widely spread as a theoretical interpretation of the phenomena, is introduced along
with the Winter function used in the Eurocode 3 of today.
Chapter 3 comprises a survey of previously conducted experimental work concerning local

buckling of plates. Test results concerning range of steel grades from “ordinary” grades with
yield strength of approx. 250 MPa to 1100 MPa high strength grades, are presented and re-
evaluated.
The experimental work conducted at LTU with respect to local buckling is presented in
chapter 4. The test method, used equipment and the measurement of mechanical properties of
the three grades are enclosed, as well as the results from the buckling tests.
How residual stresses are formed in steel and some possible consequences of these are
presented in chapter 5. Different available measurement techniques, as well as how to avoid or
reduce residual stresses is also presented.
In chapter 6 the results of a literature survey concerning measurements of residual stresses

in welded members is presented. The chapter was focused on as-welded members and some
models of prediction are also described. Moreover, the results from 47 individual measurements
of a multitude of steel grades are also presented in this chapter.
Measurements of residual stresses with the blind hole method may be studied in chapter 7.
The results from the experimental work regarding three box shaped specimens are presented
and evaluated. Furthermore, the equipment used for the experiments are described.
3
The acquired test data concerning local buckling and residual stresses are discussed and
concluded in chapter 8. All re-evaluated test data gathered from the two different literature
surveys are put together with the test data acquired from experiments at LTU.
Chapter 9 contains the references used herein.
In Appendix A all of the test data concerning the buckling tests are enclosed. Furthermore,
the measuring equipment concerning these tests are described more thoroughly.
Appendix B comprises the evaluation model used for the data from the residual stress
measurements. Moreover, the relevant test data from these experiments is presented.
In Appendix C data sheets containing the 47 specimens used along with the experimental
work conducted with respect to residual stresses. These are extracts from the test data acquired
from the literature survey.
4
Plate Buckling - Theory
Chapter 2:
The words “stable” or “instable” are used by people in various contexts. Almost everyone
have a relation or thought concerning the two words describing the state of something. The
terms are used in the wide range from psychology and politics to nuclear and chemical
applications. The term “stable” is often connected to something positive and rigid when
“instable” is closely linked to the possibility of an abrupt loss of something. One of the most
known and used context of the two words, which almost all people have a relation to, is when
used in medical surroundings; a stable or instable health state.
The interest in stability / instability is also a central concern regarding mechanical systems,
e.g. structural or civil engineering, see Figure 2.1. In this field the stability or instability of a
structure is often confined to regard the elastic part of the phenomena. However, as will be
shown later herein, a structural engineer may also have to consider the inelastic state of stability
/ instability. As an example of structural instability one can consider the columns in a building
made with a steel frame. These columns have not only to withstand the vertical loads of the dead
weight and e.g. snow, but also lateral loads caused by the wind. This well known instability
phenomenon is usually referred to as column or flexural buckling.
Figure 2.1: Maybe an up-coming example of global structural instability?
5
The buckling may be of global nature, as described above, but may also be of localized
(local) type. Buckling of local sort are regional located buckling, e.g. a flange of a beam or at a
certain level of a silo, see Figure 2.2. Local buckling occur due to compressive stresses and may
in a further perspective cause global buckling because of the loss of resistance of the cross
section in question.
Figure 2.2: Different examples of local buckling. Local buckling in a silo,

Farshad (1994) (left) and box shaped profile (right).
A structure or a member in an equilibrium state under e.g. compressive load may become
unstable and the structure acquires a new equilibrium state or a new trend of behaviour. When
considering classical buckling theory the critical stress level is situated where the equilibrium
of the load - deformation path diverge. This point is called the bifurcation point or bifurcation
load. Usually two more types of elastic instabilities are distinguished. These are limit
equilibrium instability (snap-through buckling) and dynamic or flutter instability, Farshad
(1994).
2.1. Bifurcation instability

Considering the load - displacement behaviour of a column or a plate subjected to
compressive stresses, a load level lower than the bifurcation point corresponds to a state where
eventual buckles are of elastic type. Hence, the secondary path in Figure 2.3 represents the post
buckling stadium.
6
Primary path
Load
Secondary path
Critical load
Bifurcation point
Deformation
Figure 2.3: Schematic description of the bifurcation of equilibrium.
The bifurcation load or critical load has under the years been thoroughly investigated. As
mentioned above, the critical load is determined with respect to elastic analysis and have been
examined theoretically by many different researchers, e.g. Timoshenko and Gere (1963).
2.2. Plate theory

A thin plate is, by definition, a two-dimensional flexural element of which the thickness is
much smaller than its other two dimensions. A plane passing through the middle of the plate is
called the middle plane.
Thin plate elements are used in various structures; they may be elements in a complex
structure or may themselves constitute the major part of a structure. Examples of plate elements
are walls of containers, silos, and reservoirs, flat roofs, flat elements of vehicles and aircrafts,
and sheet piles. Examples of plates in civil engineering applications are the flanges and the web
of a beam. Plate elements may be homogeneous and isotropic or they may be stiffened and / or
have a composite construction.
Depending on the mode of application, a plate can be subjected to various lateral as well as
in-plane forces. Under certain circumstances, applied in-plane loading may cause buckling
which can be global or in some cases, have a localized nature; delamination buckling of
composite plates or buckling of a web in a steel beam are examples of local buckling. For thin
plates, buckling is a phenomenon which may influence the load-bearing capacity of plate
elements. Therefor, this must be taken into consideration in the design of plate elements.
7
2.2.1. Elastic analysis / Calculation of critical load
The theory behind the behaviour of a thin plate under compressive forces is usually divided
into two parts; firstly the calculation of the critical load and secondly the determination of the
ultimate load level. The critical load level is by definition the point were the structure, or
member, in question loose its stability.
Analytical calculation of the bifurcation or critical load on the basis of the classical theory of
elasticity may be done either through solving the differential plate equation or via the energy
method. The differential equation describing the buckling of a plate loaded in its plane was
established by Saint-Venant in 1870, Dubas and Gehri (1986), and states
4 4 4 2 2 2
ww w w ww 1 ww ww w w
+ 2 ---------------
-+ = ---- q – N x 2 – N y 2 + 2N xy ----------- (2.1)
wx
4
wx wy
2 2
wy
4 D wx wy w x wy
where the flexural rigidity of the plate is given by
3
Et
D = ------------------------
2
- (2.2)
12 1 – Q
This plate equation was derived under the assumptions that the material is behaving in a
ideally elasto-plastic way, the plate is without initial imperfections such as initial curvature or
residual stresses. Furthermore, the plate deformations are assumed to be small. Under these
assumptions the plate shows no lateral deformations until the critical stress level is reached. At
this point, the deflection can either be negative or positive regarding the coordinate system of
the plate, Figure 2.4.
Vcr
A
Figure 2.4: System bifurcation in point A. The plate buckles in either a positive or
negative direction, w.
The plate equation may be convenient to use when a rigorous solution of (2.1) is possible.
When the plate in question is for example reinforced with stiffeners, the problem gets more
8
advanced. These more advanced applications led to the development of other models, better
describing the actual behaviour of plates.
The solution to this problem was delivered by Bryan in 1891 through the establishment of an
energy based approach. The approach of this method is to study the plate energy in the
bifurcation point, where the plate cease to be in its assumed perfectly flat state and instead
follow its secondary equilibrium path (see Figure 2.3) in a laterally deformed state. The energy
based solution is built on the classical correlation between the internal energy of bending and
the external work done by the forces acting in the middle plane of the plate. The expression for
describing the strain energy stored in the deformed plate is
2
1 § w 2 w w 2 w· § w 2 w w 2 w § w 2 w · 2·
U = --- D
2 ³³ ¨ 2 + 2 ¸ – 2 1 – Q ¨ --------2- --------2- – © -----------¹ ¸ dx dy
--------
© Gx
- --------
Gy ¹
-
© G x Gy G x Gy ¹
(2.3)
Furthermore the equation describing the work conducted by the externally applied forces is
2 2 2
1 ww ww w w
T = – ---
2 ³³ Nx
wx
2
+ Ny
wy
2
+ 2N xy ----------- dx dy
w x wy
(2.4)
The equations (2.3) and (2.4) are only valid for small deformations, which is assumed to be
the case up to the bifurcation point. With Figure 2.3 in mind, the comparison between the
internal energy and external work gives, according to Timoshenko and Gere (1963), the
following information concerning the stability of the plate in question at the bifurcation point:
• If U > T, the flat form of equilibrium of the plate is stable (primary path)
• If U < T, the plate is unstable and buckling occurs (secondary path)
However, the critical load amplitude may be found by setting
T = UU–T = 0 (2.5)
which can be solved under the condition that the change in energy potential must have a
minimum value for a stable equilibrium. This may be used for the derivation of a differential
equation form of the equilibrium. Another way to solve the problem is to apply an expression
for the lateral deformation of the plate.
9
2.2.2. Simply supported plates under uniform compression
Figure 2.5: Simply supported plate under uniform compressive load. Dubas and
Gehri (1986).
If considering a plate subjected to evenly distributed forces along two of the edges, according
to Figure 2.5, the determination of the critical load level of the plate in question is dramatically
simplified. Since the only load applied on the plate, in the form of a uniform distributed
compressive force, acting along the edges x = a and x = -a, the rest of the external applied loads
according to equation (2.1) equals zero:
q = N y = N xy = 0 (2.6)
The edge constraints of the plate leads to the following boundary conditions:
Along the edges x = a and x = -a
2
ww
w = 2
= 0 (2.7)
wx
and along the edges y = 0 and y = b
2
ww
w = 2
= 0 (2.8)
wy
10
The boundary conditions implies that the deformed shape of the simply supported plate may
be described by a double trigonometric Fourier series on the form
f f
mSx nSy
w =
¦¦ a mn sin ----------- sin ---------
a b
m n = 1 2 3} (2.9)
m =1 n =1
By substituting the proposed solution according to equation (2.9) into (2.3) and (2.4) under
the above described conditions in (2.6), (2.7) and (2.8), and by using the relation between the
external work done by the applied load and the strain energy according to equation (2.5), the
following relation may be evolved:
§ mS· 2 § nS· 2 2
mS 2 ½ mSx nSy
® D © ------- + ------ + N x § -------· ¾ a mnsin ----------- sin --------- = 0 (2.10)
¯ a ¹ © b¹ © a ¹
¿ a b
To satisfy the equation (2.10) for all positions on the plate, i.e. all values of x and y, the
following relation has to be true:
mS 2 nS 2 2
mS 2
D § -------· + § ------· + N x § -------· = 0 (2.11)
© a ¹ © b¹ © a ¹
or in another form
mS 2 nS 2 2
D § -------· + § ------·
© a ¹ © b¹
N x = -------------------------------------------------
2
. (2.12)
§ mS
-------·
© a ¹
The combination of the two integer parameters now have to be chosen in such a way that the
applied load, Nx, reach a minimum value, i.e. the sought critical load value, Ncr. It can be shown
that the lowest critical load is reached when the plate buckles in a shape such that one half sinus
wave is formed over the width of the plate (y-direction), hence the integer parameter n = 1,
Timoshenko and Gere (1963). With this, the equation (2.12) may be evaluated to
2 2 2 2
a S D§m 1·
N cr = ---------------
2
- ¨ ------ + -----¸
2 2
m = 1 2 3} (2.13)
m ©a b ¹
in which the integer parameter m describes the number of half sinus waves over the length of
the plate (x-direction). The equation (2.13) are more often formed as
2
S D
N cr = k cr ---------
2
- (2.14)
b
11
where the dimensionless parameter kcr is the buckling load coefficient and is given by
mb a 2
k cr = § ------- + -------· m = 1 2 3} . (2.15)
© a mb¹
Furthermore, with the expression for the flexural rigidity of the plate given in (2.2), inserted
in (2.14) the well known expression for the critical, or bifurcation, stress may be expressed as
2 2
S E - --t-
V cr = k cr ------------------------
2
(2.16)
12 1 – Q b
with the insight of that
V cr = N cr e t (2.17)
The buckling load coefficient, kcr, is, as can be seen in (2.15), a function of the plate width
b, the length a and the number of sinus half waves over the length, m. For different values of the
plate width and length ratio a / b, the lowest critical stress level will be found for different
numbers of half waves according to Figure 2.6 below.
Figure 2.6: The buckling load coefficient for a simply supported thin plate.
Timoshenko and Gere (1963).
2.2.3. Initial plate imperfections

In section 2.2.1 above, a quite straight forward method for calculating the critical stress level
is presented. However, as always concerning theoretical models describing nature, it is
important to remember the assumptions made for the theory in question. Emphasizing the
assumptions made of a initially perfect flat plate and a perfectly isotropic behaviour in a
homogenous material the understanding of the limitations in the presented theory are obvious.
All materials have different levels inherent imperfections, also steel. A plate delivered from the
steel fabricator has an initial curvature and probably also residual stresses from uneven cooling
12
of the material. These facts makes the assumptions made above somewhat untrue, which also
has been proven experimentally and may be found in chapter 3.
Now when the assumptions are found to be a quite utopical description of the real behaviour
of the considered plates, the question arises how these initial imperfections affect the plate
behaviour before, as well as after, the bifurcation point. Figure 2.7 below shows the difference
in the plate behaviour when plate imperfections are considered.
Figure 2.7: The influence of initial plate imperfections in relation to perfect

plates. Farshad (1994).
Considering Figure 2.7 above two conclusions concerning how the imperfection influence
the plate behaviour may be drawn. Firstly, buckling of a plate with inherent imperfections is
gradual and the exact critical load may be difficult to determine. Hence, difficulties arises when
a comparison between theoretically and experimentally determined critical loads are to be
conducted. Secondly, as mentioned before, the plate may accept continued loading after the
bifurcation load is reached. Thus the critical load is shown to be a non-representative measure
on the ultimate resistance of the plate in question, Brush and Almroth (1975).
2.2.4. Geometric imperfections

When considering the initial out-of-plane imperfections, i.e. initial buckles, the influence of
these on the maximal out-of-plane deformation / load correlation are shown in Figure 2.8.
The graph and the calculations behind was made by H. Nylander in 1951 and shows how an
applied initial deformed shape with the amplitude wo (in the same shape as the deformed plate)
affects the magnitude of lateral deformations under applied load. Furthermore, when the
material is assumed to be ideal elastic, the model gives no information concerning the ultimate
load, Johansson (2005). Concluded, the initial geometric imperfections primarily influences the
plate stiffness and becomes more obvious with an increased plate slenderness.
13
Figure 2.8: The effect of initial geometric imperfections. Relation between the
lateral deformation, w, plate thickness, d, and load, N, concerning
different amplitudes of initial imperfections wo. StBK-K2 (1973).
2.2.5. Residual stresses

How residual, or initial, stresses are formed, distributed and under which magnitudes these
may occur is more thoroughly described in chapter 5. However, knowing that residual stresses
are present in all materials, it is evident that this must affect also the elastic plate buckling
theory. Geometrical imperfections and residual stresses in a plate under compression mainly
affects the initial stiffness of the plate. In Figure 2.9 below, a schematical distribution of residual
stresses caused by edge welding a plate is shown.
Figure 2.9: Schematic distribution of residual stresses in an edge welded plate.
Considering Figure 2.9 above, the influence of the initial load due to the present residual
stresses is clear. Since the middle region of the plate before external loads are applied, already
is under compressive stresses, it is obvious that yielding of the plate in question will occur at a
lower external load level compared to a residual stress free plate, see Figure 2.10.
The effect of inherent residual stresses is more marked for stockier or intermediate slender
plates, for which the yielding process of the plate is the governing cause of failure. Concerning
more slender plates, the initial geometric imperfection tend to surpass the influence of residual
14
stresses, Dubas and Gehri (1986). Hence, the influence of residual stresses decreases with
increasing plate slenderness.
Vcr
'L / L
Figure 2.10: Schematic influence on the behaviour of a plate with (S) and without
(A) residual stresses.
2.3. Non linear theory / Post buckling behaviour

As shown above, the estimation of the critical load may be done by a straight forward
method. However, the elastic analysis assumes, as described in previous sections, that the plate
in question is perfectly flat and that no initial stresses are present. Because of the presence of
these imperfections non-linear models were evolved. Furthermore, the initial plate
imperfections were not solely the reason to why non-linear theories had to be evolved. The
assumption concerning the constitutive relations, in this case ideal elastic material, is not
suitable to use when the ultimate resistance is sought for.
Another reason why non-linear models were established was that many researchers showed
that the ultimate load of a plate under compression may significantly surpass the critical load
level. This was especially evident concerning more slender plates. Regarding stockier plates the
resistance is often limited by yielding in the material and the ultimate load may be lower than
the critical.
In linear elastic analysis, the distribution of the load is assumed to remain uniform until the
plate buckles. However, when the plate starts to buckle, the stresses are re-distributed in the
plate. The plate behaviour under these large deformations, or post critical behaviour, is a
complicated area to describe. Some differential equations describing the phenomenon were
derived by von Kármán in 1910 but the methods for solving these are complex, Dubas and Gehri
(1986). The finite difference method, fourier series or different perturbation methods are
possible tools for this work.
15
Other methods may also be used for studying the post critical plate behaviour. One example
is the numerical methods, e.g. the finite element method, FEM, which probably is the most
powerful tool available today. However, other methods have been used during the years of
research. Analytical methods such as the Ritz energy method or a method based on a theory by
Skaloud and Kristek called the “Folded plate theory method” are both excellent examples.
As described above, the theory behind plate buckling is rather complicated due to the
combination between the membrane stresses from the applied load and bending stresses in the
deformed plate, as well as shear stresses due to rotation of the corners of the plate. For design
purposes the above described methods may be too advanced to use. This is why the “Effective
width approach” by von Kármán et al. (1932), is widely spread as the model for determining the
ultimate resistance of plates under compression.
2.3.1. The von Kármán effective-width formula

