11.5.1 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) - B1 - New

Module 11A
Licence Category B1
Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics,

Structures and Systems
11.5.1 Instrument Systems (ATA 31)
Module 11.5.1 Instrument Systems (ATA 31)
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5.1-2
Academic and Professional Aviation Center (APAC)
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY
© Copyright 2020 Issue 2– September 2020
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These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA
Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I
(as amended by Regulation (EU) No. 2018/1142), and the
associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
Knowledge
Part-66 Levels
Objective
Reference
A B1
Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 11.5.1 1 2
Pitot static: altimeter, air
speed indicator, vertical
speed indicator;
Gyroscopic: artificial horizon,
attitude director, direction
indicator, horizontal situation
indicator, turn and slip
indicator, turn coordinator;
Compasses: direct reading,
remote reading;
Angle of attack indication,
stall warning systems;
Glass cockpit;
Other aircraft system
indication.
5.1-3
Table of Contents
Pitot-static systems ______________________________6 Glass cockpit (EFIS) ____________________________ 64
General ______________________________________6 Introduction __________________________________ 64
Basic aircraft system ____________________________6 EFIS overview ________________________________ 66
Large aircraft system ____________________________8 Primary flight display (PFD) _____________________ 66
Pitot-static systems on aircraft with EFIS __________ 10 Multi-function display (MFD) _____________________ 66
Altimeters ___________________________________ 12 MEMS technology _____________________________ 68
Vertical speed indicator (VSI) ___________________ 18 Attitude and heading reference system ____________ 68
Airspeed indicator (ASI) ________________________ 22 Magnetometer ________________________________ 68
Speed definitions _____________________________ 26 Transponder _________________________________ 68
Mach meter _________________________________ 30 Other system variations ________________________ 70
Reversionary modes and system failures___________ 72
Gyroscopic instruments ________________________ 32
Touchscreen EFIS ____________________________ 74
Gyroscopic principles __________________________ 32
Applications of gyroscopes in aircraft _____________ 36 Other aircraft system indications _________________ 76
Heading indicator _____________________________ 42 Terrain awareness and warning systems (TAWS) ____ 78
Attitude director indicator (ADI) __________________ 48 Ground proximity warning system ________________ 80
Attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) _____ 50 Synthetic vision technology (SVT) ________________ 96
Turn and slip indicator/turn coordinator ____________ 52 Traffic awareness _____________________________ 98
Traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) _________ 100
Compasses ___________________________________ 56
Vibration measurement and indication ____________ 106
Direct reading compass ________________________ 56
Engine condition monitoring ____________________ 110
Remote reading compass ______________________ 56
Temperature measurement ____________________ 112
Instrument layout______________________________ 58 Flight data recorder (FDR) _____________________ 116
Stall warning__________________________________ 60 Fuel quantity measurement and indication _________ 122
Angle of attack indicator ________________________ 62 Standby instruments __________________________ 128

Flight management system (FMS) _______________ 130
Commercial aircraft EFIS _______________________ 132
PFD and ND ________________________________ 134
EICAS and ECAM ____________________________ 150
ECAM (Airbus) and EICAS (Boeing) differences ____ 176
5.1-4
“THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK”
5.1-5
Pitot-static systems
General
The flight environment data system comprises the pitot-static An altitude encoder (‘blind’ encoder) is also connected to the
system and outside air temperature sensing. This determines static pressure line. This converts air pressure signals into a
the following data from the atmosphere: digitally encoded altitude and is transmitted to the air traffic
control secondary radar, and to other aircraft (for collision
• static pressure; avoidance) via the transponder.
• total (or Pitot) pressure;
• outside air temperature. Water can be drained from pitot-static lines by opening the
drain plugs. Draining lines should only be required if the
From this raw data, instruments or computers derive: airspeed indicator or altimeter appears erratic.
• altitude; Both the static ports and the pitot tube are electrically heated,
• vertical speed; controlled by a switch in the overhead control panel.
• airspeed;
• temperature.
Basic aircraft system