The starting point for the effective width approach is that the ultimate resistance is reached
when the largest edge stress reaches the yield stress level. Since the formed buckle in the middle
of the plate reduces the plates ability to carry the load, the stresses are re-distributed as shown
in Figure 2.11 below. The real stress distribution in the plate is approximated, or substituted,
with two strips which describes the load carrying effective width of the plate.
Figure 2.11: Stress distribution in a plate before (a) and after buckling (b).The von
Kármán assumption concerning the effective width is presented in (c).
Brush and Almroth (1975).
16
von Kármán’s hypothesis was that the “new” plate with the width of beff would have the
critical stress equal to the yield stress, i.e.
V cr = f y (2.18)
Furthermore, the critical stress according to (2.16) under the condition that the plate is under
uniform compression and simply supported (kcr = 4) the following expression may describe the
relation between effective width and yield stress level:
2
4S E t 2
------------------------- § --------· = f y (2.19)
2 © ¹
12 1 – Q b eff
or with the original plate width equal to b
V cr
b eff = b ------- (2.20)
fy
which is usually referred to as the von Kármán effective-width formula. Furthermore, the
relation
V cr b fy
Op= ------- = 1 05 --- ---------- (2.21)
fy t k E
cr
was made as a generalization of the corresponding well known parameter for column buckling
and was called the reference slenderness of the plate. In modern design rules, when design is
done with respect to the ultimate load level, this expression is the only one considering the
critical load. And as expressed in von Kármán et al. (1932) the following may be stated
E
b eff = 1 9t --- (2.22)
fy
or
b eff 1-
-------
- = ---- , for O p t 1 (2.23)
b Op
under the circumstances that the plate is simply supported and under uniform compressive load.
Although, von Kármán’s theories gained reputation as a good method to use for the
determination of the ultimate load of the plate in question, the method was a strictly theoretical
method based on plates without initial imperfections and when compared to test results it was
found to be true only for large b / t ratios. However, von Kármán still stands as the first
researcher proposing a reduction factor function.
17
2.3.2. The Winter function
Theodor von Kármáns work was a milestone concerning the simplified design methods
concerning plate buckling. Many researchers followed his work (Figure 2.12), aiming for an
expression describing a real plate with inherent initial imperfections. One of the more known
and widely spread in design codes, are the one proposed by Winter in 1947. Winter conducted
numerous experimental tests on cold formed specimens and suggested
b eff 1 0 22
-------- = ----- § 1 – ------------· , for O p t 0 673 (2.24)
b Op © Op ¹
as a suitable function regarding the effective width, Winter (1947). Winters first suggestion
was with the coefficient 0,25 but was later changed to the 0,22 used nowadays. However, it is
interesting to notice the small difference between the “original” equation (2.23) and the
experimentally based (2.24).
Other researcher proposed different solutions, or modifications, of the initial von Kármán
formula. Two reported in Dubas and Gehri (1986) are
b eff 1 05 0 26
-------- = ------------ § 1 – ------------· , for O p t 0 55 (2.25)
b Op © Op ¹
by Faulkner in 1965 and
b eff 0 82
-------- = ------------
0 85
(2.26)
b Op
suggested by Gerard in 1957.
Winter function
1.2 Faulkner function
von Kármán function
U, Reduction factor
Gerard function
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Op , Plate slenderness
Figure 2.12: Reduction functions according to Winter, Faulkner, von Kármán and
Gerard as described in the text above.
18
Even though a lot of effort has been put into this reseach field, the Winter function, based on
the cold formed members survived and is nowadays set as the function used in the present
design regulation in Europe, the Eurocode 3.
In Eurocode 3 the plate slenderness, Op, is calculated according to
bet
O p = ------------------------- (2.27)
28 4H k V
and His defined according as
H= 235
--------- . (2.28)
fy
Furthermore the buckling load coefficient, kV , for a simply supported plate under uniform
compressive load is determined according to Figure 2.6.
As mentioned above, design with respect to local buckling of flat compression elements is
made through a reduction of the cross sectional area of the plate in question. Concerning internal
compression elements this is, according to Eurocode 3, done through the use of the expression
O p – 0 055 3 + \
U = -------------------------------------------------
2
- d 1 0 (2.29)
Op
in which the factor<, represents the actual stress distribution over the plate. Concerning uniform
distribution of compressive stress this factor equals 1. Thus, the equation reflects the
original Winter function (2.24) used for these kind of plate elements in Eurocode 3.
19
20
Plate Buckling - Survey of Literature
Chapter 3:
The plate buckling phenomena has, as mentioned in previous chapters, been quite thoroughly
investigated. This also on a strictly experimental basis. The research work is forthgoing when
new steel grades and design rules enter the field of constructional applications.
However, to acquire all the test data and experimental reports concerning plate buckling are
difficult and the author to this theses makes no claims of have accomplished this. Though the
work presented below should be sufficient to validate the experiments presented in following
chapter 4.
The articles and papers presented in this chapter have been chosen to be comparable to the
tests in chapter 4. This with respect to specimen layout, welding conditions, support conditions,
steel grades and other comparable similarities. Furthermore, all the test results presented in this
chapter are evaluated with respect to the Winter function discussed in chapter 2 and according
to the Eurocode 3 specifications concerning plate slenderness values.
3.1. “Experimental Investigation of the Buckling of Plates with Residual

Stresses”
An investigation aiming to clarify how residual stresses influence the resistance against local
buckling was presented by Nishino et al. (1967). Specimens used in this research work were
fabricated of plates welded together to form a square cross section, see Figure 3.1, and tested in
as-welded condition.
21
Figure 3.1: Specimen layout and weld detailing. Nishino et al. (1967).
Two different steel grades were used for the specimens, ASTM A7 (sheared specimen plates)
and ASTM A514 (flame-cut specimen plates) with properties according to adjacent Table 3.1.
In addition to the buckling tests the residual stress condition in the specimens were measured
with the sectioning method (described in section 5.4.1).
Table 3.1: Results from tension coupon tests.The average compressive residual
stresses was estimated regarding each plate (side) individually.
Nishino et al. (1967).
Specimen Material Yield Strength, Average compressive Ratio

No. fy [MPa] residual stress, Vrc [MPa] Vrc / fy
1 A7 273,0 83 - 97 0,32
2 A7 266,1 69 - 76 0,27
3 A 514 799,8 76 - 83 0,10
4 A 514 717,1 97 - 103 0,15
3.1.1. Test Setup

The tests of the specimens were divided into four sets, each comprising two specimens with
the same geometrical properties and made of the same steel. The width - thickness ratios were,
according Nishino et al., selected such that the critical loads were reached in either the elastic
range or the elastic-plastic range. Furthermore, the length of the specimens were chosen in such
way that
• the buckling mode corresponding to the lowest critical load would be developed
and
• short enough to prevent column buckling to be the governing failure mode.
The buckling tests were performed with the specimens under uniformly distributed
compressive force as the specimens were equipped with rigid end plates, milled flat to simplify
22
the alignment in the test rig. Simply supported conditions were assumed to be valid constraints
for the plates in the welded specimen.
3.1.2. Test results and conclusions

Regarding the conclusions drawn by the authors in their article, the most interesting
concerning this theses were:
• The effect of residual stresses on the buckling strength of a plate is less pronounced
for A 514 steel than it is for A 7 steel.
• Considerable post-buckling strength exists in a plate buckled in the elastic range,

while a plate buckled in the elastic-plastic range has a relatively small reserve of
post-buckling strength.
• The plate elements of square columns of A 514 steel are stronger than those of A 7
steel when compared on a non dimensional basis (compared to the yield strength of
each grade).
Furthermore the test results presented by Nishino et al. were re-evaluated herein with respect
to the Winter function (2.24) and Eurocode 3 and presented in adjacent Figure 3.2.
Specimens of grade A7
1.2 Specimens of grade A514
U, Reduction factor
Winter function
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 3.2: Test results from all the 8 specimens from Nishino et al.(1967). The
results are re-evaluated with respect to the Winter function (2.24).
Plate slenderness according to Eurocode 3.
3.2. “Plate Slenderness Limits for High Strength Steel Sections”

An investigation with the aim of determining if high strength steel with yield stress in the
range 450 - 700 MPa could be designed according to existing Australian design rules was
presented in Rasmussen and Hancock (1992). A test programme comprising box welded
sections and cruciform shaped specimens as well as I-shaped sections were used to examine if
23
the design codes had to be modified or if they were usable also for the grades with higher
strength (a similar aim as for this thesis, except the difference in regarded codes). The
investigation focused on whether the yield slenderness limits for welded uniformly compressed
plates supported along one or both longitudinal edges were applicable to the high strength steels.
However, since this thesis solely focus on plates supported along both sides, these test results
are the only ones regarded herein. Furthermore, the intention of the investigation by Rasmussen
and Hancock (1992) may not be completely in line with the aim of this thesis, still the test results
from the paper in question are valuable and re-evaluated with respect to the Winter function
(2.24).
The test programme was divided into three parts; measurement of the material properties
with tension and compression coupons, residual stress measurement through specimen
sectioning and compression tests of the specimens. The specimens were all made of
BISALLOY 80 steel which, according to Rasmussen and Hancock, is equivalent to the ASTM
A514 grade. The through coupon tests measured mechanical properties of the BISALLOY 80
grade are presented in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Nominal and measured mechanical properties of BISALLOY 80.

Rasmussen and Hancock (1992).
Nominal plate Type of test Nominal values, Youngs modulus, Measured values,
thickness [mm] fy [MPa] E [MPa] fy / fu [MPa]
5 Tension 650 211 670 / 775
5 Compression 650 211 750 / -
3.2.1. Test setup

The box specimens used in the test programme were all fabricated by weld joining four plates
(Figure 3.3) with nominal thickness of 5 mm and with 3 different nominal widths (plate
slenderness values in Figure 3.4). Gas metal arc welding with a Lincoln L50 wire were used for
all the welds.
Figure 3.3: Specimen layout and weld detailing. Rasmussen and Hancock (1992).
The specimens were milled flat at the ends to allow a proper seating to the end plates of the
test rig. The bottom plate was fixed against rotation and the top plate was mounted on a
24
spherical seat. Furthermore the length of the specimens were chosen to allow unrestrained
development of local buckles and short enough to prevent overall instability phenomena
(column buckling).
3.2.2. Residual stress measurement

The longitudinal residual stresses were measured with the sectioning method and readings
were made with use of strain gauges. Gauges were applied near the centreline of each plate of
the box specimen and the mean values of the measured compressive stresses on the four plates
are presented for each specimen in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Measured residual stresses of box columns. The average compressive
residual stresses was estimated regarding each specimen
individually. Rasmussen and Hancock (1992).
Specimen Average compressive Yield Strength, Ratio

residual stress, Vrc [MPa] fy [MPa] Vrc / fy
B1RS 169 670 0,25
B2RS 114 670 0,17
B3RS 73 670 0,11

The test results from Rasmussen and Hancock were re-evaluated herein with respect to the
Winter function (2.24) and Eurocode 3 and presented in Figure 3.4.
Specimens of grade BISALLOY 80

1.2 Winter function
U, Reduction factor
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 3.4: Test results from all the 6 specimens from Rasmussen and Hancock
(1992). The results were re-evaluated with respect to the Winter
function (2.24). Plate slenderness according to Eurocode 3.
25
The investigation of the high strength steel sections presented by Rasmussen and Hancock
rendered in the following conclusions regarding the box sectioned specimens:
• The strength of slender welded high strength steel plates exceeds that of welded
ordinary steel plates when compared on a non dimensional basis (compared to the
yield strength of each grade). The test results suggest that the difference in the non
dimensional strength may be greater for plates supported along one longitudinal
edge than for plates supported along both.
• More slender plates are more affected of the presence of the residual stresses than
stockier ones. This is due to the fact that the more stocky plates may be almost
completely plastified at the ultimate load level.
3.3. “Basic Compressive Strength of Steel Plates from Test Data”

A comprehensive investigation regarding uniformly compressed steel plates was presented
in a paper by Fukumoto and Itoh (1984). The purpose of the work was to review and store data
of experimental investigations under clearly defined and described conditions. The authors
collected data from 793 individual tests of a variety of cross sections such as single plates,
welded square boxes, square and rectangular tubes, welded rectangular sections and cruciform
specimens. Data concerning specimens in as-welded as well as annealed condition were
regarded. 13 % of the data collected was regarding specimens made of steel with higher yield
strength than 430 MPa (definition of high strength steel in the paper).
Data concerning initial geometrical imperfections, residual stress levels and ultimate loads
were presented in form of histogram plots. Concerning the residual stresses, Fukumoto and Itoh
states that the magnitude of the residual compressive stress may not be influenced of the yield
stress of the base material. This statement was founded on 32 residual stress measurements on
specimens made of high strength steel which showed that the Vrc / fy ratio was lower for the high
strength steel specimens compared to the rest of the data set.
Fukumoto and Itoh collected results from 383 plates with inherent residual stresses. The
plates were of the type with welds along the unloaded edges (in tubes or as single plates) or as-
welded box sections. The authors made a nonlinear regression analysis with an assumed
uniform variance on the data and the mean function presented with a standard deviation of
0,0871 were
Vu 0 968 0 286 0 0338

------ = --------------- – --------------- + ------------------ , for O p t 0 571 (3.1)
fy Op O
2
O
3
p p
26
Furthermore, the authors made the same analysis for 172 plates without residual stresses.
These plates were as-cut, annealed or annealed box sections. The results from this analysis were
Vu 1 133 0 384 0 0468

------ = --------------- – --------------- + ------------------ , for O p t 0 658 (3.2)
fy Op O
2
O
3
p p
with a standard deviation of 0,104. Herein both the equations (3.1) and (3.2) are compared
to the Winter function (2.24) in Figure 3.5.
Plates with residual stresses (3.1)

1.2 Plates without residual stresses (3.2)
U, Reduction factor
Winter function
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 3.5: Mean functions of plates with (3.1) and without (3.2) residual stresses
from Fukumoto and Itoh (1984) compared to the Winter function
(2.24).
Several interesting conclusions were drawn by Fukumoto and Itoh concerning their
experimental data-base approach. Conclusions among others were:
• No clear difference between the plate strengths determined through single plate
tests and square boxes could be pointed out.
• Annealed plates showed larger variations in strength than as-welded plates.
• Further experimental investigations were needed concerning plates of high

strength steel.
3.4. “Local Buckling of Thin-Walled Columns”

The local buckling tests presented in Dwight et al. (1968) comprised tests of square box,
rectangular box and cruciform sections. The square box section tests were conducted with the
aim of filling gaps in previously presented tests reported by J.D. Harrison and also presented by
Dwight and Moxham (1969), see section 3.5.1. A total of 49 columns were tested in as-welded
and stress relived condition. However only 4 specimens, made by T.K. Chin, were used in the
27
evaluation in this thesis. These specimens were of square box section type in as-welded
condition.
The mechanical properties of the steel used for fabrication of the specimens were determined
through compression tests. The length of the specimens were set to 3,5 to 4 times the plate width
and tested under uniform compressive stress. In this evaluation the result from four of these tests
were used and the yield stress in compression was measured to 354 respective 403 MPa. The
test results from these tests were re-evaluated herein with respect to the Winter function (2.24)
and Eurocode 3 and presented in adjacent Figure 3.6.
Specimens with fy = 354 MPa

1.2
U, Reduction factor
Winter function
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 3.6: Test results from 4 as-welded specimens reported in Dwight et el.
3.4.1. Conclusions
Dwight et al. concluded that the difference between the resistance of an as-welded specimen
compared to a stress relieved specimen could be in the order of 10 to 15 %. This considering a
considerable range of width to thickness ratios and with the higher resistance concerning the
stress relieved specimens.
3.5. “Welded Steel Plates in Compression”

Another survey of work by different researchers in the field of plate buckling were presented
by Dwight and Moxham (1969). The paper focused on investigating how well the British
standards of 1969 were describing the actual behaviour of plate buckling and was somewhat a
continuation of the work described in section 3.4. Special effort were put into investigating how
the weld induced residual stresses affected the ultimate resistance with respect to local buckling.
Dwight and Moxham gathered test results from over 40 welded column specimens of square
box sections with yield strengths in the range of 232 to 402 MPa. The tests applicable to this
theses are listed below.
28
3.5.1. Tests made by J.D. Harrison

Dwight and Moxham reported results from 20 experiments made by J.D. Harrison and J.B.
Dwight. These specimens were in as-welded as well as in annealed condition. The length of the
specimens were about 4 times the plate width and the specimens were loaded under uniformly
distributed compressive stress. In this thesis the only regarded specimens are the as-welded
ones. Furthermore, the test results from these tests were re-evaluated with respect to the Winter
function, equation (2.24), and Eurocode 3 to be comparable within this thesis. These re-
evaluated results are presented in Figure 3.7 below.
Specimens with fy = 250 - 281 MPa

1.2 Winter function
U, Reduction factor
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 3.7: Test results from the 10 as-welded specimens reported in Dwight and
Moxham (1969). The results were re-evaluated with respect to the
Winter function (2.24). Plate slenderness according to Eurocode 3.
3.5.2. Tests made by K.E. Moxham

In Dwight and Moxham (1969) three additional tests were collected for the evaluation. These
tests were made by K.E. Moxham and conducted in a similar way to the one described above.
However, these tests were made in a somewhat larger scale with bigger specimens (plate
thickness of 12,7 mm) but still in as-welded condition and thereby possible to compare with the
other tests reported herein. The re-evaluation of the three specimens, with a yield strength of
312 MPa, are presented in Figure 3.8.
29
1.2 Winter function
U, Reduction factor
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 3.8: Test results from all the 3 specimens of K.E. Moxham presented in
Dwight and Moxham (1969). The results were re-evaluated with
respect to the Winter function (2.24). Plate slenderness according to
Eurocode 3.
3.5.3. Conclusions
Several conclusions were drawn concerning the work presented by Dwight and Moxham
(1969). Concerning this thesis relevant conclusions are:
• Residual stresses caused by welding may reduce the strength of fabricated

members in relation to the size of the welds.
• The load - deformation curve for a web containing residual stresses is less peaky
than that for a stress free web.
30
3.6. “Buckling Tests on Rectangular Plates made of two Different types of

Weldox 1100 Steel”
Buckling tests on 9 specimens made of two different steel grades were presented by Möller
and Johansson (1995). The aim of the investigation was to determine which one of two grades
made by SSAB Oxelösund was preferable to be sold under the trade name Weldox 1100 with
respect to local buckling. The two candidates had somewhat different mechanical properties,
according to the author one grade had a yield stress of 1130 MPa and the other was 1349 MPa.
The specimens were of stub column type with a box shaped cross section, Figure 3.9, and the
height of the specimens were chosen to 3,5 times the specimen width. This to prevent column
buckling, avoid clampening effects from the end supports and to allow the specimen to buckle
in such a way that the lowest buckling load would be acquired. Furthermore, the specimens were
tested in as-welded condition.
Figure 3.9: Specimen layout and weld detailing. Möller and Johansson (1995).
3.6.1. Test setup

The tests were performed under uniform compression of the specimens between two rigid
end plates. The deformation speed was chosen such that the nominal stress would reach the
yield strength within 30 seconds. Furthermore the deformation of the specimens were carried
on until a 50 % load drop from the ultimate load was acquired. Deformation and load data was
sampled during the tests.

The conclusions drawn by Möller and Johansson were mainly concerning how the two
different types of Weldox 1100 would be classified or used. This made their conclusions
somewhat difficult to use herein. However, the test results could still be re-evaluated to be
comparable in this thesis. The test results from Möller and Johansson (1995) were re-evaluated
with respect to the Winter function (2.24) and Eurocode 3 and presented in Figure 3.10.
31
1.2
U, Reduction factor
0.8
0.4
Winter function
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 3.10: Test results from all the 9 specimens from Möller and Johansson
3.7. Discussion and Conclusions

Regarding the presented results collected through the literature survey the predominantly
chosen steel grades seems to be of a type with lower strength (i.e. yield strength below 460
MPa). However, with respect to the tests presented later in this thesis (see chapter 4), these
gathered test results are of great importance to be used as a reference to grades included in
Eurocode 3.
Furthermore, the re-evaluation (or use of test data) was made with respect to Eurocode 3 and
the Winter function. This was done in order to be able to do a comparison between the different
experimental results. Even though this procedure was conducted, some differences considering
the results are still present. One obvious difference is that in some case the yield strength of the
steel was measured in compression. Usually the compressive strength is slightly higher
compared to steel in tension. This influences not only the evaluation considering the reduction
factor, but also the plate slenderness. Emphasizing the definition of plate slenderness according
to Eurocode 3, described in equation (2.27) and (2.28), the yield strength of the material in
question is regarded. An increased yield strength implies a higher plate slenderness, i.e. the plate
will be considered more slender than it would be if the yield strength in tension would be used.
Regarding the presented results some conclusions may be drawn when contemplating the
conducted work showed in sections above.
• The effect of the presence of residual stresses are evident to decrease the local
buckling resistance.
32
• Most of the stockier specimens seems to have a resistance surpassing the Winter
function.
• More slender specimens tends to have a lower resistance than predicted by the
Winter function.
33
34
Plate Buckling - Experimental Work
Chapter 4:
The local buckling phenomenon has over the years been quite thoroughly investigated by
numerous of different researchers, e.g. see chapter 3. However, the sphere of local buckling
research concerning members made of steels with higher strength has yet not been fully
evaluated. This topic has been the focus of the experimental work presented herein and, in some
way, a step towards filling these gaps in knowledge and further enhance the possibility of using
high strength steel in the constructional work of today.
4.1. Background
During the winter and spring of 2004 a local buckling test programme, comprising stub
column tests and uniaxial tests, were performed at the division of structural engineering, Luleå
university of technology, LTU. The tests were a part of the RFSC funded project “LiftHigh -
Efficient Lifting Equipment with Extra High Strength Steel” and with focus on the second
project work package: “Global and local buckling of hollow sections and welded boxes”.
With focus on this work package, 48 specimens with box cross section have been tested at
LTU, solely with respect to the local buckling phenomena. This was complemented with
uniaxial tension tests for the determination of the mechanical properties of the steel in question.
Furthermore, measurements of the residual stress state in the specimens (as-welded condition)
was conducted (presented in chapter 7).
The specimens were fabricated by SSAB Oxelösund and made of extra high strength steel,
as well as of a more commonly used steel grade. The specimens were designed to simulate four
individual plates under uniform compression and simply supported along their boundaries.
4.2. Experimental investigation

The aim for the test programme was to investigate if steels with yield strength > 460 MPa
behaves different than ordinary steel grades with respect to local buckling. This is something
that has not been examined to such a great extent before. As an example, steel grades with yield
strength of 460 MPa is nowadays set as the upper limit for the Eurocode 3.This may be
35
preferable to adjust to also comprise grades with strength above this limit. With this aim the
specimens for evaluating the local buckling resistance were fabricated out of three different
steel grades; 3 mm thick Domex 420 (hot rolled) and the two Weldox grades 700 (quenched and
tempered) and 1100 (quenched), both of plates with a nominal thickness of 4 mm. These
measured thicknesses were also used in the evaluation of the results from the buckling tests.
In addition to the buckling tests, 18 coupon tension tests were conducted with the purpose of
determine the properties of the three different grades needed for further evaluation of the
buckling test data.
4.3. Uniaxial tests

The mechanical properties of the steel used for the fabrication of the local buckling
specimens (see section 4.4) were determined through tensile coupon tests. The tests were made
according to the test standardization in EN 10002-1 (2001). A total of 18 coupons were laser-
cut from the same virgin plates as used for the fabrication of the buckling test specimens.
Furthermore, because the rolling direction of the steel was altered between being along and
perpendicular to the loading direction in the buckling tests, the mechanical properties were also
determined in these directions, Figure 4.1.
4.3.1. Specimens
The thicknesses of the plates used for the fabrication of the box specimens, hence also
concerning the coupons, were nominally 3 mm for the Domex grade and 4 mm concerning the
Weldox.
Figure 4.1: Plate with laser-cut coupons along and transverse the rolling
direction.
Prior to each tension test the coupon was measured to determine the geometry of the
specimen. The length of the coupons was 379 mm and the width 39 mm for the gripping part of
the coupon (the ends) and 24,9 mm (mean value for all 18 coupons) for the notched area in the
middle of the coupon specimen. Furthermore the plate thickness was determined to 3,05 mm for
the Domex plates, 4,09 mm for the Weldox 700 and 3,98 mm for the Weldox 1100 plates.
36
4.3.2. Test setup

The tension tests were made in a 600 kN servo - hydraulic DARTEC rig and the test data was
acquired through software enclosed with the rig. The load and axial elongation was measured
until failure of the coupon specimens.
Figure 4.2: The coupon equipped with extensometer in the test rig.
4.3.3. Test results

In Figure 4.3 the typical stress-stain relation is shown for the three different grades and in
Table 4.1 the results from the 18 tested coupons are presented in numbers. The Domex 420
grade shows a classic steel stress - strain relation behaviour, with a distinct yield plateau.
Therefor the yield strength is stated for these specimens. However, the Weldox grades shows a
strongly non-linear behaviour and has no well identifiable yield plateau. In this case the 0,2 %
proof stress are used as the yield criterion. All of the uniaxial stress - strain curves from the 18
coupons are enclosed in Appendix A.1.
1600
S420, Coupon D1
W700, Coupon W1
V, Tensile stress [MPa]
W1100, Coupon W7
1200
800
400
0
0 10 20 30 40
H, Strain [%]
Figure 4.3: Typical stress - strain relation for Domex 420, Weldox 700 and 1100.
All specimens oriented along the rolling direction.
37
Concerning the material behaviour of the Domex 420 and Weldox 700 it is evident that the
yield or 0,2 % proof stress and ultimate resistance is higher when tested transverse the rolling
direction. The Weldox 1100 seems to behave contradictive to the other two grades, with an
almost equal 0,2 % proof stress and ultimate strength in the both directions, maybe with a
slightly higher strength along the rolling direction. This was also concluded by Gozzi (2004).
Table: 4.1: Results from the uniaxial tensile coupon tests.0o indicates rolling
direction along the loading direction and 90o transverse.
Specimen Yield Strength, Proof Stress, Ultimate Strength, A5 [%]

fy [MPa] Rp0.2 [MPa] Rm [MPa]
D1 442 - 529 30,1

D2 439 - 526 29,8
Domex 420
0o
D3 443 - 530 30,1

D4 469 - 533 30,5
90o
D5 473 - 533 28,8

D6 471 - 532 28,7
W1 - 769 821 15,2
Weldox 700
W2 - 774 828 15,6

0o
W3 - 775 826 14,4

W4 - 791 824 14,6
90o
W5 - 800 834 14,7

W6 - 791 826 15,0
W7 - 1345 1477 9,5
Weldox 1100
W8 - 1350 1480 8,6

0o
W9 - 1357 1489 *
W10 - 1326 1457 *
90o
W11 - 1359 1512 8,7

W12 - 1320 1485 8,6
* Indicates failure outside of the range of the extensometer.
4.4. Buckling tests
4.4.1. Specimens
The specimens were made of four identically designed plates, along their edges weld joined,
see Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 below. The design of the specimens were conducted with the
purpose to allow the plates to act as simply supported along the longitudinal edges (edges in the
loading direction). Furthermore, the aim is to have these simply supported plates be subjected
to an uniformly distributed compressive stresses. This was achieved through welding flat milled
rigid end plates to the top and bottom of the box section. These end plates were assumed to be
thick enough (thickness > 15 mm) to distribute the applied load evenly to the four plates of the
welded box specimen.
38
To prevent column buckling, the height of the specimens were limited to 3 times the plate
width. This would also minimize the influence of eventual clamping effects (moment restraints)
from the end plates. Furthermore the rolling direction of the steel was varied between being
along and perpendicular to the loading axis of the specimen.
A A
A-A
Figure 4.4: Specimen layout and weld positions.
All specimen fabrication work, along with the production of the Weldox plates, were made
by SSAB Oxelösund. The Domex plates were fabricated by SSAB Tunnplåt in Borlänge. The
test ready box specimens were delivered to LTU along with plates of the three grades for
fabrication of the coupons needed for the uniaxial tests.
Figure 4.5: Specimens S30-0a (left) and W73-0a (right) after test.
The 48 specimens were divided into three sets, each comprising one of the steel grades
Domex 420, Weldox 700 or Weldox 1100. The nominal plate slenderness values, Op, were
39
chosen to 0,7, 0,85, 1,0 and 1,5 and the nominal thickness was 3 mm (Domex) and 4 mm
(Weldox). The width of the plates was then given by Eurocode 3 with respect to the chosen plate
slenderness.
The different slenderness “groups” comprised four specimens for each steel grade. Two of
these had the rolling direction oriented in the axial, or loading, direction of the specimen,
denoted 0o. The other two were designed with the rolling direction perpendicular to the loading
direction, marked 90o. The different specimens setup and geometries are enclosed in Appendix
A.2.
Welds
All welds were of fillet type and had a nominal throat thickness (a) of 4 mm. Gas metal arc
welding was used for the welds and two different electrodes were used with respect to the
different steel grades, see Table 4.2 below for electrode properties.
Table: 4.2: Nominal electrode properties provided by SSAB Oxelösund.
Electrode Steel Nominal Yield Nominal Ultimate Elongation [%]

Type Grade Strength, fye [MPa] Strength, fue [MPa]
AWS A5.18-93
Domex 470 560 26
(D=1 mm)
AWS A5.28-79
Weldox 690 770 20
(D=1 mm)
However, the heat input of 0,33 kJ / mm, welding speed 340 mm / min., current 155 A and
the voltage 15,3 V were all the same for all specimens. Mison 25 (77 % Ar and 23 % CO2) was
used as protective gas for all the welds.
4.4.2. Test Setup

All the box specimens were tested in an INSTRON I450, 4,5 MN rig, see adjacent Figure
4.7. The specimens were uniaxially loaded with a deformation speed of 0,072 mm / min. until
the ultimate load had been reached.
The deformation speed was kept until the load response had decreased with 10 % of the
ultimate load. At this point the deformation speed was doubled and the test was run until the
load had decreased to approximately 70 % of the ultimate load.
40
Figure 4.6: A box specimen placed in the INSTRON I450, 4,5 MN test rig.
4.4.3. Measurements
During testing data was sampled over 6 channels. The load was measured with a load cell
from DARTEC with a measuring range up to 2 MN. The deformation in the loading direction
was measured with four 11 mm LVDT's in four points located at the corners of one of the end
plates. Four LVDT’s were used to be able to calculate the mean axial deformation of the end
plate which in further evaluations was used as the mean axial plate deformation. The out of
plane plate deformation, or buckle growth, was also measured. This was done with a 25 mm
LVDT at the mid point of one side of the specimen, see Figure 4.7.
During all the tests the sample rate of data was 2 Hz and a 600 Hz Spider 8 from HBM was
used for interpreting the signals from the gauges to PC environment. For information
concerning the specifications of the equipment used for acquiring data, see Appendix A.5.
Figure 4.7: The test setup with all the LVDT’s and the load cell. The specimen
was deformed from the lower side and the load measured by the load
cell on the upper side (left). To the right the out of plane deflection
LDVT is pictured.
41
Prior to test start the specimens position in the rig was measured to ensure that the loading
axis was in the centre of the specimens, hence the risk of introducing forces due to eccentricity
of the specimen was minimized. As an extra precaution to eventual unwanted influences, a
small hole was drilled through one of the end plates of the specimens. This was to ensure that
the air pressure inside the closed specimen was equal to the surrounding air at all times during
the deformation of the specimen. Furthermore, eventual pressure differences due to the welding
(heated air) was also avoided through this procedure.
Additional measurements concerning the geometry of the specimens were also conducted.
The plate dimensions were measured prior to the buckling tests and are enclosed in Appendix
A.2. The plate width was measured on three positions on all four plates in every specimen. In
addition to this, the plate height was measured on one position on all four sides. All dimensions
were measured between the weld edges, i.e the effective width and height of the simply
supported plates.
4.4.4. Results
The test data essential to the aim of this investigation was the ultimate load registered
concerning respective specimen. The typical load - mean deformation behaviour for the
specimens made of the three different grades is presented in adjacent Figure 4.8. All of the load
- mean axial deformation curves are enclosed in Appendix A.3.
1600
1200
F, Axial load [kN]
800
400
S40-0a
W74-0b
W114-0a
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
G, Mean deformation [mm]

Figure 4.8: Typical load - mean axial deformation behaviour for the box
specimens made of the three different steel grades.
The cross section area for the stress comparison was calculated from the data enclosed in
Appendix A.2 - Table A.1. The weld area was added to the plate section area. The weld areas
were set to 19 mm2 for the Domex specimens, 34 mm2 for the Weldox 700 specimens and 32
mm2 for the Weldox 1100 specimens. All weld areas were theoretically determined with respect
to their individual measured plate thicknesses. The mean 0,2 % proof stress, Rp0.2, was
calculated from the tension coupon test results presented in Table 4.1.
42
Three specimens, one from each grade, were removed from the buckling test programme.
These specimens, S20-0b, W72-0b and W112-0b, were put to side to be used for the
measurement of longitudinal residual stresses, presented in chapter 7. Furthermore SSAB
Oxelösund delivered some extra specimens of the stubbier type with a nominal plate
slenderness of 0,7. These specimens were made of the two Weldox grades and the results are
enclosed with the other results from the ordinary specimens.
Figure 4.9: Specimen W74-0a with deformed end plate (left) and specimen W111-
0b with ruptured weld in upper left corner (right).
Unfortunately, the results from the specimen W74-0a had to be removed from the evaluation
because of some problems regarding end plate deformation. The specimen never reached its
ultimate load due to the plastic deformation of one of the end plates. In addition to this, problems
concerning specimen W111-0b occurred. This specimen reached its ultimate load, but shortly
thereafter one weld failed and the load dropped very fast. However, the load - deformation curve
shows a somewhat different behaviour and are enclosed Appendix A, but since the ultimate load
were reached without problems, the results from this specimen was evaluated and enclosed
among the other results.
4.5. Test Evaluation

The test results were evaluated with respect to the Eurocode 3, i.e. equations (2.27) and (2.28)
in section 2.3.2. The calculations are based on the mean values for each specimen, i.e. the mean
width for all four plates and the mean values concerning the mechanical properties. This is also
the case concerning the plate thickness, which is determined through measurement of the
coupons used in the material tests.
In Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11 the results are plotted as a comparison to the Winter function
(2.24).
43
Domex 420
1.2 Weldox 700
U, Reduction factor
Weldox 1100
Winter function
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 4.10: The evaluated results from the 48 specimens along with the Winter
function. Plate slenderness calculated according to Eurocode 3.
Regarding the evaluated test data some things are important to be pointed out. Firstly, the spread
between the results for each group of tests are small for the more slender specimens. Some
differences can be noticed for the slender specimens, especially concerning the slenderness
value of the plates. The origin of these differences is mostly dependent of the different strength
of the steel concerning the rolling direction. Though, these differences seem to be less
pronounced with increasing steel strength. Furthermore, the scatter between each test tend to be
larger for the specimens with Op< 0,9.
1.2
0.8
Vu / fy
0.4
Domex 420
Weldox 700
Weldox 1100
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
VR / fy
Figure 4.11: Results presented non-dimensionally with respect to yield strength or

0,2 % proof stress. Ultimate resistance from tests and theoretical
resistance according to Eurocode 3.
44
4.6. Discussion and conclusions of test results

Considering Figure 4.10 the evaluated test results seems to be consistent within each test
group, i.e. plate slenderness value concerning each grade. This is even more obvious regarding
the most slender specimens where the four tests of each grade are nearly four repetitions of each
test (the same ultimate load reached for each specimen). Moreover, another conclusion may be
drawn based on this fact and this is simply that the test procedure seems to have been consistent
with small differences between each specimen test.
When comparing the test results with the Winter function (hence Eurocode 3) the more
stocky plates, Op < 0,9, seems to coincide with the reduction factor function, see Figure 4.10.
The resistance may even be somewhat higher than predicted through the Winter function.
Considering these more stocky specimens, the ones of the “lower” strength steel seems to
inherent a higher resistance than the high strength steel specimens which is positioned closer or
on the Winter function in Figure 4.10. However, this may have its origin in the difference in
mechanical behaviour and how the material properties are regarded as discussed above.
Regarding the other range of specimens, Op > 0,9, the opposite has to be concluded. The
Winter function seems to overestimate the resistance concerning more slender plates. This
completely independent of steel grade. However, if Figure 4.11 is considered along with the
Figure 4.10, the specimens of high strength steel seems to coincide better with the Winter
function.
Considering all of the evaluated and presented test results the following may be concluded:
• The Winter function seems to underestimate the resistance of stockier specimens.

In this case plates with Op < 0,9.
• The Winter function overestimates the resistance of more slender plates. In this
case plates with Op > 0,9.
• Plates made of high strength steel may be treated in the same way as “ordinary”
grades with respect to the local buckling resistance.
• With respect to the Winter function, no difference between the specimens with
different rolling direction could be concluded.
Considering the evaluation of the test results, one obvious difference, regarding the
mechanical properties of the steel, in the evaluation procedure has to be mentioned. The slight
difference between the specimens of the Domex and Weldox specimens concerns the used
material properties, i.e. yield strength for Domex and 0,2 % proof stress concerning Weldox
specimens. This different approach is dependent of the lack of well defined yield plateau
considering the Weldox grade, still the hardening properties of these grades influences the
evaluation. This in the way that the difference between the ultimate strength and the stress
45
defined as fy is larger for the steels with lower strength, i.e. a well defined yield limit. This leads
to that the calculated critical stress level considering the Weldox specimens will be in an
unfavourable position since the stress level defined as yield stress is closer to ultimate strength
of the steel. In the evaluation of the experimental work, this leads to a lower reduction factor,
hence a lower position if plotted with the Winter function as a reference.
When considering the actual experimental work some things are imported to state. First, the
measurement of the buckling growth has not been implemented nor evaluated in this thesis. This
data was herein excluded due to the fact that this test data was considered to give no further
valuable information or possibilities to conclude with respect to the aim of this thesis.
Furthermore, the measured initial geometric plate imperfections were neither implemented
herein. Regarding these measurements, the reason why these were measured was to be used in
further investigations, i.e. FE-modelling of the presented tests.
46
Residual Stresses - Theory
Chapter 5:
Since the middle of the 19th century it has been known that stresses exists in structures,
members or even in a solitary material, without being under externally applied loads, Alpsten
(1967). These are often called residual stresses, but various other technical terms have been
applied to the residual stresses over the years, such as internal stresses, inherent stresses,
reaction stresses or locked-in stresses, Welding Handbook (1976). The residual stresses may be
seen as a statement, or a reminder, of its historical events, e.g. how the steel plate in question
has been manufactured or how well a joint is fitted.
An other, for the layman more understandable, example of residual stresses is timber being
cut up to planks. The planks are hopefully straight and flat after cut up, though not seldom in a
bent or twisted shape. This new shape has its origin in the, through the cutting, released residual
stresses which were present in the timber due to e.g. different growth in the fibres of the timber.
Moreover, the same type of stresses may be noticed in steel due to the history of the material.
Residual stresses in metallic materials may, as briefly mentioned above, spring from various
different events. The most common cause are the manufacturing, fabrication or refinement
processes of the metal in question. Processes such as casting, welding, machining, shearing,
molding, rolling, bending etc. (Figure 5.1) induces residual stresses of different magnitudes and
distributions in the metal.
Figure 5.1: Examples of how macroscopic residual stresses may be induced in

metals. Welding Handbook (1976).
47
Moreover, residual stresses can also be induced into structural members after assembled to
a finished structure through e.g. ground settlements or repair work under the life cycle of the
structure.
5.1. The origin of residual stresses

It has been shown by numerous different authors that the residual stresses in a member may
reach the extreme stress levels up to, or even beyond the yield stress of the regarded material,
herein steel, see Figure 5.2. Even though extensive work has been put into the cause of establish
rules for estimating the residual stresses in a member, and many suggestions has been presented,
the topic is still somewhat dwelled in fog. Questions have been risen whether the yield stress of
a material is an appropriate way of estimate the residual stresses in, for example a steel plate.
Masubuchi (1977), reports that some researchers have presented results showing that the yield
stress approximation may even be less suitable regarding steels with higher yield strength than
conventionally used steel grades. In some of these reports the measured stress levels were
considerably lower than the yield stress of the steel.
Figure 5.2: Example of failure in a hot rolled profile due to residual stresses.
Alpsten (1967).
The residual stress state in a material is a highly coupled thermal / metallurgical / mechanical
process, Sjöström (1994). This has led to that the classification of residual stresses in a material,
in this case steel, usually sorted into stresses of the first (macro stresses), second or third order
(micro stresses). The first order residual stresses are defined as stresses in a scale corresponding
to the definition of stress used in continuum mechanics, Lagerqvist and Olsson (2001). Residual
stresses with variation in a microscopic range between the grains in the steel are usually put as
the second order. Third order residual stresses are existing in areas near dislocations in the steel.
This thesis is strictly limited to treat residual stresses of the first order.
48
Residual stresses may be divided into groups according to how the stresses are induced into
the steel or structure in question:
• Stresses due to structural mismatch, or
• Stresses caused by the uneven distribution of thermal or plastic strains.
The residual stresses in a material most often shows great variations with respect to the
regarded position in the geometry. Variations through the thickness, across the width and over
the length, e.g. of a plate, may be considerable. Since residual stresses exists without externally
applied loads, the regarded member must be in equilibrium. The resultant force and moment
produced by the residual stresses has to vanish, which implies that the stresses must be varied
in magnitudes over the cross section in order to maintain the state of equilibrium.
5.2. Residual stresses due to structural mismatch

Residual stresses dependent of structural mismatch, see Figure 5.3, can often be avoided
through a more innovative selection of materials or better fitting of joined parts, e.g. a bolted
joint between steel members. Straightening operations of steel members also induces residual
stresses. However, the second category might be more difficult to avoid without making special
operations focused especially on reducing the already induced stresses. As an example is a weld;
it has to be done to join parts and finish the structure in question. As will be described later in
this chapter, welding in steel induces residual stresses, hence formation of stresses can not be
avoided.
Figure 5.3: Figure describing mismatch. Welding Handbook (1976).
5.3. Residual stresses due to thermal or plastic strains