The Pitot tube for a small jet aircraft is connected directly to the
airspeed indicator.
The two flush static ports, one on either side of the fuselage,
are connected and supply pressure to the airspeed indicator,
altimeter, and vertical speed indicator.
An alternate static air valve is connected into this line to supply

static air to the instruments if the outside static ports should
ever block with ice. The alternate air is taken directly from the
cockpit.
5.1-6
Basic pitot-static system layout
5.1-7
Large aircraft system
Older types of large aircraft have a more complex, but still
analogue, pitot-static system.
Sometimes a third (auxiliary) pitot tube picks up ram air for the
autopilot, overspeed warning system, and flight recorder.
Duplicated interconnected pairs (left and right sides of the

fuselage) static ports (or ‘vents’) are used. One pair of static
port provides primary equalised ambient pressure to the
airspeed and vertical speed indicators, and altimeter. The other
pair of ports provide the co-pilot instruments.
Alternate static ports can be used in the event of blockage by

ice or debris of the main ports This is switched by the pilots.
Newer types of aircraft, with a digital electronic flight Instrument

system (EFIS), have an air data computer (ADC).
5.1-8
Static ports
Dual pitot-static system layout
Air data computer schematic, inputs and outputs

Pitot tubes 5.1-9
Pitot-static systems on aircraft with EFIS
A modern aircraft (all sizes) will have a digital cockpit, known
as an EFIS installation. These aircraft have pitot tubes and
static vents like their analogue counterparts, but the air
pressures from the pitot tubes and static vents are connected
to an air data computer (ADC) or air data module (ADM) which
converts the pressure signals into digital electronic data, and
computes the outputs of altitude, airspeed and vertical speed,
for indication on the EFIS display units.
5.1-10
Air data computer has pitot and static

pressure inputs, and electronic data outputs
The primary flight display shows the data from the ADC
Pitot static system with air data computer

5.1-11
Altimeters
An altimeter is simply a barometer that measures the absolute The aneroid altimeter is calibrated to show the pressure directly
pressure of the air. This pressure is caused by the weight of the as an altitude above mean sea level, in accordance with a
air above the instrument and, naturally, this pressure constantly mathematical model defined by the International Standard
changes. Also, as the aircraft climbs above the earth’s surface, Atmosphere (ISA). Older aircraft used a simple aneroid
there is less air stacked on top of the aircraft and the absolute barometer where the needle made less than one revolution
pressure decreases. By measuring this change of absolute around the face from zero to full scale. This design evolved to
pressure, the aircraft’s altitude can be determined. the drum-type altimeter, where each revolution of a single
needle accounted for 1,000 feet, and with thousand-foot
The altimeter is one of the oldest flight instruments, and some increments recorded on a numerical odometer-type drum. To
of the early balloon flights carried some form of primitive determine altitude, a pilot first had to read the drum to get the
barometer which served to indicate the height. The standard thousands of feet, then look at the needle for the hundreds of
altimeter used in many of the early aircraft has simple, feet. Modern aircraft use a ‘sensitive altimeter,’ which has a
evacuated bellows whose expansion and contraction are primary needle, and one or more secondary needles that show
measured by an arrangement of gears and levers that transmit the number of revolutions, similar to a clock face. In other
the changes in dimensions into movement of the pointer around words, each needle points to a different digit of the current
the dial. The dial is calibrated in feet, and a change in the altitude measurement. On a sensitive altimeter, the sea level
barometric pressure changes the pointer position. reference pressure can be adjusted by a setting knob. The
reference pressure, in inches of mercury in Canada and the US
It is extremely important that the altitude indication is accurate, and hectopascals (previously millibars) elsewhere, is displayed
and that the pilot is able to quickly read the altitude within a few in the small Kollsman window, on the face of the aircraft
feet. These requirements are complicated by the fact that the altimeter. This is necessary since sea level reference
pressure lapse rate, the decrease in pressure with altitude, is atmospheric pressure at a given location varies over time with
not linear: that is, the pressure for every thousand feet is temperature and the movement of pressure systems in the
greater in the lower altitudes than it is in the higher levels. The atmosphere.
bellows are designed with corrugations that allow the
expansion to be linear with a change in altitude. A knob on the outside of the instrument case rotates the scale
and, through a gear arrangement, the mechanism inside the
Principle of operation case. The barosetting is used for the correct altitude
In aircraft, an aneroid barometer measures the atmospheric measurement. (QNH, QFE, QNE).
pressure from a static port outside the aircraft. Air pressure
decreases with an increase of altitude – approximately
100 hectopascals per 800 meters or one inch of mercury per
1,000 feet near sea level.
5.1-12
Principle of the aneroid capsule
An altimeter face with