Residual stresses caused by thermal or plastic strains is probably the most studied field
considering residual stress research. This is most likely due to the fact that these induced
stresses are possible to measure in laboratory environments, while residual stresses caused by
mismatch often occur in the field (in a finished structure or similar) which leads to a more
difficult measurement procedure.
49
When a material is heated or cooled uniformly with no temperature gradients, it is free to
expand and shrink without restrictions, hence no residual stresses are induced through the
change of temperature. Hence, change in temperature is not alone the requirement for
introducing residual stresses in a material. In order to induce residual stresses through a mere
change of temperature, the expansion or shrinkage of the material has to be restrained. A simple
example is the cooling of a steel bar fitted between two rigid end supports. If the bar is placed
between the ends in a state were the temperature is higher than the equilibrium temperature of
the surrounding medium (air) and the fitting is exact, stresses will be formed in the bar when the
temperature decreases. These stresses act like any load, and is in this case evenly distributed as
tensile stresses. A bar heated in one end acts analogous to this, but with residual stresses as
result.
Residual stresses can also be induced through an uneven distribution of non-elastic strains,
e.g. a bar subjected to a bending moment which introduces strains at plastic levels into parts of
the bar. However, if the bar is unloaded the elastic part of the strains is released, but the plastic
deformations (strains) remains in the material. No external loads are applied on the bar but still
strains (unevenly distributed) are present in the material. Hence residual stresses have been
formed.
Another very common way to induce residual stresses into a material is through the welding
process. However flame cutting steel plates also induces significant residual stresses. The
theory behind both of these processes are very similar why the emphasis herein is on describing
the former, see section 5.3.3.
5.3.1. Hot rolling

As mentioned above, residual stresses induced through fabrication or manufacturing
processes often have their origin in the uneven cooling of the steel. The main issue concerning
the residual stress state in a hot rolled member is to reduce the temperature gradient in the
material under the cooling process in order to keep the stresses as low as possible. When
fabricating heavy profiles, i.e. with thick material, this is of course a major concern. It has been
indicated that the magnitude of residual stresses tend to increase with an increasing size of the
member in question, Alpsten (1972). This fact is explained through the cooling behaviour which
is a combination between surface heat transfer and internal heat conductivity.
Considerable variations in the stress distribution and magnitudes are often found when
measuring the stress state in heavier members. The stresses may diverge in magnitude as well
in direction concerning all dimensions of the member. A special behaviour concerning the
heavy members are that the stresses can often differ significantly in levels and directions
through the thickness of the steel plate.
50
The behaviour of hot rolled members of thinner material is somewhat the same as described
above for heavier members. Though, the through thickness variations are most often not of the
same magnitudes as for the thicker material.
Considering hot rolled members, straightening is often a contributing cause to the residual
stress state in the members. When the members are fabricated, the residual stresses due to the
cooling of the section may cause the member to twist or bend in a shape with unacceptable
geometry. This is usually solved through a straightening procedure, often done in a cold state
member. The result of the straightening is a member more straighter and more flat. Actually, the
member is deformed plastically to acquire its new more ideal shape. Though, the cost of twisting
and bending the member is that new additional residual stresses are induced.
5.3.2. Cold forming

Profiles made through cold forming steel plates have inherent residual stresses as all other
members. Though, the theory behind the introduction of residual stresses in these members are
fundamentally different than for hot rolled sections, described in section 5.3.1. When cold
forming a member into desired shape, the base material, e.g. a flat thin plate, is deformed in a
cold state to form the desired cross section. This implies that the stresses are not induced through
uneven thermal flow or heat transfer to air, but on a strictly mechanical basis. According to
Ingvarsson (1977) the cold forming mechanism of a flat plate involves two events:
1. The flat plate is elastically and plastically deformed

2. The bent shape is elastically unloaded
The cold forming process may be done through many different methods, e.g. forming by
bending or hydro forming. Though all the different processes introduces plastic deformations in
the base material which causes distortions in the material.
Figure 5.4: Example of residual stress state dependent of cold forming and flame
cutting. Ingvarsson (1977).
51
5.3.3. Weld induced residual stresses
When the welding technique made fast progresses during the 1930’s, the residual stress
research gained speed when a new unexplored area was discovered. This especially due to some
bridge collapses which was claimed to be partly caused by the weld induced residual stresses,
Alpsten (1967), which today has led to an extensive literature quantity. However, this multitude
of reports seems to be somewhat divergent in their conclusions when the correlation between
steel grade and factual residual stress magnitudes caused by welds is still not determined.
When welding in metal, the material is locally heated and a non-uniform temperature
distribution in the member is induced. Furthermore, the temperature changes during the welding
process in terms of cooling and heating of new material. The weld metal, e.g. the electrode, and
the metal in the heat affected zone (HAZ) are at a temperature significantly above the
surrounding material. The welding process adds molten material to the base metal which
immediately starts to solidify through heat transfer to the surrounding material and to the air.
Under this solidification process the molten metal starts to transfer shrinkage stresses to the rest
of the metal.
A weld is usually made progressively, point D to point A in Figure 5.5, which introduces
stresses in the longitudinal (along the weld) direction of the joined material. These
longitudinally directioned residual stresses spring from the fact that the already solidified
portions of the weld resists the shrinkage of the more recently laid parts of the weld, Welding
Handbook (1976). Furthermore, the allowance of transverse movement is often also restricted
which induces stresses transverse to the weld bead. Analogously to this, stresses in the direction
of the plate thickness may also be introduced into the joined plates.
Figure 5.5: Schematic representation of how welding induces residual stresses.

Welding Handbook (1976).
52
Adjacent Figure 5.5 shows how the residual stresses are formed during joining two plates by
welding. The welding arc, moving with speed Q, adds molten metal at the point O. In front of
point O, the base metal is still more or less unaffected by the heating of the material, and hence
no residual stresses are present in section A-A (if disregarding eventual stresses caused by the
plate fabrication process).The cross hatched area indicates the HAZ region where plastic
deformations occur during the welding. Thus, the region outside the HAZ remains in the elastic
region. Figure 5.5b shows how the temperature changes in the member at different points along
the weld and Figure 5.5c displays how the residual stress distribution varies when the material
is cooling.
In section B-B the molten metal in point O supports no loads. This leads to a stress level in
the centre of the weld is close to zero. Furthermore, the temperature gradient causes the warmer
metal near the weld to expand and compressive stresses are founded because of the restraints
dependent of the surrounding cooler material. Since the temperature in these areas are high and
therefor inherent a lower yield strength, the stresses may be as high as the yield strength.
However, when the stresses must be in equilibrium, the compressive forces near the weld are
balanced with tensile stresses farther from the weld.
Considering section C-C, the molten weld metal and the surrounding base metal near the
weld bead have cooled and the temperature gradient in Figure 5.5b has decreased. When cooling
the metal wants to shrink which causes tensile stresses to form close to the weld. The
equilibrium makes the regions outside these parts to first form compressive stresses which may
pass to tensile farther from the bead.
When the temperature is back to normal, i.e. equal to the surrounding medium (usually air),
the final residual stress state has been reached and is shown in section D-D. The weld bead and
the added material has now cooled down completely and high tensile stresses have been formed.
These are balanced with compressive stresses along the edges of the plate, Figure 5.6. The
example above is described with support of Welding Handbook (1976).
Figure 5.6: Measured residual stresses induced by welding. Spooner et al. (1992).
53
The distribution and magnitudes of the weld induced residual stresses are dependent of many
factors. As stated above, the geometry of the members to be joined are crucial, but the welding
speed, added material (electrode), welding energy and surrounding temperature as well as the
temperature of the base metal are all factors which influence the stress state in the finished
member. Moreover, the number of passes are of great importance considering the weld induced
residual stresses.
One other factor which may introduce secondary residual stresses into a weld joined member
is the geometrical distortions that often occur when welding. The distortions is connected to the
residual stress state in the way that it is dependent of the shrinkage of the heated material during
the cooling process. The distrortion is caused by a non-uniform contraction of the member in
question, Figure 5.7. The distortion of the member may often be straighend to fit other parts in
a structure which further induces stresses into the member.
Figure 5.7: Example of distortion caused by welding. Longitudinal (L) and

transverse (T) shrinkage. Welding Handbook (1976).
5.4. Measurement methods

The measurement of the residual stress state in a material is a somewhat difficult and maybe
even more disturbing, often very time consuming. Concerning the measurement of the stresses,
all of the measurement techniques may be divided into two categories:
• Destructive methods
• Non destructive methods
In the past the former group was the only known method to measure residual stresses. In
order to measure the historically induced stresses in an object, these stresses had to be relaxed
in some fashion in order to measure the difference between a relaxed and a stressed state.
However new strain measurement techniques have been developed allowing the stresses to be
measured without cutting or drilling in the member.
54
5.4.1. Destructive residual stress measurement methods

The destructive methods for measuring residual stresses in a material are all founded on the
removal of material and measuring the up-coming change in strain due to the operation. Hereby
the relieved stresses are possible to estimate.
Sectioning
Measurement of residual stresses with the sectioning method is founded on cutting the
specimen in strips or layers and then measure the strain change over the operation. Sectioning
in strips (Figure 5.8) gives information about the stress levels in the plane of the plate and the
layering shows how the stresses varies through the thickness of the specimen.
Figure 5.8: Example of the sectioning of welded specimen. Tebedge et al. (1973).
The actual measurement may be done with e.g. strain gauges or mechanical tools
determining the elongation of the sectioned strip, see Figure 5.9. Measurement of elongation
mechanically may be done using a Staeger meter where reference points are used for the
determination of the released strains. The distance between the reference points are measured
before and after the sectioning, and the released strain may the be calculated as the difference
between the two measurements. The same procedure is done when strain gauges are used in the
purpose.
55
Figure 5.9: Measurement of distance between reference points before sectioning
(left). Strips equipped with strain gauges from a sectioned specimen
(right).
The sectioning method has its benefits in being reasonably economical and easy understood
but a disadvantage is that the measured relieved strain, is in fact a mean value over the width of
the strip in question.
Hole drilling
The hole drilling method for measuring residual stresses have many different names with
some differences. The deep hole drilling method, centre / blind hole drilling or trepan technique
are all different approaches but still founded on the same theory. Usually the released strains are
measured with a rosette strain gauge, but mechanical measurement methods may also be used.
Figure 5.10: Schematic description of the deep hole method. Smith and Bonner
(1996).
56
The deep hole method (Figure 5.10) is often used when measurements in thick plates are to
be conducted. The measurement is initiated by the drilling of a small reference hole through the
specimen and the diameter of this reference hole is carefully measured. A column of the
material with the reference hole in the middle is trepanned out of the specimen. After this the
diameter of the reference hole is measured once again, and every difference between the two
measurements are used to determine the released residual stresses in diametral direction
(diameter change) as well as in axial direction (the depth of the hole).
The centre or blind hole methods are both versions of the same type of measurement. They
are based on using a rosette strain gauge with the individual strain gauges situated around a hole
positioned in the centre of the gauge. Drilling in the specimen is done either partially through
the thickness or completely through. The removal of the material may be done in increments,
determining the change of strain levels at different layers through the thickness, as well as in
one increment completely through the plate. The method is proven to be accurate if applied
correctly, Procter and Beaney (1987).
Figure 5.11: An example of the blind hole technique. The drilling is done in the
centre of the rosette gauge to a depth of half the plate thickness.
The trepanning technique may be described as the deep hole method without the reference
hole. Instead a rosette strain gauge is placed in the middle of the measurement area. The method
may be used to investigate changes in strains through the thickness with incremental removal
of material.
57
Figure 5.12: Schematic description of the trepan technique. Procter and Beaney
(1987).
Other methods
Other versions of the above described methods to measure residual stresses are available, but
this thesis claims in no way to be a complete coverage of the today existing techniques.
However a somewhat semi-empirical method to measure the residual stress state is to use stress
relieved and specimens as-welded and evaluate the different behaviour between these
specimens.
5.4.2. Non-destructive residual stress measurement methods

The non-destructive methods are much younger than the ones described above. These new
methods are base on advanced technical innovations such as the neutron diffraction method.
However, they are all superior to the destructive methods in the way that they all leave the
specimen in question un-affected by the measurement. Hence it is possible to use these method
on site, e.g. on an existing structure. Of course the equipment for measuring the stresses are
expensive and in some cases not portable.
Neutron diffraction
Some authors claims the neutron diffraction method to be the most accurate for
determination of residual stresses, Walker (2001). However this method is dependent of
neutrons supplied by a nuclear reactor which makes usage of the method somewhat restricted.
Usual specimens measured with this type of method are landing gears and jet engines. The
greatest benefit of this method is that the full stress tensor may be determined.
The measurement of the residual stress state is founded on the reflection of the neutrons
when travelling through the material. The reflection angle gives information about how severe
58
the distortions among the crystals in the material is. The depth penetration are very good with
its 38 mm in steel and a layering depth in the range of grains.
X-Ray measurement
X-ray diffraction measurement also offers a non destructive method to estimate the residual
stresses in a specimen. However the measurement of strains are restricted to a depth of about 8
to 20 Pm and hence only gives information about the stresses at the surface of the specimen.
Other methods
Other methods used for non-destructive stress measurements are quickly mentioned.
Ultrasonic conduction, photo-stress coating (measuring regions with high stress levels) or laser
speckle-shear techniques. Most of the above described methods, except maybe the X-ray
method, are somewhat since fiction regarding civil engineering applications and hence not
further regarded herein.
5.5. Effects of residual stresses

The presence of residual stresses in a member, plate or structure may be either beneficial or
detrimental. How the residual stresses affect the resistance of the object in question can only be
determined by a careful consideration regarding the way the structure is planned to be used. The
residual stresses are treated like any other load acting on the structure and super positioning
these applied loads and stresses may give a more favourable case when regarding the residual
stresses. However, coinciding directions of external loads and residual stresses are more often
reality concerning structures.
Extensive studies concerning the instability phenomenon in relation to residual stresses in

welded steel structures have been conducted by many researchers, Welding Handbook (1976).
Experimental studies as well as numerical computations have been used in the effort to establish
the relation between the residual stresses and resistance, e.g. with respect to local buckling. It is
well known that residual stresses in welded members decreases the resistance regarding local
buckling. This may easily be concluded studying Figure 5.13 with initial compressive stresses
in the middle of the plate welded into forming a box cross section. When the plate is subjected
to externally applied compressive forces, these are added to the already present stresses. Hence
the ultimate load decreases with increasing residual stress magnitudes in the plate. Furthermore,
the influence of the residual stresses regarding the resistance to local buckling of plates
increases with an increasing plate slenderness (more elastic buckling).
59
Figure 5.13: Measured distribution of residual stresses in a welded box cross
section. Compressive stresses inside the box and tensile outside.
Concluded the following facts may be presented concerning the effects of residual stresses,
Welding Handbook (1976):
• The effect of residual welding stresses on the performance of welded structures is

significant only on phenomena which occur under low applied stress, such as
brittle fracture and stress corrosion cracking
• As the level of applied stress increases, the effect of residual stresses decreases
• The effect of residual stresses is negligible on the performance of welded

structures under applied stress beyond yielding
• The effect of residual stress tends to decrease after repeated loading.
5.6. How to reduce residual stresses

That residual stresses exists in all materials is now concluded. That levels and distributions
may also be altered through welding, heating or other structural operations have also been
described. However, treatments reducing the residual stresses in structural members exists.
These may be or strict mechanical nature or of other typ as thermal processes.
The most common way to reduce residual stresses is to anneal the material or member in
question. However this operation may affect earlier acquired properties of the material and are
not always suitable.
Other methods to reduce residual stresses are the ones based on peening of different types.
Shot peening, laser peening or water peening are used to lower the magnitudes of, mostly weld
induced, residual stresses. These methods are often described as post weld treatments, or PWT.
60
When concerning welding steel, the easiest way to decrease unwanted distortion or high
stress levels in the finished member is to pre-heat the material. This makes the cooling of the
material much more even and hence the stresses are reduced.
However considering the methods available for reducing the residual stresses the time and
effort, most often spelled “economy”, are the governing equation for all construction work. The
residual stresses may be more economical to keep unmodified and instead increase the member
size in order to reach the resistance required for the purpose in question.
61
62
Residual Stresses - Survey of Literature
Chapter 6:
Residual stresses are present, in some extent and type, in all members used in civil
engineering applications. When designing these structures, usually no special consideration is
paid to the residual stress magnitude and distribution in the member in question. However, the
effect of residual stresses are often implied in other parts of the design. An example is the
Winter function (see chapter 2) which is derived through experimental work on specimens with
residual stresses. This means that the residual stresses are regarded in the design even if not
directly announced. Even though the residual stresses may be treated implicitly in the design,
the determination of the residual stress state may be needed if special load cases are to be
regarded or if design with numerical methods, e.g. finite element analyses, will be used.
Modelling of residual stresses have been shown to be a rather complicated issue to pursue, e.g.
Ueda and Yuan (1991) and Clarin (2003). The modelling of residual stresses will be treated in
section 6.1 below. If special modelling work not is possible to carry out for the designer, the
residual stress state in a welded member are described in most design codes. Though, these
suggestions are schematic and a quite rough instrument to use. Such examples of stress
distributions are presented in Figure 6.1.
Residual stresses may spring from many different origins. However, this chapter is solely
focused on residual stresses caused by welding, or maybe more accurately put, residual stresses
in welded members. Residual stresses along the weld (herein called longitudinal direction or
longitudinal stresses) were the main focus of the survey of literature regarding residual stress
measurements or modelling work presented in this chapter.
The aim of the literature survey was to examine if a correlation between the yield strength of
the material and the tensile stress was possible to derive. In a further perspective, this would
give information whether the stress states presented in Figure 6.1 are suitable to use when
concerning steels with higher strengths. The measurement methods used in the different articles
or papers span from neutron diffraction to sectioning. Furthermore, the steel grades, the welding
characteristics and the specimens used for the residual stress measurements are greatly varied.
Because of this, a rather large amount of specimens with measured longitudinal stresses could
be regarded in the task of examining the actual stress state in welded specimens.
63
Figure 6.1: Residual stress distributions used in the swedish design code BSK 94.
6.1. Modelling of residual stresses

Modelling or determining residual stresses induced by welding in the design phase of
construction work may be a difficult issue. As mentioned, simplified distributions of the stress
state after welding may be estimated by using the suggested distributions according to the used
design code. However, if a more accurate estimation of the residual stresses is required, some
tools are available. Some of these tools are approximate formulations derived from
experimental work, while some are strictly numerical and often on the form of FE analysis.
Numerical modelling of the induction of residual stresses due to welding are most often
based on some thermal elasto-plastic analysis. By considering the problem this way many
different influential factors are possible to regard. Furthermore, the entire mechanical behaviour
during welding is possible to simulate; ending in the welded component with residual stresses
induced due to the welding process, Ueda and Yuan (1991). Even though the numerical
approach of determining the residual stress state after welding seems to be a rather powerful tool
concerning this task, not further regard is paid to this method herein. This due to the fact that
64
the methods are still quite complicated and not yet really applicable in terms of constructive
work in civil engineering applications. The method still seems to be on a research level.
6.1.1. Analytical models

The models for determining residual stresses induced by welding briefly presented in this
section, called analytical models, are all derived from evaluation of test results. Weld area,
welding characteristics such as welding speed, voltage, current or material properties are
common quantities regarded. Furthermore, the amount of weld passes (single run or multi weld)
also affects the final stress state and are possible to take into account.
However, most of the analytical models derived are assuming that the zone close to the weld
are subjected to tensile stresses equal to the yield strength of the steel. Under this assumption
combined with the knowing of a total equilibrium over the member in question, the formulas
are derived to describe how the residual stresses are distributed over the member. In this section
two examples of formulas for estimation of residual stresses in a welded member are presented.
One is strictly based on the welding characteristics and derived under the assumptions described
above. The other focuses on the weld geometry and the number of weld passes and results in an
estimation of the shrinkage force resultant of the residual stresses induced by the welding.
However the slightly different names of the two models, both of them estimates the tendon force
acting to form the equilibrium to the tensile forces induced by the welding.
“Shrinkage force method”

In the Merrison report (1973) a method for estimation of the residual stresses induced by
welding is presented. The concept was based on the thought that the stresses would be assessed
by considering the shrinkage forces, Fc, induced by all welds attached to the component in
question. Furthermore, the effects of the shrinkage forces was calculated under the assumption
that the forces were uniformly distributed over a specified area. Examples of these
specifications are:
• For welds connecting longitudinal stiffeners to plate in stiffened panel - the gross
sectional area of the stiffened panel should be used.
• For longitudinal seam and panel junction welds - the total cross-section area should
be used.
The estimation of the shrinkage forces were conducted on the basis of the total nominal
cross-sectional area of the weld metal in the joint. The most simple formulations for the
estimation were made concerning single run welds equation (6.1) as
F c = 10 A (6.1)
and multi run welds equation (6.2) as
65
A
F c = 10 --------------2 (6.2)
3
n
where the weld layout giving information concerning the weld area needed in the equations
were presented according to adjacent Figure 6.2 and Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.2: Area definitions concerning a single weld joint. Nominal areas
showed hatched. The Merrison report (1973).
Figure 6.3: Area definitions concerning multi-run weld joints. Total nominal
areas shown hatched. The Merrison report (1973).
More complicated weld layouts were also concerned in the Merrison report but are not
presented herein.
“Tendon force concept”

A printing examining the tendon force concept of estimating residual stresses in welded
plates was written by Bambach and Rasmussen (2001). The authors used 40 welded specimens
to evaluate the tendon force concept, originally presented in 1977 by J.D. White. The model by
White relates welding characteristics to the stress induced as a function of the plate width.
Bambach and Rasmussen used White’s equation (6.3) which is defined with two parameters
describing the type of weld, k, and the process efficiency, p.
Q
F = k p ---- (6.3)
v
66
Concerning a plate with a centre weld, according to Figure 6.4a below, the process efficiency
was found to be 0,8 and the weld constant, k, equal to 0,2. The centre weld condition was,
according to the authors applicable to the weld shrinkage induced in a flange plate welded into
a T- or an I-section.
Furthermore, if regarding a plate equipped with a weld along its edge, according to Figure
6.4b, the bending stresses induced due to the eccentricity of the weld offset the tendon force.
According to the theory description by Bambach and Rasmussen (2001), this causes a stress
gradient and increases the magnitude of the tendon force. This is regarded by setting the weld
constant, k, to 0,32 and the process efficiency was found to be 0,42. This condition is applicable
to the web welded to a T-section.
Figure 6.4: Description of residual stress magnitudes and distributions in welded

plates. Bambach and Rasmussen (2001).
Regarding the welding conditions showed in Figure 6.4c, i.e. a plate with welds laid
simultaneously along the edges, the constants used for calculation of the tendon force are the
same as for the centre weld.
However if the welds are placed on the plate consecutive, with allowance of plate cooling
between the runs, the residual stress distribution changes along the plate, see Figure 6.5.
Experiments by White showed that the magnitude of the tendon force was the same (the same
constants) as that for the edge welded plate, Bambach and Rasmussen (2001), however scaled
up or down by a factor, m.
Figure 6.5: Description of residual stress magnitudes and distributions edge

welded plates. Bambach and Rasmussen (2001).
67
Conclusions made in Bambach and Rasmussen (2001), concerning the experimental results
compared to the above described model of estimating the tendon force, was that a good
correlation between the models and the residual stress measurements could be pointed out.
6.2. Measurements of residual stresses

A quite extensive amount of different publications describing measurements of residual
stresses in welded members have been presented over the years. Within this section some of the
publications are described. They surveyed in the purpose of investigating the correlation
between the yield strength of the steel and the tension residual stresses. All of the gathered, to
this task interesting information were enclosed in special data sheets. This to make the
information as available to further evaluations as possible. These data sheets are presented in
Appendix C. The specifications given by the respective authors were shown to be of different
quality, some very extensive and some with less information concerning the experimental work
enclosed.
The literature study presented in this section, shows a big variety of measurement methods,
as well as used specimens and steel grades. One common denominator however, is that all of
the measurement presentations are considering welded members of some sort. Furthermore only
“ordinary” steel grades are regarded (i.e. stainless grades etc. are not included). A total of 47
individual specimens are regarded in this survey and only longitudinal tensile stresses were
evaluated. Furthermore, the welds have to be in as-welded condition and the plate thickness has
to be in a reasonable range considering eventual through-thickness variations.
The used methodology of this evaluation was to estimate the maximum value of the tensile
stresses concerning each specimen, see Figure 6.6. This was done by measuring the magnitudes
in respective case, if not the author had given information regarding the exact values sought for.
600
61
Maximum value, Vt,rs [MPa]
57
38
500 59
28 48
17
1 13
15 18 56 58 60
14 16 51
3
400 52
49 53
5
32 34
45 55
4 33 37
300 30
2 31
6
23 29 39
19
200 50
22
20
54
100 21
24
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Specimen number
Figure 6.6: Collected residual stress data from Appendix C. Specimen ID and
respective measured maximum of tensile stress.
68
Furthermore, the tensile mean stresses over the welds were normalized to the yield strength
of the steel grade in question, Figure 6.7. The nominal yield strength of the material was used
in the evaluation if not specified by the author through special tests in addition to the residual
stress measurements.
1.6
1.2
Vt,rs / fy
0.8
0.4
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Yield strength, fy [MPa]
Figure 6.7: Correlation between the yield strength and maximum value of
dimensionless measured tensile residual stresses.
6.3. Discussion and Conclusions

The models for estimation of the weld induced residual stresses were tested with respect to
the presented measurement results (Figure 6.7). However, concerning the, in some cases,
limited information concerning welding characteristics the results are not included herein.
However, the correlation between the test results and the models was not convincing. Though,
the correlation would probably become better if a special test programme, done for the purpose
of investigating the models, was used to measure the residual stresses. This way, gathering
information for several different sources, was proven to be a too uncertain path of investigating
the models.
Regarding the surveyed literature, presented in section 6.2 and Appendix C, the scatter
between the test results and conclusions are obvious. This may be dependent of the fact that the
measurement of residual stresses is, as mentioned earlier herein, a difficult piece of work. Both
with respect to the actual measurement work, which requires patience and precise handling, and
the evaluation of the test results, which may be done in several different ways. However, if
disregarding the actual aims for the different presented measurements and only the test data is
regarded, some obvious conclusions are possible to do.
First, residual stress measurements regarding steels with yield strength above 400 - 450 MPa
are not too usual. Though, this may be due to the fact that these steels still are somewhat “new”
to the market and not used in such a large extent.
69
Second, some of the results from the measured stresses seems to be somewhat difficult to
trust. Measured residual stresses 1,6 times higher than the yield strength of the steel in question
is hard to believe. The problem behind this issue may be the lack of actual measurements of the
mechanical properties of the steel. As stated before, if no mechanical properties of the material
was given by the author, the nominal values were used and this affects the outcome of the ratio
between the residual stresses and the yield strength.
Third, when considering the steels grades with higher yield strengths, the tensile residual
stresses seems to be lower in comparison to the yield strength. The majority of measured tensile
stresses in the specimens with yield strength above 400 MPa were significantly lower than the
yield strength in question.
70
Residual Stresses - Experimental Work
Chapter 7:
To measure residual stresses has been, and will be in the future, an interesting and
challenging task to take upon ones shoulders. As mentioned before in the literature survey
(chapter 5) and the description of the experimental work (chapter 6), the measurement of
residual stresses in materials has proven to be an extremely time consuming and often a difficult
topic to master. The changes of stress magnitudes and distribution over the three dimensions of
a body makes the evaluation of the test results a demanding work. The methods of measurement
are often base on quite simple and theoretically graspable methods. However, the understanding
of what was measured and how to interpret the sampled data may be a somewhat intriguing
piece of work. Despite this, an effort in measuring the residual stress state in three welded box
sections was made within the LiftHigh project, funded partially by RFSC.
7.1. Background
How residual stresses are formed and why has been covered earlier herein. However,
although the origin of the stresses are known, the actual magnitudes and distributions of residual
stresses in different members most often has to be measured to be fully determined. As
discussed in chapter 6 different model approaches are available to pre-define up coming
residual stresses due to different processes, in this case welding. Though, setting up a finite
element model may be as time consuming as measuring the actual stresses in a “blind”
specimen.
Residual stress magnitudes and distributions has been measured in numerous applications
and in a multitude of specimens, mainly during the 1970’s. However, the development of steels
with higher strength and their introduction on the market has, in some way actualized the need
for residual stress measurements concerning these “new” grades. Therefor three welded
specimens with box cross-sections were withdrawn from the local buckling test programme (see
chapter 4) to be used for residual stress measurements. Through this, the residual stresses could
be determined and in a further evaluation compared to the residual stress distributions used in
some design codes (see chapter 6). Furthermore, the suggestions in the codes convenience could
also be investigated with respect to the measured stresses in the high strength steel.
71
The specimens were of the same three different steel grades as described in chapter 4, i.e.
Domex 420, Weldox 700 and 1100. The method for determining the residual stress distribution
and magnitudes was blind hole drilling and the released strains were measured with rosette
strain gauges. The method is explained further in Appendix B.
7.2. Experimental work

The measurement of the residual stresses was done at TESTLAB, LTU, during a 3 week
period in october 2004. Relieving of strains were measured in a total of 15 positions on the three
welded box specimens S20-0b, W72-0b and W112-0b. As the specimen notation indicates, the
rolling direction of the plates was along the welds. For further details concerning the specimens
and the fabrication of these see chapter 4. The blind hole measuring technique provides a
possibility to measure relieved strains in the x-y-plane to evaluate the principal stresses relaxed
in the direction of these. The evaluation method are presented in detail in Appendix B along
with the measured strains of each specimen. However, only longitudinally oriented stresses
(along the welds) are regarded in this thesis.
7.2.1. Test setup

The residual stresses relaxed through the hole drilling were measured over one side on each
of the three specimens. All of the rosette strain gauges were positioned on the mid-line of the
plate, see adjacent Figure 7.1. The tensile stresses induced by the welding of the plates were of
special interest to measure. Hence two rosettes were placed on each side of the plate, as close
to the weld bead as possible, Figure 7.2. Furthermore, one rosette gauge was placed in the mid-
point of the plate and the two remaining gauges were distributed between the weld bead and the
mid-point. The position of each of the measurement point is displayed in each graph presenting
the measured stress levels in section 7.3.
Figure 7.1: Specimen W72-0b with fixed air supplied high speed drill.
72
The rosette gauges were glued to the plate surface with the individual strain gauges
positioned along and perpendicular to the weld bead. The third strain gauge was directed with
an angle of 135o referring to the weld direction.
The hole drilling was done in increments of which the first two were drilled 0,127 mm and
followed by 5 increments each removing a material layer of 0,254 mm. The hole was finished
with a last increment of 0,533 mm to the full depth of 2,06 mm. The measurement method is
base of the measurement of the change in strain in the x-y-plane between each increment. Hence,
strains were registered after each increment. With this information of the change in strain the
relaxed residual stresses may be estimated by Hooke’s law.
Figure 7.2: Rosette strain gauge glued to the specimen. The drill diameter was
1,59 mm.
The actual drilling process was proven to be a quite time consuming undertaking; one days
work was required for drilling one hole.
7.3. Test evaluation and test results

The relieved residual strains in the three specimens were evaluated according to the
measurement manual published by Measurements Group, Tech Note 503-4 (1993). The
procedure of the transformation of the measured strains to released stresses are described along
with the actual sampled data in Appendix B.
Even though the blind holes were drilled to a depth of nearly half the plate thickness of the
specimens (Weldox specimens) the relieved strains used in the evaluation was regarded only to
the depth of approximately 1 mm (the fifth increment). The reason was that FE studies has
shown that the change in strain produced in drilling through any depth beyond the first, is caused
only partly by the residual stress in that increment. Due to the change in stress distribution and
material compliance, most of the relieved strains at a given depth is in a large extent generated
by preceding increments. Hence, the relative contribution from a particular increment to the
total relieved strain at full hole depth decreases rapidly with the distance to the plate surface and
73
the strain gauge. This resulting in the fact that in full hole depth, the estimated released stresses
are dominated by stresses measured closer to the surface. Because of this, Measurements Group
states that little, if any, quantitative result interpretation can safely be done for readings below
1,03 mm with the equipment used for the tests described herein.
The results from the evaluation of the tests are enclosed in Appendix B regarding each
specimen individually. However the compiled results from all the three specimens normalized
with respect to the measured yield strength or 0,2 % proof stress (see chapter 4) are presented
in Figure 7.3 below. The reason of the normalization is to be able to compare the measured
longitudinal stresses to the schematical distributions described in the design codes which
implies that the tensile residual stress should be in the magnitude of the yield strength.
Furthermore, the position of the gauges, x, were made dimensionless with respect to the plate
width, b.
Domex 420
1.2 Weldox 700
Weldox 1100
0.8
Vrs / fy
0.4
X/b
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
-0.4
Figure 7.3: The measured longitudinal normalized to the measured yield or 0,2 %
proof strength of respective grade. Positive sign equals measured
tensile stress.
As mentioned above, the estimation of the residual stresses is based on the use of Hooke’s
law. The required modulus of elasticity was evaluated from the uniaxial tension tests presented
in Appendix A. However, no consideration was made to eventual difference in the modulus
regarding the rolling direction of the plates in question. The modulus used in the evaluation was
estimated from the specimens with rolling direction along the loading axis (notation 0). The
estimation of the elasticity modulus rendered in values of 200 GPa concerning the Domex 420
grade and 190 GPa for the two Weldox grades.
74
7.4. Discussion and conclusions of test results

When comparing the normalized results in Figure 7.3 the tensile stresses close to the weld
beads seems to be significantly lower than the 0,2 % proof stress concerning the high strength
steel grades Weldox 700 and 1100. Furthermore, the ratio residual stresses / material strength
seems to decrease with increasing material strength. The absolute values of the measured
stresses are lowest concerning the Domex specimen, however the Figure 7.3 concludes that the
residual stress magnitude does not increases linearly with respect an increasing material
strength.
Regarding the evaluation of the measured relieved strains some things are important to
comment. First, the modulus of elasticity has a huge influence on the estimation of the residual
stresses present in the regarded specimen. Furthermore, no consideration has been taken to the
eventual mechanical anisotropies in the material.
The measured strains were, as mentioned, only evaluated to a depth of approximately 1 mm.
This gives some uncertainties considering the fact that no information regarding eventual
fluctuations over the whole plate thickness could be concluded.
The ideal position of the measurement point may be closer to the weld bead. However the
size of the rosette gauges made it impossible to place the point closer to the weld than what was
done. Furthermore, additional measurement point over the plate width could make the
distribution of the stresses more even.
The non-linear material behaviour of the Weldox grades may influence the estimation of the
stresses. Ideal elasto-plastic material behaviour was an initial assumption concerning the
evaluation model (see Appendix B). However, with stress levels below the 0,2 % proof stress
of the Weldox grades, the non-linear behaviour are of moderate level and hence not too
influential on the presented results.
Furthermore, when regarding the presented measurements in Figure 7.3 one of the data
points are questionable. This is the point close to the weld in the Domex 420 specimen, which
shows residual stresses more than 20 % above the yield strength of the steel. When only elastic
strains can be measured (relieved through the drilling) this seems to be a rather large strain
measured. The reason why this has occurred is somewhat hard to conclude in any other way than
the human factor or a measurement error of an other type.
However, considering the rest of the data acquired, the magnitudes and the distribution of the
residual stresses seems to be trustable. A common way of investigating if the results from
residual stress measurements seems convenient may be an equilibrium analysis. However, this
is difficult to perform in this case when the stresses along one side of four are measured on the
specimen. Furthermore, additional measurement points would be desired in anything certain
regarding the equilibrium would be possible to conclude.
75
Considering the compressive stresses measured on the plates a comparison between the
specimens are not done herein. This due to the fact that the plate width are of great importance
when the stresses are induced through the welding process. If emphasizing the cause of the
compressive stresses described in chapter 5, the compressive stresses are formed as a reaction
to the tensile stresses near the weld. When the plate width increases, the compressive stress
magnitude decreases and vice versa. This makes a comparison between the differently sized
specimens and their inherent compressive stresses somewhat difficult to do properly without
this uncertainty. However, this fact should not influence the tensile stresses in same extent
which makes these possible to compare as stated above.
76
Discussion and Conclusions
Chapter 8:
Since discussions regarding the retrieved data from the literature and the actual test
procedures were held in respective chapter, this chapter will focus on discussing the results with
respect to underlaying phenomena. The results from previous chapters are compared to design
codes and concluded to be useful in the future.
8.1. Residual Stresses

That the measurement of residual stresses is a complicated task, has already been mentioned
in this thesis. The large scatter between the different results, both from literature and by the
experimental work at LTU, may be a cause of this fact. Nevertheless, when evaluating test
results with different origins covering different steel grades, measurement methods as well as
specimens, a trend of these test results may be visible; as is the case displayed in Figure 8.1.
Considering the 53 individual measurements (47 from literature and 6 measured at LTU) a mean
value of the tensile residual stresses for respective grade, seems to decline with an increasing
yield strength. However, a majority of tests are made grades with lower strength (fy < 600 MPa),
but still, all of the test data over this “limit” shows tensile yield stresses lower than the yield
strength. This will also be evident if disregarding the data showing less reliable results, i.e.
relaxed stresses beyond the yield limit or extremely low readings.
Regarding the suggested residual stress distribution for design purposes, the experimental
work presented herein along with results from the literature survey, points towards that the usual
assumption of longitudinal tensile stresses reaching a magnitude of the yield strength seems to
be a bit to pessimistic regarding steels with higher strength. Studying Figure 8.1, this seems to
be significantly marked for steels with fy > 600 MPa. However, since the welding characteristics
have been proven to influence the magnitudes of weld induced residual stresses, this may differ
greatly if a larger test programme was carried out with the purpose to establish a relation
between steel grade and actual residual stress state. Another important thing to point out is the
fact that welding in high strength steels is often done with under-matching electrodes, i.e.
electrodes with lower strength than the base material. This fact may also influence the results.
77
2
Domex 420
Weldox 700
Weldox 1100
1.6
Tests from literature (Ch. 6)
1.2
Vt,rs / fy
0.8
0.4
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Yield strength, fy [MPa]
Figure 8.1: Measured tensile longitudinal residual stresses in Domex 420,

Weldox 700 and 1100 specimens along with gathered test results from
relevant literature.
Furthermore, the actual mechanical properties of the base material of each specimen strongly
influences the outcome of experimental work. This with respect to how strongly non-linear the
behaviour of the considered grade is. When measuring residual stresses through relaxation
methods, the only possible measurable inherent stress in the steel is of elastic type. These
methods gives no information regarding eventual plastic strains present in the material. So, if
the material behaves strongly non-linear, even for low strains, the actual stress magnitude
present in the steel may very well be larger than what is evaluated. However, if the measured
stresses are shown to be lower than the yield stress (or other chosen reference stress level) the
evaluated results should be trustworthy if the material is linear-elastic up to this level. The
Weldox grades tested trough tensile coupon tests (enclosed in Appendix A), seems to be nearly
linear-elastic up to the 0,2 % proof stress used in the evaluations, the measured relaxed stresses
in these specimens should not be questioned with respect to this. However, when considering
the Domex grade, some uncertainties may rise due to the measured relived strains
corresponding to stress levels equal to or above the yield strength. The only certain statement
considering these readings is that the stress magnitudes reaches at least the yield strength.
8.2. Local Buckling

The Winter function used for design with respect to local buckling in some design codes,
such as the Eurocode 3, is based on tests of cold-formed specimens, Winter (1947). When cold-
forming profiles, one do not only produce the wanted profile without welding, but also changes
the material properties as well as inducing and residual stresses. The induction of these changes
into the very basis of the material, may lead to an incompatibility issue when compared directly
with welded plates. Even though the boundary conditions of the respective plates are the same,
i.e. simply supported around all edges in this case, the differences on a deeper level may leave
78
the researcher astonished when comparing their test results with the Winter function. The cause
of this may be the different residual stress state between welded plates and cold-formed.
Furthermore, cold-forming induces plastic strains into the material. Experimental work has
shown that cold-formed profiles inherent significantly higher proof stresses and ultimate
strength levels in the area of forming, i.e. corners of a box section, Gardner (2002) and Talja
(2002). These increases in the material resistance of course affects the over-all behaviour of
such a specimen.
Furthermore, if considering the residual stress state in a cold-formed profile compared to a

welded section of the same dimensions, the magnitudes of compressive stresses in the sides
(webs) of the former seems to be lower than the corresponding ones in the welded profile,
Ingvarsson (1977). Lower levels of compressive residual stresses increases the resistance. Thus,
the Winter function may not on a phenomenological basis be comparable with welded plates.
However, the influence of the residual stresses in the plates should have less influence on the
resistance when the plate slenderness is lower (more plastic buckling).
Veljkovic and Johansson (2001) comprises FE studies of plates with and without residual
stresses and concluded that the Winter function is more suitable to use for plates without
significant residual stresses or stress relieved. This is not the case concerning plates in as-
welded condition. Similar conclusions were also drawn by Rusch and Lindner (2001).
When considering Figure 8.2, comprising the collected data from the literature (chapter 3)
and the experimental results presented in chapter 4, the outcome seem to coincide with the
results discussed above. Regarding plates of different steel grades, it seems like the Winter
function may be a more suitable function to use when the plate slenderness is lower. Regarding
more slender plates, O > 0,9 the Winter function may overestimate the resistance.
Domex 420
Weldox 700
1.2
Weldox 1100
U, Reduction factor
Tests from Literature (Ch. 3)