Kollsman window showing the
current barosetting
An altimeter mechanism
5.1-13
Drum-type altimeters
A sensitive pneumatic altimeter uses a stack of bellows, as As the aircraft climbs and air pressure falls, the capsules will
seen below, to drive the pointers. If, for example, the bellows expand; similarly, as the aircraft descends, the static pressure
change their dimensions one-quarter of an inch for the full will increase, and the capsules will contract. Since it is
35,000 feet, the tip of the long pointer will travel more than necessary to allow for different values of mean sea level
300 inches. This amplification requires a rather complex and pressure and also to allow the altimeter to be used for indicating
delicate transmission and some very small gears. The friction altitude above the aerodrome, the altimeter is similarly provided
inside the altimeter even under near-ideal conditions is such with a means of adjusting the level at which it will indicate zero
that there must be the vibration of the instrument for an feet. This is done via a barometric subscale mechanism, which
accurate reading. This is no problem in reciprocating engine adjusts the mechanical linkage and operates a set of digital
aircraft, as there is enough vibration from the engine, but jet counters, or a calibrated dial. This is displayed in a window in
aircraft often require instrument panel vibrators to keep the the face of the altimeter and is the datum pressure setting
altimeter reading accurately. above which the instrument is now displaying altitude. The
desired setting is again made using the knurled knob at the
The sensitive altimeter bottom of the instrument.
The sensitive altimeter employs a minimum of two aneroid
capsules. This provides for a more accurate measurement of Types of altitude measurement
pressure and also provides more power to drive the mechanical
linkage. Pressure altitude
Pressure altitude is the altitude above the standard datum
The capsules are stacked together with one face fastened 1013.25 hPa or mBars (29.92 inches of mercury).
down, which permits movement due to pressure changes at the
other end. Density altitude
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature.
The movement of the capsules in response to changes in Pressure and density are the same when conditions are
altitude (pressure) is transmitted via a suitable mechanical standard. As the temperature rises above standard, the density
linkage to three pointers that display (against a graduated of the air will decrease, and the density altitude will increase.
instrument scale) the aircraft altitude in tens, hundreds and
thousands of feet.
The whole assembly is encased in a container, which is fed with

static pressure but is otherwise completely airtight. Within the
mechanical linkage, a bi-metallic insert is fitted to compensate
for temperature changes that could affect the movement.
5.1-14
A three-pointer altimeter
An altimeter mechanism and display
Location of altimeter on a Location of altimeter on a