Mean function (eq. 3.1)
Winter function
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 8.2: The evaluated test data from 48 box specimens along with data
acquired from relevant literature.
79
Nevertheless, the results presented in this report shows that steel with higher strength may
be treated in the same way as “ordinary” steel grades. The high strength steel may even coincide
a bit better with the Winter function than steels with lower strength (fy < 460 MPa), see chapter
4.
8.3. Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from the work presented in this thesis:
• The absolute magnitudes of the tensile residual stresses in welded plates of high
strength steels seems to be higher than compared to corresponding low strength
steel plates. Nevertheless, if made dimensionless with respect to yield strength or
Rp0.2 stress, the ratio is lower regarding the high strength steels.
• The Winter function may need some adjustments concerning more slender plates,
(approx. Op > 0,9), since it seems to overestimate the resistance with respect to
local buckling.
• Concerning stockier plates (approx. Op < 0,9) the Winter function seems to
underestimate or coincide with test results.
• No significant difference in the behaviour could be concluded when comparing

simply supported plates made of high strength steel with corresponding plates of
steel with lower strength. This with sole respect to local buckling resistance.
80
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Chapter 9:
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Tebedge, N., Alpsten, G. and Tall, L. (1973). “Residual-stress Measurement by the

Sectioning Method”, Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Stress Analysis,
Vol. 30, No. 1, 1973. pp. 88-96.
Tech Note 503-4. (1993) “Residual Stress Measurement”, Measurements Group, Inc.
Raleigh, USA.
Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M. (1963). “Theory of Elastic Stability”, 2nd edition, McGraw-
Hill International Editions. (ISBN 0-07-Y85821-7).
Ueda, Y. and Yuan, M.G. (1991). “The Characteristics of the Source of Welding Residual
Stress (Inherent Strain) and its Application to Measurement and Prediction”,
Mechanical Effects of Welding, IUTAM Symposium Luleå/Sweden 1991. Springer-
Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, 1992. (ISBN: 3-540-55240-5).
Veljkovic, M. and Johansson, B. (2001). “Design for Buckling of Plates due to Direct
Stress”, Proceedings of Nordic Steel Construction Conference, Helsinki, Finland, June
2001. pp. 729-736. (ISBN: 952-9683-03-0).
Walker, D. (2001). “Residual Stress Measurement Techniques”, Advanced Materials &

Processes, Vol. 159, Issue 8, August 2001.
84
References
“Welding Handbook”. (1976). Vol. 1 - Fundamentals of Welding, 7th edition, American

Welding Society, Miami, USA.
White, J.D. (1977). “Longitudinal Shrinkage of a Single Pass Weld”, University of

Cambridge, Report CUED/C-Struct/TR.57.
Winter, G. (1947). “Strength of Thin Steel Compression Flanges”. Transactions, American

Society of Civil Engineers, 1947, Vol. 112, pp. 527-554.
Wohlfahrt, H. (1987). “Residual Stresses as a Consequence of Welding”, Advances in

Surface Treatments: Technology-Applications-Effects, Vol. 4, International
Guidebook on Residual Stresses. First edition. Oxford: Pergamon Press, Cop.
(ISBN: 0-08-034062-8).
85
86
APPENDIX A: Plate Buckling - Experimental Work
APPENDIX A:
In Appendix A.1 the stress - strain curves from the tensile coupon tests described in
chapter 4 are enclosed. This in the form of 6 figures containing the results from three
coupon tests each.
Appendix A.2 contains the measured dimensions of the 48 box specimens used for
the local buckling tests. Furthermore, for each specimen, the calculated plate slenderness
according to Eurocode 3 is provided.
All of the load - mean axial deformation graphs are enclosed in Appendix A.3. This
in the form of 14 figures describing the behaviour of all the 48 specimens tested.
In Appendix A.4 the evaluated test results from the local buckling tests are enclosed.
Furthermore, the cross section areas with included weld areas are shown along with
measured ultimate loads and evaluated ultimate stress levels.
The Appendix A.5 displays the measurement equipment used in the experimental
work. All of the gauges and other equipment are described individually.
87
88
A.1: Stress - strain curves from uniaxial tests
600

400
200
D1
D2
D3
0
0 10 20 30 40
H, Strain [%]
Figure A.1: Stress - strain curves from tension tests along the rolling direction on
Domex 420.
600
400
200
D4
D5
D6
0
0 10 20 30 40
H, Strain [%]
Figure A.2: Stress - strain curves from tension tests transverse the rolling
direction on Domex 420.
89
1000
V, Tensile stress [MPa] 800
600
400
200 W1
W2
W3
0 4 8 12 16
H, Strain [%]
Weldox 700.
1000
800
600
400
200 W4
W5
W6
0
0 4 8 12 16
H, Strain [%]
direction on Weldox 700.
90
1600

1200
800
400
W7
W8
W9
0
0 4 8 12
H, Strain [%]
Weldox 1100.
1600
1200
800
400
W10
W11
W12
0
0 4 8 12
H, Strain [%]
direction on Weldox 1100.
91
A.2: Measured dimensions - Box specimens
Table A.1: Specimen dimensions, measured mechanical properties and
according to Eurocode 3, calculated plate slenderness values.
Specimen Mean Mean Mean Plate Yield Proof Stress, Plate

Width, Height, Thickness, Strength, Rp0.2 [MPa] Slenderness,
bw [mm] h [mm] t [mm] fy [MPa] Op
S10-0a 82,4 268,1 441,3 0,65
S10-0b 82,5 268,0 441,3 0,65
S10-90a 82,5 268,1 471,0 0,67
S10-90b 82,1 268,3 471,0 0,67
S20-0a 101,3 325,5 441,3 0,80
S20-90a 101,3 327,6 471,0 0,83
Domex 420
S20-90b 101,2 323,5 471,0 0,83

S30-0a 119,4 379,7 3,05 441,3 - 0,94
S30-0b 119,5 380,8 441,3 0,95
S30-90a 119,5 379,8 471,0 0,98
S30-90b 119,4 380,7 471,0 0,98
S40-0a 181,3 571,1 441,3 1,43
S40-0b 180,8 571,1 441,3 1,43
S40-90a 181,5 570,1 471,0 1,48
S40-90b 181,1 571,2 471,0 1,48
W71-0a 89,4 276,7 772,7 0,70
W71-0b 90,0 276,1 772,7 0,70
W71-0c 89,5 276,6 772,7 0,70
W71-90a 90,0 276,7 794,0 0,71
W71-90b 89,5 277,3 794,0 0,71
W71-90c 89,5 277,1 794,0 0,71
W72-0a 109,3 336,6 772,7 0,85
Weldox 700
W72-90a 109,5 335,9 794,0 0,87

W72-90b 109,7 336,7 4.09 - 794,0 0,87
W73-0a 129,6 395,8 772,7 1,01
W73-0b 129,6 396,8 772,7 1,01
W73-90a 129,2 396,0 794,0 1,02
W73-90b 129,4 396,6 794,0 1,02
W74-0a 196,2 593,8 772,7 1,53
W74-0b 196,0 594,8 772,7 1,53
W74-90a 195,4 593,0 794,0 1,55
W74-90b 195,2 594,0 794,0 1,54
W111-0a 70,3 220,2 1350,7 0,75
W111-0b 70,4 221,3 1350,7 0,75
W111-0c 69,8 220,6 1350,7 0,74
W111-90a 70,1 218,8 1335,0 0,74
W111-90b 69,4 220,3 1335,0 0,73
W111-90c 69,5 220,2 1335,0 0,73
Weldox 1100
W112-0a 85,5 266,8 1350,7 0,91

W112-90a 85,5 265,2 1335,0 0,90
W112-90 85,3 267,6 3,98 - 1335,0 0,90
W113-0a 101,3 312,4 1350,7 1,07
W113-0b 101,3 312,2 1350,7 1,07
W113-90a 101,3 312,1 1335,0 1,07
W113-90b 101,2 312,1 1335,0 1,07
W114-0a 154,9 471,9 1350,7 1,64
W114-0b 154,9 469,6 1350,7 1,64
W114-90a 154,8 472,2 1335,0 1,63
W114-90b 155,2 472,2 1335,0 1,64
92
A.3: Load - mean axial deformation curves
600
400
Load [kN]
200 S10-0a
S10-0b
S10-90a
S10-90b
0
0 2 4 6

Figure A.7: Load - mean deformation curves for Domex 420 specimens with
nominal plate slenderness of 0,7.
600
400
Load [kN]
200
S20-0a
S20-90a
S20-90b
0
0 2 4 6

nominal plate slenderness of 0,85. S20-0b saved for residual stress
measurements.
93
600
400
Load [kN]
200 S30-0a
S30-0b
S30-90a
S30-90b
0
0 2 4 6

600
400
Load [kN]
200 S40-0a
S40-0b
S40-90a
S40-90b
0
0 2 4 6

94
1600
1200
Load [kN]
800
W71-0a
400 W71-0b
W71-90a
W71-90b
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure A.11: Load - mean deformation curves for Weldox 700 specimens with
1600
1200
Load [kN]
800
400 W72-0a
W72-90a
W72-90b
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

nominal plate slenderness of 0,85. W72-0b saved for residual stress
measurements.
95
1600
1200
Load [kN]
800
W73-0a
400 W73-0b
W73-90a
W73-90b
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

1600
1200
Load [kN]
800
400 W74-0b
W74-90a
W74-90b
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

nominal plate slenderness of 1,5. Specimen W72-0a removed due to
testing problems.
96
1600
1200
Load [kN]
800
400
W71-0c
W71-90c
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

nominal plate slenderness of 0,7. Extra tests.
2000
1600
Load [kN]
1200
800
W111-0a
W111-0b
400
W111-90a
W111-90b
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

nominal plate slenderness of 0,7. W111-0b failed in weld after
ultimate load was reached.
97
2000
1600
Load [kN]
1200
800
W112-0a
400
W112-90a
W112-90b
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

nominal plate slenderness of 0,85. W112-0b saved for residual stress
measurements.
2000
1600
Load [kN]
1200
800
W113-0a
W113-0b
400
W113-90a
W113-90b
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

98
1600
1200
Load [kN]
800
W114-0a
400 W114-0b
W114-90a
W114-90b
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

2000
1600
Load [kN]
1200
800
400
W111-0c
W111-90c
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

nominal plate slenderness of 0,7. Extra tests.
99
A.4: Test Results - Buckling Tests
Table A.2: Evaluated test results. Cross section areas with included weld areas.
Yield strength used for Domex 420 and 0,2 % proof stress for Weldox
specimens.
Specimen Ultimate Area of cross Ultimate strength, Ratio Vu/fy or
Load [kN] section [mm2] Vu [MPa] Vu/Rp0.2
S10-0a 502,3 1023,9 490,5 1,11
S10-0b 502,2 1025,1 489,9 1,11
S10-90a 514,9 1024,5 502,6 1,07
S10-90b 530,6 1020,5 520,0 1,10
S20-0a 505,9 1254,5 403,3 0,91
S20-90a 517,6 1254,9 412,4 0,88
Domex 420
S20-90b 492,6 1253,2 393,1 0,83

S30-0a 468,4 1475,7 317,4 0,72
S30-0b 484,0 1476,1 327,9 0,74
S30-90a 496,1 1476,6 336,0 0,71
S30-90b 487,1 1474,9 330,3 0,70
S40-0a 502,4 2230,1 225,3 0,51
S40-0b 484,2 2224,5 217,7 0,49
S40-90a 492,1 2232,9 220,4 0,47
S40-90b 493,9 2228,6 221,6 0,47
W71-0a 1186,5 1496,2 793,0 1,03
W71-0b 1193,5 1505,3 792,9 1,03
W71-0c 1191,6 1497,7 795,6 1,03
W71-90a 1254,4 1505,2 833,4 1,05
W71-90b 1246,3 1497,2 832,4 1,05
W71-90c 1216,8 1497,6 812,5 1,02
Weldox 700
W72-0a 1269,8 1820,8 697,4 0,90

W72-90a 1289,2 1824,5 706,6 0,89
W72-90b 1310,8 1828,5 716,8 0,90
W73-0a 1182,6 2153,0 549,3 0,71
W73-0b 1192,7 2154,0 553,7 0,72
W73-90a 1228,1 2146,7 572,1 0,72
W73-90b 1222,6 2150,9 568,4 0,72
W74-0b 1241,1 3239,6 383,1 0,50
W74-90a 1253,4 3231,0 387,9 0,49
W74-90b 1260,4 3227,4 390,5 0,49
W111-0a 1433,5 1151,0 1245,4 0,92
W111-0b 1490,8 1151,9 1294,2 0,96
W111-0c 1428,7 1142,2 1250,8 0,93
W111-90a 1378,5 1147,0 1201,9 0,90
W111-90b 1413,4 1136,0 1244,1 0,93
W111-90c 1523,5 1138,1 1338,6 1,00
Weldox 1100
W112-0a 1650,6 1393,6 1184,4 0,88

W112-90a 1607,1 1392,6 1154,1 0,86
W112-90 1667,7 1389,0 1200,7 0,90
W113-0a 1529,7 1645,1 929,9 0,69
W113-0b 1543,2 1644,8 938,2 0,69
W113-90a 1522,1 1643,8 925,9 0,69
W113-90b 1551,0 1643,2 943,9 0,71
W114-0a 1591,6 2497,6 637,3 0,47
W114-0b 1560,9 2497,8 624,9 0,46
W114-90a 1538,6 2496,8 616,2 0,46
W114-90b 1557,4 2502,5 622,4 0,47
100
A.5: Gauges used in Tests

All 5 position gauges (LVDT) were from Measurements Group, U.K. LTD., Vishay.
The specifications for the 4 Welwyn HS10B LDVT’s used for

measurement of axial displacement are:
Gauge No. 9554: L = 11,0 mm, Non.linearity 0,1 %,

Sensibility 4,9 mV/V.


The specifications for the Welwyn HS25B LVDT used for the
measurement of buckle growth is:
Gauge No. 10168: L = 25,8 mm, Non.linearity 0,1%,

A SPIDER 8, 600 Hz from HBM were used to

sample and translate measurements to PC-
environment. Serial No. F02439.
The load cell from DARTEC used for load measurement was
calibrated in 2004 with a measurement error of < 0,6 % in the
whole measurement range up to 2 MN. Serial No. 89086/A.
101
102
APPENDIX B: Residual Stresses - Experimental Work
APPENDIX B:
In Appendix B.1 the theory and expressions used for the tests result evaluation of the
residual stress measurement is presented. The theory is completely based on information
provided by Measurements Group, Inc. (Tech Note 503-4).
Appendix B.2 encloses the measured strains from the residual stress experiments.
Furthermore, the data converted to released residual stresses in the plane of the plate is
presented concerning each of the three specimens.
103
104
B.1: Test evaluation methodology

The blind hole measurement method was previously described in chapter 5. However the
method for evaluation of test results is described in this section. All of the following text is
based on the residual stress measurement guide published by Measurements Group from 1993.
As presented in chapter 7 the released strains were measured with rosette strain gauges.
However, the strain data needs to be related to the real strains released in the hole (circular
shape). I.e. the measured strains in the plane has to be transformed to polar coordinates to
determine the actual strain released through the material removal. Furthermore, the strains
expressed in polar coordinates are transformed back to cartesian coordinates to describe the
longitudinal residual stress state in the specimen.
B.1.1: Strain transformation and basic relationships

The following section describes how the measured strains were evaluated to give information
concerning the plane stress state in the welded specimens. The description of the method of test
data evaluation may seem to be over the top, however hopefully it will provide the reader with
an insight regarding the difficulties connected to the task of measuring residual stresses and the
amount of possible uncertainties included in the measurement evaluations.
Figure B.1: Stress states at P(R,D), before and after the introduction of a hole.
Measurements Group, Tech Note 503-4 (1993)
In Figure B.1a a local area of a plate under uniform distributed residual stress is described.
In any arbitrary chosen point, the initial stress state may be expressed in polar coordinates as
Vx
V' r = ----- 1 + cos 2D (B.1)
2
105
Vx
V' T = ----- 1 – cos 2D (B.2)
2
Vx
W' r T = – ----- sin 2D (B.3)
2
When material is removed by drilling the small hole into the plate, the stress state around the
hole is changed and the stresses on the hole surface must be equal to zero. The change in the
stresses, or strains gives information about the magnitude of the released residual stresses.
Solutions to this case has been obtained by G.Kirsch in 1898, and with the help of his work the
expressions for the relieved strains may be obtained. However, some very important
assumptions are made in this step of the theory. The material is assumed to be homogeneous
and isotropic in its mechanical properties. Furthermore linear-elastic stress - strain behaviour is
assumed.
Under this assumptions the following two expressions may be used with Hooke’s law to
calculated the relived stresses:
Vx 1 + Q 1 3 4
H r = – ----------------------- ---2- – ---4- cos 2D + ---------------------
2
- cos 2D (B.4)
2E r r r 1 + Q
Vx 1 + Q 1 3 4
H T = – ----------------------- – ---2- + ---4- cos 2D – ---------------------
2
-cos 2D (B.5)
2E r r r 1 + Q
wherein
R
r = ------ R t R o . (B.6)
Ro
However, the above stated expressions may be simplified by using constants for the material
properties of the material and the ratio, r, according to
H r = V x A + B cos 2D (B.7)
H T = V x – A + C cos 2D (B.8)
It has been concluded in the considered printing by Measurements Group, that the radial
strain is considerably greater than the tangential strain. This has led to that commercial rosette
gauges for residual stress measurements are designed to measure this radial strain changes.
Hence, the radial strain is used for further evaluation.
The above described treatment of a plate under residual stresses consider only a uniaxial
stress state. However, in this case, the plane stress state was desired to be evaluated. This may
106
be done by using the superposition principle which gives the following expressions for the
relieved radial strains in the x-y-plane:
H r = V x A + B cos 2D + V y A – B cos 2D (B.9)
The expression above (B.9) describes the basic relationship between measured strains and
the actual residual stress state in the considered plate. However, the expression has to be
inverted to give the wanted information; the principal stresses in the x-y-plane and the angle D,
according to Figure B.2 below, which gives the orientation of the principal stresses referring to
the strain gauges.
Figure B.2: Strain gauge rosette arrangement for determining residual stress.
Measurements Group, Tech Note 503-4 (1993).
Considering Figure B.2 the expression (B.9) may be written three times, once for each strain
gauge in the rosette:
H 1 = A V x + V y + B V x – V y cos 2D (B.10)
o
H 2 = A V x + V y + B V x – V y cos 2 D + 45 (B.11)
o
H 3 = A V x + V y + B V x – V y cos 2 D + 90 (B.12)
When these three expressions are solved simultaneously for the principal stresses and their
direction, the results may be expressed as:
H1 + H3 1 2 2
V max e min = ---------------- r ------- H 3 – H 1 + H 1 + H 3 – 2H 2 (B.13)
4A 4B
and the direction, D, as
H 1 – 2H 2 + H 3
tan 2D = ------------------------------ (B.14)
H 3 – H1
107
Regarding equation B.13, the Measurements Group pointed out some important comments.
The coefficients A and B not only inherent the elastic properties of the material, but also reflects
the severe attenuation of the relieved strains relative to the relaxed stresses. Since the
coefficients always are defined with negative signs, the expression with the subtraction in B.13
always represents the maximum principal stress.
Concerning the direction of the principal stresses, the angle, D, must be interpreted
differently dependent of the relation between the measured strains. The following rules points
out how the principal stresses are directed:
H 3 ! H 1 D refers to V max (B.15)

H 3 H 1 D refers to V min
o
H 3 = H 1 D r 45
and if the latter is the case, then
o
H 2 H 1 V max at + 45 (B.16)
o
H 2 ! H 1 V max at – 45
Furthermore, the coefficients A and B are determined with the use of special data reduction
coefficients determined from specifications by Measurements Group.
108
B.2: Experimental data

Table B.1: Measured strains in specimen S20-0b. Relived strains down to 1,016 mm
depth presented. Positions measured from weld edge.
Position H H H D Vmax Vmin

[mm] [PStr] [PStr] [PStr] o [MPa] [MPa]
[ ]
5,60 162 -135 -416 -1 432 -70
20,88 0 52 109 1 -30 -125
36,31 -28 50 131 1 -4 -143
51,44 -46 28 149 7 14 -161
95,84 243 -220 -565 -4 584 -126
600
400
Released stress [MPa]
200
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
Plate Width [mm]
-200
Figure B.3: Measured longitudinal residual stresses in specimen S20-0b (Steel

grade Domex 420). Plate width was measured between the weld edges
to 101,8 mm.
109
Table B.2: Measured strains in specimen W72-0b. Relived strains down to 1,016 mm
depth presented. Positions measured from weld edge.

[ ]
5,53 259 -177 -625 0 613 -118
21,51 67 78 197 20 -109 -248
38,37 93 152 268 9 -168 -320
54,86 60 154 244 -1 -130 -282
104,49 155 -121 -589 7 611 -24
800
600
400
200
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
Plate Width [mm]
-200
-400
Figure B.4: Measured longitudinal residual stresses in specimen W72-0b (Steel

grade Weldox 700). Plate width was measured between the weld
edges to 109,9 mm.
110
Table B.3: Measured strains in specimen W112-0b. Relived strains down to 1,016
mm depth presented. Positions measured from weld edge.

[ ]
5,42 430 -227 -815 -2 776 -255
17,19 -45 -17 -10 -15 54 20
30,15 -6 90 177 -1 -40 -191
42,17 -27 92 199 -2 -23 -210
80,08 387 -299 -966 0 951 -167
1200
800
400
0 20 40 60 80
0
Plate Width [mm]
-400
Figure B.5: Measured longitudinal residual stresses in specimen W112-0b (Steel

grade Weldox 1100). Plate width was measured between the weld
edges to 85,9 mm.
111
112
APPENDIX C: Residual Stresses - Survey of Literature
APPENDIX C:
Enclosed in Appendix C is data sheets containing the information used in the

literature survey presented in chapter 6. The used specimens are individually numbered
from 1 to 61. Nevertheless, not all of the enclosed measurements are used in this thesis.
This is due to e.g. incompatible experiments, lack of information or other causes. The
data sheets provides information concerning mechanical properties, specimen layout,
used measurement technique and of course the reference to the published material in
question.
113
114
Grade:
No. 1 No. 2 ASTM A36, A441
[MPa] Profile:
414 0 -345 [MPa]
414 0 -345 H-profile
Material Thickness:
19mm (web),38mm (flange)
No. 5 No. 6
Above: Stresses in 15H290, A441 steel. 12.7 mm (1/2 [MPa]
[MPa]
in.) fillet welds (left) resp. 28 mm (11/10 in.) (right) 414 0 -345 414 0 -345
groove welds. All plates flame cut

No. 3 No. 4
[MPa] [MPa]
414 0 -345 414 0 -345
Above: Stresses in 15H290, A36 steel. 12.7 mm (1/2

in.) fillet welds (left) resp. 28 mm (11/10 in.) (right)
groove welds. All plates flame cut
Above: Stresses in 15H290,

A441 steel. 12.7 mm (1/2 in.)
fillet welds (left) resp. 28 mm
(11/10 in.) (right) groove
welds. Universal milled
plates
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa
Longitudinal Residual Stresses,

Magnitudes and Distribution.
Measurement Method: Welding Characteristics

Sectioning / Hole Drilling
Method:
Submerged-arc welding
Author:
Material:
G.Alpsten and L.Tall.
See Table 1 for details
No. of Passes in Mulitiweld / Energy / Speed:
Date of Publication:
March 1970 See Table 1 for details
Conclusions / Misc.:
-
115
Specimen Setup:
0 254 508 762 [mm]
Misc. Material Properties: Measured Extreme Values of Longitudinal Residual Stresses:
A36: fy = 248 MPa (Nominal) See Fig on the previous page.
A441: fy = 345 MPa (Nominal)
Abstract From Reference:

Residual stresses can have a significant influence at the load-carrying behaviour of structural
steel members subjected to compressive loads. Previous experimental research on residual stresses
and the strength of columns was related to small and medium-size shapes. In today’s large structures,
increasingly heavy shapes are being used extensively, very little information has been available on the
residual stresses and strength of such members. This paper presents the results of the first phase of a
major investigation into the residual stresses in, and the behaviour of, thick plates and heavy shapes
used in compression members. The shapes considered in this initial study are a 15H290 shape and a
23H681 shape, as well as two loose component plates, PL16x2 inches (406.4x50.8 mm) and
PL24x3.5 inches (609.6x88.9 mm). For the smaller shape, compressive tests were carried out for
different manufacturing conditions of the component plates (universal-mill and flame-cut plates),
different weld type (penetration) and different yield strengths of the material.
Printed Reference:
Alpsten, G. and Tall, L. (1970). Residual Stresses in Heavy Welded Shapes. In: Welding Journal,
Supplement, Vol. 49, No.3., March 1970. pp. 93-105.
116
Grade:
ASTM A36
Profile:
[MPa]
H-profile
414 0 -345
Material Thickness:
50.8mm (web), 88.9mm (flange)
Left: Stresses in 23H681,

A36 steel. 12.7 mm (1/2 in.)
fillet welds, flame cut plates
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa]

138 0 -138 138 0 -138 138 0 -138
Right: Formation of the

stresses in a 23H681
No. 13
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa


Method:
Automatic beam welding w. 2 electrodes
Author:
Material:
G.Alpsten and L.Tall.
See Table 1 for details
March 1970 See Table 1 for details
-
117
Specimen Setup:
0 254 508 762 [mm]
A36: fy = 248 MPa (Nominal) See Fig on the previous page.

Residual stresses can have a significant influence at the load-carrying behaviour of structural
steel members subjected to compressive loads. Previous experimental research on residual stresses
and the strength of columns was related to small and medium-size shapes. In today’s large structures,
increasingly heavy shapes are being used extensively, very little information has been available on the
residual stresses and strength of such members. This paper presents the results of the first phase of a
major investigation into the residual stresses in, and the behaviour of, thick plates and heavy shapes
used in compression members. The shapes considered in this initial study are a 15H290 shape and a
23H681 shape, as well as two loose component plates, PL16x2 inches (406.4x50.8 mm) and
PL24x3.5 inches (609.6x88.9 mm). For the smaller shape, compressive tests were carried out for
different manufacturing conditions of the component plates (universal-mill and flame-cut plates),
different weld type (penetration) and different yield strengths of the material.
Printed Reference:
Alpsten, G. and Tall, L. (1970). Residual Stresses in Heavy Welded Shapes. In: Welding Journal,
Supplement, Vol. 49, No.3., March 1970. pp. 93-105.
118
Grade:
S490 - S690
Profile:
I-profiles
No. 56 No. 57
Material Thickness:
10 - 15 mm
Left: Measured residual stresses
No. 58 No. 59
Above: Idealized distribution of

residual stresses
Below: Idealized distribution of

residual stresses in the flanges
considering the influence of flame-
cutting
No. 60 No. 61


Sectioning and strain gauges
Method:
MMA, pre-heating
Author:
Material:
D. Beg and L. Hladnik
Tencito 80 I4 mm, EVB NiMo I4 mm
1994 3 passes, a = 7-8 mm
Very high strain gradient over the flange thickness of 15 mm. Other sources show only small
gradient for 8 mm thickness.
Residual compressive stresses seems to be independent of the yield strength of the base material.
119
Specimen Setup:
Nionicral 70: fy = 810 MPa (t = 10) Maximum tensile stress 80-90% times
Nionicral 60: fy = 580 MPa (t = 15) flange yield strength in average over the flange
thickness with a large gradient.
Niomol 490: fy = 525 MPa (t = 12) Maximum compressive stress 12-18% of
Niomol 490: fy = 540 MPa (t = 15) flange yield strength (roughly 100 MPa).

The article presents the experimental analysis of the distribution of residual stresses developed
due to welding. The measurements have been performed on six welded I-profiles of high strength
steels Nionicral 70 and Niomol 490. It has been found that in the area of welds through the thickness
of the flange an explicit stress gradient develops. It influences also the decrease of compressive
residual stresses in the flange. On the basis of the measured residual strains the idealised distributions
of residual stresses over the cross-section which are appropriate for nonlinear analysis of steel
structures have been determined.
Printed Reference:
Beg, D. and Hladnik, L. (1994). Eigenspannungen bei geschweiEten I-Profilen aus hochfesten
Stählen. In: Stahlbau 63, Heft 5, 1992.
120
Grade:
ASTM A36
Profile:
Welded Plates
Material Thickness:
50.8 mm (2 in.)
-276
-276
[MPa] 0
[MPa] 0
414
414
Above: Stresses in a 609.6x50.8 mm (24x2 in.) flame-cut plate. Center welded, CW-1(left) and
CW-2 (right), 200 dgr.F preheat, 1 pass.
-276 -276
[MPa] 0 [MPa] 0
414 414
Above: Stresses in a 609.6x50.8 mm (24x2 in.). flame-cut plate. Center welded 2 passes, Left:
CW-3 400 dgr.F preheated, Right: CW-4 400 dgr.F locally preheated
-276
Right: Stresses in a universal-milled 0

[MPa]
plate 609.6x50.8 mm (24x2 in.) Center
welded, 200 dgr.F preheat, 2 passes.
414

1 ksi = 6.895 MPa

Sectioning
Method:
Semi-automatic
Author:
Material:
J. Brozzetti, G.Alpsten and L.Tall.
AWS class E7018
August 1971 See Table above, a = 9.5 mm
-
121
Specimen Setup:
See Fig on the previous page.
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa

This paper presents a study of the influence of different welding parameters on the magnitude and
distribution of residual stresses in oxygen-or-flame-cut plates 609.6x50.8 mm (24x2 in.) made of A36
steel. The residual stress diagrams obtained after complete sectioning and after slicing are related to
the original conditions of manufacture and fabrication. The welded flame-cut plates studied have been
used as base metal plates of a built-up section 24H428, and the strength of this heavy section is
analyzed theoretically. The differences observed in the theoretical column strength of this simulated
section 24H428, built up with flanges of 609.6x50.8 mm (24x2 in.) flame-cut center-welded plates
and a web of a 508x38.1 mm (20x1.5 in.) flame-cut edge-welded plate, is correlated to the different
heat inputs caused by the different fabrication processes. Conclusion are drawn with respect to the
effect of the different welding parameters on the strength of the column.
Printed Reference:
Brozzetti, J., Alpsten, G. and Tall, L. (1970). Welding Parameters, Thick Plates, and Column
Strength. In: Welding Journal, Supplement, Vol. 50, No.8., August 1971. pp. 331-342.
122
Grade:
ASTM A36
Profile:
Welded Plates
Material Thickness:
38.1 - 152.4 mm (1.5 - 6 in.)
Above: A:Center welded plate

B: Edge welded plate
Right: Average residual

stresses in “type A” oxygen-
cut plates
No. 19 to 24
1 inch = 25.4 mm
Right: Average residual

stresses in “type B” oxygen-cut
plates


Sectioning
Method:
NA
Author:
R.Bjorhovde, J.Brozzetti, G.Alpsten and Material:
L.Tall E7018
August 1972 1 pass / see table above
-
123
Specimen Setup:
1 inch = 25.4 mm
fy = 248 MPa (Nominal) See Fig on the previous page.

This report presents the results of an experimental investigation of the magnitude and distribution
of residual stresses in heavy steel plates. Twenty-six plates were investigated, of which twenty had
oxygen-cut (OC) edges, and the remaining six were universal mill (UM) plates with as-rolled edges.
The plate width varied from 228.6 mm (9 in.) to 609.6 mm (24 in.) and the thickness from 38.1 mm
(1.5 in.) to 152.4 mm (6 in.). Some of the plates were studied in the as-manufactured condition,
whereas others had weld beads placed along the center or along the edges, so as to simulate the
component plates of welded built-up shapes. It was found that for as-manufactured UM plates, the
maximum compressive residual stress could be determined using the width-factor E, a measure of the
rate of cooling after rolling, and that it increased with increasing plate size. Comparison with
theoretical results showed good correlation between experiment and theory. The variation of the
residual stress through the thickness was negligible in plates thinner than one inch (25.4 mm).
Printed Reference:
Bjorhovde, R.,Brozzetti, J., Alpsten, G. and Tall, L. (1970). Residual Stresses in Thick Welded
Plates. In: Welding Journal, Supplement., Vol. 51, No.8., August 1972. pp. 392-405.
124
Grade:
Hot rolled, fy = 411 MPa
Profile:
I-Sections
Material Thickness:
5 mm
No. 28
Measured residual strains. “Tension Block” indicates the required

magnitude of the tensile residual stresses for achieving cross-sectional
equilibrium.


Sectioning
Method:
-
Author:
Material:
A.J. Davids and G.J. Hancock
-
May 1986 One pass bead, a = 3 mm
The three different slenderness sections showed significantly different distributions of residual
strain in the flange outstands. The 310 section showed a reduction of approximately 40% in the
residual compressive strain from the maximum value to the value at the tip flange.
125
Specimen Setup:
See Figures on the previous page.
fy = 411 MPa See Figures on the previous page.

E = 202 GPa

The local buckling and post-buckling behaviour of short length I-section columns fabricated by
welding high tensile steel plate is described. Six sections of three different section geometries were
tested to destruction by loading between rigid end plattens mounted on freely rotating bearings in a
compression testing machine. Accurate measurements of welding residual strains and geometric
imperfections were taken prior to testing and are presented in the paper. Comparisons of the test local
buckling loads are made with a finite strip buckling analysis including welding residual strain.
Comparisons of the measured axial stiffnesses and stress distributions were made with a nonlinear
finite strip analysis, which includes geometric imperfections and welding residual strain. The test
loads are compared with those on the Winter effective formulas.
Printed Reference:
Davids, A.J. and Hancock, G.J. (1986). Compression Tests of Short Welded I-Sections. In:
Journal of Structural Engineering. Volume 112, No. 5, May 1986.
126
Grade:
Effect of weld speed fy = 300 - 360 MPa
on residual stress
Profile:
Box
Material Thickness:
4.8 and 6.4 mm (3/16, 1/4 in.)
0
[MPa]
138
276
414
No. 34
No. 29
No. 33
No. 30
0 138 276 [MPa]
0 127 254 [mm]

0 138 276 [MPa]
0 127 254 [mm]
No. 31 No. 32
Longitudinal Residual Stresses, Residual stress patterns for boxes


Hole drilling
Method:
Auto. machine welding, bare-wire
Author:
Material:
J.B. Dwight, T.K. Chin and A.T. Ractliffe
-
May 1968 235 amps. 16 in./min. for t = 3/16 in.
285 amps. 14,5 in./min. for t = 1/4 in.
Tests carried out to investigate the effect of welding speed produced residual stresses that were
about equal for plates welded with medium and fast speeds of travel, but 50% higher in the case of
very slow travel. This suggested that the box specimens may have contained somewhat high residual
compression by practical standards.
127
Specimen Setup:
1 inch = 25.4 mm
Specimens for observing effect of

welding speed. (Fig. 12 in paper)
Specimens used for measurement of residual stresses are

shown on the previous page.
fy = 300 - 360 MPa (22.9-26.1 ton/sq.in ) Maximum between 15 - 26% of fy

WF, WJ : 360 MPa
WH : 359 MPa
WL : 319 MPa
WG : 316 MPa
WK : 301 MPa

The locked-in stresses in the as-welded columns were measured with a Demec extensometer of
200 mm (8 in.) gauge length. The measurements were made in the central portion of each long length
of section. Pairs of 1 mm (0.04 in.) holes 200 mm (8 in.) apart longitudinally were drilled at 25.4 mm
(1 in.) spacing across the plates, before welding. Extensometer readings were taken: (i) Before
welding, (ii) After welding, but before separating the column specimens and (iii) (Box-sections only).
After the central portion had been cut into 25.4 mm (1 in.) wide strips.
Comparison of readings (i) and (ii) enabled the residual compressive stresses induced by the
welding to be calculated. The tensile stresses close to the welds, however, could not be obtained in
this way, since the extreme local heat and plastic deformation in these zones made the observed
changes of strain meaningless. Comparison of readings (ii) and (iii) gave the complete residual stress
pattern right up to the weld in the columns tested, due to both rolling and welding. Readings were only
taken on one side of each plate, a probable source of error.
Printed Reference:
Dwight, J.B., Chin, T.K. and Ractliffe, A.T. “Local buckling of thin-walled columns, effect of
locked-in welding stresses”. CIRIA, Res.Rep. No. 12 (Pt.1), May 1968.
128
Grade:
S690, fy = 794 MPa
Profile:
U-Sections, welded to HP
No. 35 No. 36
Material Thickness:
7 mm
Results of uniaxial tensile tests of

welding electrode material.
Measured longitudinal residual stress

distributions.


Sectioning
Method:
Arc weld, half-automatic, inert-gas
Author:
Material:
L.Ingvarsson
OK Autrod 13.12 and 12.51
July 1977 2 passes, 138 A/20.9 V, 2 - 4.2 mm/s
If two cold-formed channel sections welded together are used as a box column both theory and
tests show that the resulting residual stress distribution has a positive effect on the local buckling
strength as well as the overall buckling one in comparison with corner welded box columns.
Originally flame-cut plates.
129
Specimen Setup:
fy = 794 MPa Vrc = Average stress for the mid parts of the
unwelded sides.
fu = 822 MPa 'Vrc = Bending stress (added to Vrc for the
outer and inner surfaces, respectively.

This work is the result of an investigation at the Dept. of building Statics and Structural
Engineering at The royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, concerning cold-forming
residual stresses and their effect on buckling strength. In particular the possibility of using quenched
and tempered high strength steel (with a yield strength of about 700 N/mm2) in box columns built up
by two thick channel sections welded together is studied. An analysis according to the incremental
theory of plasticity has been carried out to determine cold-forming residual stresses. An idealized case
was studied. By using von Mises’ yield criterion, Prandtl-Reuss equations, Hooke’s law and an
equilibrium equation as well as geometrical relations it was possible to put a system of equations
together for the increments of stresses and strains in a polar coordinate system. A computer program
was developed solving this system for each incremental increase of curvature (100 steps) and for each
incremental change of the radial position (100 steps) in a bent plate. The calculations were done for
both an ordinary strain-hardening steel and a high strength ideally elastic-plastic steel.
Printed Reference:
Ingvarsson, L. (1977). Cold-Forming Residual Stresses and Box Columns Built Up by two Cold-
Formed Channel Sections Welded Together. Bulletin No. 121 of The Department of Building Statics
and Structural Engineering, The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, July 1977.
130
Measured average residual stresses for flanges and Grades:
Weldox 700, 1.4301
web for girders. Expressed as the ratio between the
and 1.4462
average residual stresses and Rp0.2 or fy above the
centre line of the web and as stresses in MPa below the Profile:
centre line. The tensile stresses (positive) are shown Welded I-Girders
above the flanges and on the right side of the webs.
* marks that the residual stress is only measured on the Material Thickness:
outside of the flange in this point. 4 mm
No. 37 No. 38 No. 39
RS4301 made of 1.4301, RS4462 made of Stainless

Steel 1.4462 and B2 made of QT-steel Weldox 700

Sectioning
Method:
MMA, 4 mm fillet weld
Author:
Material:
O. Lagerqvist and A. Olsson
E308LTO-4, 2209T0-4
June 2001 1 pass
The girder RS4301 inherited compressive stresses of the order 20-30% (flange) 40-50% (web) of
Rp0.2. The residual stresses in girder RS4465 were measured to be approx. 50% of the stresses in
RS4301. Furthermore the measurements showed that the high strength steel girder had even lower
residual stresses than the two other girders.
131
Specimen Setup:
1.4301: See Figures on the previous page.