Single pointer/drum-type altimeter turboprop aircraft’s basic-T layout commercial aircraft’s primary
flight display
5.1-15
QNH (nautical height) setting
An altimeter can measure height above almost any convenient If an aircraft flying at a constant 3,000 feet pressure altitude, for
reference point, and for most flying, it measures the altitude example, may vary its height above the existing sea level
above sea level. This is called indicated altitude and is read pressure, all of the aircraft flying in this same area will vary the
directly from the indicator when the altimeter QNH setting is same amount and the separation between the aircraft will
placed in the barometric window. remain the same. When an aircraft is flying with the altimeter
set to indicate pressure altitude, it is operating at a flight level.
Airport control towers give the pilot the altimeter setting which Flight level 320 is 32,000 feet, pressure altitude.
is their local barometric pressure corrected to sea level.
QFE (field elevation) setting
When the pilot uses this barosetting, the altitude measurement When this baroscale is set, the altimeter shows an altitude of
starts at sea level pressure. All elevations on aeronautical zero, with the aircraft on the ground. The baroscale shows the
charts are measured from mean sea level (MSL), and therefore local air-pressure of the parking field.
with a bit of simple arithmetic, the pilot can easily and
accurately find the aircraft’s height above any charted position. If the pilot gets (via radio) the local baro pressure (QFE) of the
When the aircraft is on the ground with the local altimeter airfield, during the approach the altimeter shows the height
setting in the barometric window, the altimeter should indicate above ground. Touching the ground, the altimeter shows an
the surveyed elevation of the aircraft’s parking space. altitude of zero.
Indicated altitude gives us a measure of terrain clearance at This barosetting is seldom used and has been replaced by
low altitudes. radio altimeters.
STD (standard) or QNE (nautical elevation) setting Flight level, altitude, height and elevation
For vertical separation between aircraft flying at higher
altitudes, pressure altitude or flight level is used. When the Altitude − The altitude is the vertical distance between aircraft
barometric pressure scale is adjusted to standard sea level and sea-level.
pressure, 29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 mBar or hPa, the
altimeter measures the height above this standard pressure The barosetting, therefore, is QNH.
level. This is not an actual point but is a constantly changing
reference. The reason is that all aircraft in the upper level have Height − The height is the vertical distance between aircraft
their altimeters set to the same reference. and the terrain.
The barosetting, therefore, is QFE.
5.1-16
Pressure measurement reference points
5.1-17
Vertical speed indicator (VSI)
The rate-of-climb indicator is more properly called the vertical
speed indicator. Its main function is that of helping the pilot
establish a rate of ascent or descent that will allow them to
reach a specified altitude at a given time.
The vertical speed indicator has as its operating mechanism a

bellows, or pressure capsule, similar to that of an altimeter,
except that rather than being evacuated and sealed, it is vented
to the inside of the instrument case through a diffuser which is
an accurately calibrated leak.
Principle of operation
The principle of operation of one type of vertical speed indicator
is as follows:
When the aircraft begins to climb, the pressure inside the

capsule begins to decrease to a value below that inside the
instrument case, and the capsule compresses, causing the
levers and gears to move the pointer so it will indicate a climb.
The pressure inside the case now begins to decrease by
leaking through the diffuser. This leak is calibrated so that there
will always be a difference between the pressure inside the
capsule and that inside the case that is proportional to the rate
of change of the outside air pressure. As soon as the aircraft
levels off, the pressure inside the case and that inside the
capsule will equalise, and the indicator will show a zero rate of
change.
5.1-18
A VSI mechanism
A VSI display
Location of VSI on a turboprop

Location of VSI on a
aircraft’s basic-T layout
commercial aircraft’s primary
flight display
5.1-19
Instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI)
The instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI) is also
sometimes referred to as the inertial lead vertical speed
indicator (ILVSI). The basic construction of this instrument is
shown on the next page. It consists of the same basic elements
as the conventional VSI, but it is additionally fitted with an
accelerometer unit that is designed to create a more rapid
differential pressure effect, specifically during the initiation of
climb or descent. The accelerometer comprises of two small
cylinders or dashpots, which contain inertial masses in the form
of pistons that are held in balance by springs and their own
mass. The cylinders are connected in the capillary tube system
leading to the capsule and are thus open to the static pressure
source.
When the aircraft noses over to begin a descent, the inertia of

the accelerometer piston causes it to move upward,
instantaneously increasing the pressure inside the capsule and
lowering the pressure inside the case. This change in pressure
gives an immediate indication of a descent. At this time, the lag
of the ordinary VSI has been overcome it begins to indicate the
descent, there is no more inertia from the nose-down rotation,
and the accelerometer piston will be centred so the instrument
will be ready to indicate the levelling off from the descent.
5.1-20
Basic IVSI display
Instantaneous vertical speed indicator mechanism
5.1-21
Airspeed indicator (ASI)
The airspeed at which an aircraft is travelling through the air is Pitot pressure (PT) is taken into the capsule and the inside of
essential to the pilot, both for the safe and efficient handling of the case is connected to the static pressure source (PS).
the aircraft and as a basic input to the navigation calculations.
The capsule expands in proportion to the difference between
Principle of operation the pitot and the static pressure, and this expansion is
When an aircraft is stationary on the ground it is subject to measured by a mechanical linkage is displayed as a pointer
normal atmospheric or static pressure, which acts equally on moves over the dial which is graduated in miles per hour, knots
all parts of the aircraft structure. In flight the aircraft experiences or kilometres per hour.
an additional pressure due to the aircraft’s motion through the
air, which is known as dynamic pressure, and is dependent The diagram below shows that the ram air pressure is the
upon the forward motion of the aircraft and the density of the difference between total pressure and static pressure. If the
air, according to the following formula: airspeed is zero, PT is equal to PS, so the ram air pressure is
zero.
PT = ½ρV2 + PS
Where;
PT = total or pitot pressure (also known as total head
pressure or stagnation pressure)
PS = static pressure
ρ = air density
V = velocity of the aircraft – true air speed (TAS)
Rearranging the formula, the difference between the pitot and