Rp0.2 = 285(Flange), 297(Web) MPa
1.4362
Rp0.2 = 525(Flange), 573(Web) MPa
E = 200 GPa for both 1.4301 and 1.4362
Weldox 700
fy = 846(Flange), 815(Web) MPa
E = 210 GPa
It is well known that residual stresses can have a considerable influence on the resistance of
welded and rolled steel elements. Among other things they are added to stresses caused by external
loading and thereby contribute to yielding in some parts of the element and hence a reduction of the
stiffness occurs at a lower external load level than if residual stresses were not present. The true
magnitude of the residual stress distribution over the cross section are on the other hand not so well
known, especially not for welded girders made of stainless steel. This paper presents results from
measurements of residual stresses in welded I-girders made of austenitic and austenitic-ferritic
stainless steel as well on a welded girder made of high strength quenched and tempered steel
performed at the Division of Steel Structures, Luleå University of Technology. Based on the results,
the influence of the residual stresses on the resistance for slender structural elements in compression
and on material modelling for FE-analysis is discussed.
Printed Reference:
Lagerqvist, O. and Olsson, A. (2001). Residual stresses in welded I-girders made of stainless
steel or carbon steel, 9th Nordic Steel Construction Conference, Helsinki, 18-20 June, 2001
132
Grades:
No. 43 No. 44 A36, A441 and A514
Profile:
H-shaped beams
Material Thickness:
13 mm (Fl) 9,5 mm (W)
(1/2 in. resp. 3/8 in.)
0
[MPa]
345
Left: Residual stress distribution in
hybrid H-shapes (A441 flanges).
Below: Residual stress distribution

in hybrid H-shapes (A514 flanges).
[MPa]
0 345
No. 40 No. 41 No. 42


Sectioning
Method:
NA
Author:
Material:
N.R. Nagarajarao, P. Marek and L. Tall
NA
September 1972 NA
The residual stress distributions are similar in all three shapes with A514 steel flanges. The tensile
residual stress at the flame-cut flange tips ranges from 207-483 MPa, and about 172 MPa at the welds.
The compressive residual stress is about 138 MPa. The webs have high tensile residual stress in the
immediate vincinity of the welds and compressive stresses about 69 MPa over the rest of the web.
133
Specimen Setup:
Properties in the order: A514, A441UM, See Figures on the previous page.
A441 and A36:
fy = 720-760, 345, 340-365, 270-275 MPa
(104-110, 50, 49-53, 39-40 ksi)

This report presents the analysis and results of a theoretical and experimental investigation to
determine the strength of hybrid steel columns. The investigation was made on centrally-loaded
welded H-shaped columns with high-strength steel flanges and low-strength steel webs. The tangent
modulus and ultimate load, the mechanical properties of the materials, the actual residual stress
distribution and local buckling were taken into consideration for the theoretical analyses of column
curves. The predictions were verified by tests. The experimental study included five hybrid shapes,
fabricated from flame-cut or universal-mill plates. The following tests were conducted: tension
specimen coupon, residual stress measurements, stub column tests and pinned-end column tests with
a slenderness ratio of 65. The study showed that the column strength of hybrid shapes can be predicted
from the actual residual stress distribution by assuming a hypothetical residual stress in the web equal
to the difference in yield strength of the flange and the web. The investigation was completed by a
discussion of approximate estimation of residual stress distribution and its magnitude, local buckling
considerations and elastic stress of webs at the “working” load.
Printed Reference:
Nagarajarao, N.R., Marek, P. and Tall, L. (1972). Welded Hybrid Steel Columns. In: Welding
Journal, Volume 51, No 9, Page 462-472, September 1972.
134
Grades:
S355 S355, S690, S890
No. 45
Profile:
Welded plates
Material Thickness:
9.5 - 20 mm
Distribution of longitudinal residual stresses

at the surface of a dummy weld (heat input
W=19.80 kJ/cm) and at the surface of a
double-V-weld (8 passes, filler material:
Re=830 N/mm2).
No. 46
No. 47
S690
S890
Distribution of longitudinal residual stresses at
the surface of a dummy weld. Quenched and Distribution of longitudinal residual stresses at
tempered steel S690 welded with different the surface of a dummy weld. Quenched and
values of heat input. tempered steel S890 welded with different
values of heat input.

X-Ray
Method:
TIG
Author:
Material:
Th. Nitschke-Pagel and H. Wohlfahrt
Various, see Figures
June 1991 Various, see Figures
The magnitude of the tensile residual stresses in the weld seam can become as high as the yield
strength of the filler material or the base material. It could be shown that in a material with extremely
high yield strength the magnitudes of the residual stresses remain quite moderate.
135
Specimen Setup:
S355: fy = 355 MPa (Nominal) See Figures on the previous page.
S690: fy = 690 MPa (Nominal)
S890: fy = 890 MPa (Nominal)

As preceding papers /1-11/ pointed out various sources contribute to the residual stress state after
welding and therefore extremely different residual stress patterns can arise as a consequence of
welding. The aim of this paper is
To clarify the predominance of one or the other of the residual stress generating processes,
to show how these processes interact and thus
to explain the influence of the type of the base material and filler material and welding parameters
as heat input, welding velocity and cooling conditions an typical residual stress distributions after
welding.
Printed Reference:
Nitschke-Pagel, Th. and Wohlfahrt, H. (1991). Residual Stress Distributions After Welding as a
Consequence of the Combined Effect of Physical, Metallurgical and Mechanical Sources. In:
Mechanical Effects of Welding. IUTAM Symposium Luleå/Sweden, June 10-14, 1991. ISBN 3-540-
55240-5.
136
Grade:
2,5% Cr, 1% Mo
Profile:
Plates with V-butt weld
Material Thickness:
13 mm
No. 48
Longitudinal (), normal (') and transverse (O)

strains measured along a locus 1.5mm inside the
bottom surface of the plate. Continuous lines are
guides to the eye. The typical uncertainty is the size of
the plotting symbols.
Residual stress
distribution in the mid-
length plane of the welded
plate. The contours have
units of MPa. Distances
are to scale. Stress
components are
longitudinal (L),
transverse (T) and normal
(N).


Neutron diffraction
Method:
Semi-automatic gas tungsten arc (GTA)
Author:
Material:
J.H. Root, T.M. Holden, J. Schröder, S. Spooner,
C.A. Hubbard, T.A. Dodson and S.A. David.. NA
June 1992 6 passes in a V-butt weld
According to the authors the measurement errors lies in the range of r20 MPa.
137
Specimen Setup:
fy = 700 MPa (Nominal) Maximum approximately 500 MPa (tens.)

Minimum approx. 150 MPa (compr.)
E = 225 GPa
X = 0,276

The distribution of residual stresses associated with a multipass, gas-tungsten arc weld, joining
two 2.5%Cr 1%Mo steel plates of thickness 13 mm, has been measured non-destructively by neutron
diffraction. The large tensile longitudinal stresses (400-500 MPa) in adjacent to the weld are balanced
by compressive stresses (-150 MPa) in the periphery of the plate. The stress components normal to
the surface are transverse to the weld everywhere equal in magnitude. In the fusion zone of the weld,
these components are tensile at the top surface and middle of the plate and zero at the back surface of
the plate (i.e., near the root pass of the weld).
Printed Reference:
Root, J.H., Holden, T.M., Schröder, J., Spooner, S., Hubbard, C.A., Dodson, T.A. and David,
S.A. (1992). Residual Stresses in a Multipass Ferritic Weldment. In: Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, USA, June 1-5
1992. ISBN 0-87170-476-5.
138
Grade:
304 Stainless
Profile:
Plates, V-butt welded
Material Thickness:
25 mm
No. 49
The stresses in the as-welded plate are The stresses in the plate with the vibration
shown as a function of the distance from treated weld are most different near the
the weld centre. The error bars are centre where the errors are large.
staggered for clarity of presentation.


Neutron Diffraction
Method:
Arc welding
Author:
Spooner, S., Fernandez Baca, J.A., David, Material:
S.A. and Hubbard, C.R. 308 stainless steel filler

8-10 June 1994 14 passes
This study of 304-type stainless steel plates indicates that the residual stresses in the
conventionally welded plate and in the vibratory-treated plate exhibit small differences which are
comparable to the estimate of experimental error
139
Specimen Setup:
Diagram of a transverse section of a welded plate showing the location of the sampling grid on a
section through the middle of the welded plate. The fusion zone is schematized by the region capped
by the rounded top. The dotted lines in the background show how the lattice parameter specimens
were cut.
E = 196 GPa approx. 350 MPa (tensile)

approx. 80 MPa (compr.)

Residual stresses and strains were measured in two welded 25-mm thick plates of type 304
stainless steel by the neutron diffraction technique. the filler metal was type 308 stainless steel and the
weld zone had a two phase microstructure in which the austenitic phase lattice parameter differs from
the base metal. In these circumstances strain-free samples were taken from the weld zone area for
analysis of the lattice parameters and ferrite content using neutron powder diffraction. Corrections for
lattice parameter variation were applied permitting the calculation of residual strains and stresses in
the weld zone, the heat affected zone (HAZ) and base metal. One of the two welds was examined
without stress relief and the other was given a stress relief treatment consisting of vibration at a
frequency below the resonant condition during welding. In both plates the largest residual stress
component (longitudinal) is found in the fusion zone near the boundary between the weld zone and
the heat affected zone. This longitudinal component is 400E50 MPa.
Printed Reference:
Spooner, S., Fernandez Baca, J.A., David, S.A. and Hubbard, C.R.. (1994). Investigation of
Residual Stresses in a Multipass Weld in 1” Stainless Steel Plate, In: Proceedings of the Fourth
International Conference on Residual Stresses, Baltimore, Maryland, 8-10 June, 1994
140
Grade:
304 stainless steel
Profile:
V-butt welded plates
Material Thickness:
2.5 cm
Residual stresses through the plate at 40mm

from the weld center. Note the small rise in the
stresses with increasing depth.
No. 50
Residual stresses calculated from the measured

strains 4mm from the top surface. Note the
asymmetry across the center line of the weld.

Neutron diffraction
Method:
Semiaut. gas tungsten arc weld (GTA)
Author:
S. Spooner, S.A. David, J.H. Root, T.M. Holden, Material:
M.A.M Bourke and J.A. Goldstone 308 stainless steel filler

June 1992 11 passes
According to the authors the measurement precision is 50 MPa. The longitudinal stresses vary
from close to the yield stress in tension, near the weld zone boundary, to compressive stresses in the
center of the weld zone. These stresses are asymmetric due to the welding sequence and the annealing
effects on earlier deposited material.
141
Specimen Setup:
No Figure available.
E = 196 GPa Maximum approx. 260MPa

Minimum approx. -220MPa
Q = 0.25

Residual stresses and strains in a type 304 stainless steel plate containing a multiple-pass gas
tungsten arc weld were measured with the neutron diffraction technique at a reactor (Chalk River) and
a pulsed source (Los Alamos). At Chalk River, three orthogonal strain components were obtained at
each sampling point from the average of the strains measured with (111) and (200) Bragg peaks.
Points along the top and bottom of the plate running transverse to the welding direction and points
along a through-thickness path in the weld and in the heat affected zone were measured. At the top,
the longitudinal stress reached 260 MPa in tension at the fusion line. All three components became
compressive in the fusion zone. Measurement of the longitudinal and normal strains through the
thickness in the fusion zone was difficult because of the large grain size and preferred orientation.
However, the transverse strains in the fusion zone were measured as a function of depth at the Los
Alamos pulsed source and were compared with corresponding results obtained at Chalk River.
Printed Reference:
Spooner, S., David, S.A., Root J.H., Holden, T.M., Bourke, M.A.M. and Goldstone, J.A. (1992).
Residual Stress and Strain Measurements in an Austenitic Steel Plate Containing a Multipass Weld.
In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, Gatlinburg,
Tennessee, USA, June 1-5 1992. ISBN 0-87170-476-5.
142
Grade:
304 stainless steel
Profile:
Plate with multipass weld
Material Thickness:
12.7 mm (1/2 in.)
Residual stress component maps for the as-welded plate

(a) longitudinal, (b) transverse and (c) normal. The stress
contours are incremented by 50 in units of MPa.
No. 51
The averaged stresses in the as-welded The averaged stresses in the stress relieved
plate are determined from the average plate are determined from the average
strains. strains.

Neutron Diffraction
Method:
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Author:
Spooner, S., Wang, X.L., Hubbard, C.R., Material:
David, S.A. Type-308 stainless steel

8-10 June 1994 12 passes, 180 Amps, 1143 mm/min.
(45 in./min.)
The region of the last pass in the weld exhibits the largest tensile stresses and strains. Thermal
stress relief reduces the largest longitudinal stress by a factor three and leaves the annealed plate in a
condition of uniaxial longitudinal stress. The spatial extent of longitudinal stress region is also
reduced by a factor nearly two.
143
Specimen Setup:
Points used in the as-welded plate measurements. The points are on a perpendicular plane
bisecting the length of the weld line.
E = 224 GPa Maximum:

approx. 400 MPa (tensile)
Q= 0.25
After stress relief:
approx. 140 MPa (tensile)

The changes in residual stresses due to thermal stress relief were determined in a welded 1/2”
thick 304 stainless steel plate from two residual stress maps determined with the neutron diffraction
technique. The 304 stainless plate was made from two 6” x 12” x 1/2” pieces joined along the length
by a gas tungsten arc welding process. Multi-pass welds were made with a semiautomatic welding
machine employing cold-wire feed of type 308 stainless steel filler alloy. The thermal stress relief
treatment consisted of heating to 1150 F, holding for one hour at temperature and then air cooling.
Strain components were measured along the weld direction (longitudinal), and perpendicular to the
weld line in the plate (transverse), and normal to the plate.(normal) Measurements were confined to
the plane bisecting the weld at the centre of the plate. The strain components were converted to stress
assuming that the measured strains were along the principal axes of the strain tensor. The parameters
used in the calculation were E=224 GPa and Q=0.25. The as-welded longitudinal stresses are
compressive in the base metal and become strongly tensile through the heat affected zone......(cont.)
Printed Reference:
Spooner, S., Wang, X.L., Hubbard, C.R., David, S.A., Residual Stresses in a Multipass Weld in
an Austenitic Stainless Steel Plate Before and After Thermal Stress Relief, In: Proceedings of the
Fourth International Conference on Residual Stresses, Baltimore, Maryland, 8-10 June, 1994
144
Grade:
ASTM A36
Right: Measured
stresses using the
hole-drilling Profile:
method. H-profile
Comparison with
the sectioning
method. Material Thickness:
19mm (web),38mm (flange)
138
[MPa] 0
-138
Below: Comparison of stresses at

the two ends, A and B. H14x202
profile.
-138
0 207
[MPa]
552
0
[MPa]
-138
0 102 203
[mm]
-552
0 102 203
[mm]
[MPa] No. 52
207
0
-138
Above: Stress distribution at location A in the No. 53

H14x202 profile. 0
[MPa]
Longitudinal Residual Stresses, -138

Method:
NA
Author:
Material:
N.Tebedge, G.Alpsten and L.Tall. (1973)
NA
February 1973 12,7 mm (1/2 in.) fillet welds
-
145
Specimen Setup:
Gage-hole location and

sectioning detail
1 inch = 25.4 mm
fy = 248 MPa (Nominal) See Fig on the previous page.

The measurement of residual stresses by the sectioning method has been used for decades to
measure residual stresses in structural members. This method has proven itself adequate, accurate and
economical if proper care is taken in the preparation of the specimen and the procedure of
measurement. However, a standard procedure to carry out such measurement does not exist in the
published literature. In this paper a detailed description is presented on the procedure of testing,
preparation of specimen, the required tools and measuring devices and working conditions.
For a specific comparison of results, measurements of residual stresses were performed on a
specimen having a uniform residual-stress distribution along its length. On the same specimen, two
different hole-drilling methods were also performed to investigate application and comparison of
different methods. Other methods of residual-stress measurement which may be of general interest
are discussed in brief.
Printed Reference:
Tebedge, N., Alpsten, G. and Tall, L. (1973). Residual-stress Measurement by the Sectioning
Method. In: Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Stress Analysis, Vol. 30, No. 1. 1973. pp.
88-96.
146
Grade:
S690
Profile:
Plates joined with weld
Material Thickness:
4.5 mm
No. 54
Weld pattern. structure of the weld zone and of the HAZ and
distribution of hardness values and of longitudinal residual stresses in
4.5 mm thick sheets of structural steel arc welded with electrodes of a
composition similar to the base metal.


Dissection / Sectioning
Method:
Arc weld
Author:
Material:
H. Wohlfahrt
“Similar to base material”
1987 Single
In this paper residual stresses due to welding were compared to calculations. Transformation
stresses, shrinkage stresses and quenching stresses were also defined and described.
147
Specimen Setup:
See Figure on the previous page.
fy = 690 MPa (Nominal) Maximum approx. 135 MPa (tens.)

Minimum approx. -65 MPa (compr.)

The expression “residual stresses due to welding” is an all-embracing concept including all the
residual stress states arising as a consequence of all the different welding techniques. Furthermore,
even in the case of one and the same technique there may be a variety of causes contributing to the
overall residual stress state. Therefor individual authors report on totally different welding stress
distributions. Only by understanding the different processes that can give rise to welding stresses and
the factors that influence them is it possible to gain a grasp of the diverse and complex findings. Hence
model-type discussions for single pass welds including computed data are useful in this respect. The
residual stress distributions anticipated from model-type discussions shall be compared with
measured residual stress distributions in single pass welds as well as multi-pass welds.
Printed Reference:
Wohlfahrt, H. (1987). Residual Stresses as a Consequence of Welding. In: Advances in Surface
Treatments: Technology-Applications-Effects. Vol. 4, International Guidebook on Residual Stresses.
First edition. Oxford: Pergamon, Cop. ISBN 0-08-034062-8
148

HSS Local Buckling and Residual Stresses

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:

High Strength Steel

High Strength Steel

Universitetstryckeriet, Luleå :|:-|: - -- ⁄ -- 

High Strength Steel

Luleå University of Technology

That was it and all.

Luleå, 9th of November, 2004

Spiral out. Keep going.”

/Maynard James Keenan

The investigation concerning the local buckling resistance comprises experiments on 48

Notations & Symbols

a - Weld size, numerical coefficient or length

beff - Effective width

D - Flexural plate rigidity

H - Strain or Material depentent parameter

E - Modulus of elasticity, Youngs modulus

fue - Ultimate strength, electrode

fye - Yield strength, electrode

kcr - Buckling load coefficient

m,n - Number of half waves over plate

Ncr - Critical load

n - Number of passes in weld

Nel - Buckling load

Nx , Ny - Normal forces per unit distance

Nxy - Shearing force per unit distance

q - Distributed variable load

Q - Heat input (circuit voltage x current)

R - Radius from drill centre

Rp0.2 - 0,2 % Proof stress

Vc , Vrc - Compressive residual stress

Vcr - Critical stress

V’r - Initial radial stress

Vt,rs - Tensile residual stress

Vrs - Residual stress

V´T - Initial tangential stress

W'rT - Initial shear stress

w - Amplitude of plate deflection

w0 - Initial amplitude of plate deflection

6.1.1 Analytical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

• If a correlation between residual stresses induced by welding can be put in

supported plates in as-welded condition. Moreover, a comprehensive survey of the literature

1.4. Disposition of the Thesis

Chapter 3 comprises a survey of previously conducted experimental work concerning local

In chapter 6 the results of a literature survey concerning measurements of residual stresses

Chapter 9 contains the references used herein.

Figure 2.1: Maybe an up-coming example of global structural instability?

Figure 2.2: Different examples of local buckling. Local buckling in a silo,

2.1. Bifurcation instability

Figure 2.3: Schematic description of the bifurcation of equilibrium.

2.2. Plate theory

where the flexural rigidity of the plate is given by

• If U < T, the plate is unstable and buckling occurs (secondary path)

However, the critical load amplitude may be found by setting

Along the edges x = a and x = -a

and along the edges y = 0 and y = b

with the insight of that

2.2.3. Initial plate imperfections

Figure 2.7: The influence of initial plate imperfections in relation to perfect

2.2.4. Geometric imperfections

Vu 0 968 0 286 0 0338

Vu 1 133 0 384 0 0468