static pressures is equal to ½ρV2 (dynamic pressure). The
airspeed indicator thus measures the pressure differential
between the two sources and provides a display indication
graduated in units of speed.
An airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gauge that

measures the difference between the pitot and the static
pressure. It consists of an airtight case in which a thin metal
capsule is mounted.
5.1-22
The airspeed indicator and pitot/static pressure inputs ASI display with VNE ‘barber pole’
5.1-23
Airspeed
The principle of the stagnation point is used in the
measurement of airspeed. Refer to the figure below. Air is
directed from a pitot tube facing into the airflow to a flexible
diaphragm in the airspeed indicator. This flexible diaphragm, in
the form of a capsule, in fact, is a stagnation point and will feel
the full effect of dynamic pressure. Static pressure is fed to both
sides of the capsule so that it cancels out. The resultant
movement of the diaphragm can be taken by a suitable linkage
to a dial, this indicating airspeed.
It should be noted that the airspeed indicator is, in fact, a

dynamic pressure indicator but is calibrated suitably in knots.
As it measures dynamic pressure directly it is extremely useful
when flying the aircraft as most of the aerodynamic functions of
the aircraft are directly related to dynamic pressure. For
instance, the stalling speed of an aircraft is always measured
in indicated airspeed and remains, for the same weight, pretty
well a constant figure regardless of altitude.
5.1-24
The airspeed indicator uses pitot pressure inside the capsule, and static
pressure outside the capsule and thus measures dynamic pressure
5.1-25
Speed definitions
Indicated airspeed (lAS) – The dynamic pressure of air • True airspeed (TAS) – The equivalent airspeed
against a vehicle, is equal to ½ ρV2, where ρ density, and corrected for density.
V  =  true airspeed. An airspeed indicator calibrated to ISA
mean sea level conditions records the dynamic pressure as a Density at sea level is the ISA sea level density of
speed. If, for example, the indicated reading was 200 kts, then 1.225 kg/m3 or 0.00237 slugs/ft3.
it means that the dynamic pressure is the same as it would be
at a true airspeed of 200 kts at standard conditions at mean sea Note that the ratio is equal to 1 only at sea level, and
level. reduces with altitude. Thus TAS increases with altitude
if EAS is kept constant.
• Calibrated airspeed (CAS) – The indicated airspeed,
corrected for instrument and position errors (IE and PE). At 40,000 feet, for example, the density ratio is
This is sometimes called Computed airspeed, especially approximately 0.25. Since √ 0.25  =  0.5, the TAS is
when air data computers are involved. twice the EAS.
• Equivalent airspeed (EAS) – The calibrated airspeed Memory aids

corrected for compressibility (C). It should be noted that ICE-T (iced tea) or Indicated – Calibrated – Equivalent − True.
compressibility is always a subtracted quantity. Pretty Cool Drink, giving the errors compensated for between
Compressibility becomes significant at airspeeds above the speeds: Position – Compression − Density.
200 knots.
It is the airspeed at sea level which represents the same

dynamic pressure as that flying at the true airspeed
(TAS) at altitude. It is useful for predicting aircraft
handling, aerodynamic loads, stalling, etc.
Note that instrument error and position error are

sometimes neglected and thus EAS is then considered
to be the same as IAS, and the two terms are used
interchangeably.
5.1-26
Location of ASI on a turboprop

An airspeed indicator showing:

• AS in knots (inner scale);
• MPH (outer scale); and
• TAS (knots – white scale)
Location of ASI on a commercial
aircraft’s primary flight display
5.1-27
• Ground speed (GS) – can be determined by the vector Again, these technicalities are overlooked by the pilot who may
sum of the aircraft’s true airspeed and the current wind refer to the airspeed as simply indicated airspeed.
speed and direction; a headwind subtracts from the
ground speed, while a tailwind adds to it. Winds at other Other speeds are indicated on the navigation display, namely
angles to the heading will have components of either the true airspeed (TAS) and ground speed (GS). These speeds
headwind or tailwind as well as a crosswind component. are useful for navigating the aircraft but not so useful for ‘flying’
the aircraft.
An airspeed indicator indicates the aircraft’s speed
relative to the air. The air may be moving over the The TAS and the GS are not usually indicated on small aircraft
ground due to the wind, and therefore some additional due to the requirement to measure and calculate the air density
means to provide position over the ground is required. in order to convert EAS into TAS. A comprehensive navigation
This might be through navigation using landmarks, radio system is required to determine GS, a side result from this is
aided position location, an inertial navigation system, or the ability to calculate and display wind-speed and wind-
GPS. direction.
Ground speed is quite different from airspeed. When an The figures below show a simple airspeed indicator as would
aircraft is airborne the ground speed does not determine be used in a light aircraft, indicating only IAS, and a modern
when the aircraft will stall, and it does not influence the EFIS system of a transport category aircraft, displaying IAS (on
aircraft performance such as rate of climb. the PFD) and TAS/GS/wind-speed on the navigation display.
Cockpit indications of airspeeds and ground speeds

On a light aircraft, usually, only the IAS is shown in the cockpit.
In reality, it is usually corrected for position error, so it should
be called CAS, but this technicality is usually overlooked by the
pilot who is unconcerned with such detail.
On a large transport category aircraft, the indicated airspeed

(IAS) is the primary indication, this being the airspeed which is
of most significance to the pilot as it relates to the performance
of the aircraft, especially the stall speed. Again, the IAS is in
reality corrected for position error (CAS) and also
compressibility (EAS), since the higher airspeeds of this type of
aircraft make compressibility more significant.
5.1-28
A basic airspeed An airspeed indicator with an

indicator, displaying additional outside air temperature
Airspeed, windspeed and groundspeed relationship
IAS only input, displaying IAS (outer scale)
when windspeed is head-on (or all headwind)
and TAS (inner scale)
Airspeed, windspeed and groundspeed relationship

when windspeed is partially crosswind, using
vector analysis to calculate ground speed
A primary flight display (PFD) and navigation display (ND)
showing the respective speed indications
5.1-29
Mach meter
When aircraft fly at or near the speed of sound, a measurement The position of the ratio arm is therefore dependent on both
is needed that compares the speed of the aircraft with the pitot excess and static pressure. Movement of the ratio arm
speed of sound. This measurement is called the Mach number. controls the ranging arm.
An indication of Mach 1 occurs when the aircraft is flying at the
speed of sound. Below the speed of sound, the indication is This turns the pointer and displays the Mach number
given as a decimal fraction, and above Mach 1, the indication corresponding to the ratio of pitot excess pressure and static
is an integer with a decimal. For example, flight at Mach 1.25 is pressure.
flight at an airspeed of 1.25 times the speed of sound at that
altitude. Mach 0.75 is flight at an airspeed of 75% of the speed Any increase in altitude and/or airspeed will result in a higher
of sound. Mach number.
The speed of sound decreases at decreasing outside The critical Mach number is indicated by a specially shaped
temperature (TAT). The Mach number increases if the aircraft lubber mark, which is located over the Mach meter dial. It is
climbs with constant TAS. adjustable so that the critical Mach number for the particular
type of aircraft may be displayed.
A typical Mach meter, as shown below, consists of a sealed
case containing two capsule assemblies placed at 90° to each
other, and a series of mechanical linkages.
The first capsule unit is an airspeed capsule and is connected

to the pitot pressure pipeline, while the interior of the instrument
case is fed with static pressure. The second capsule unit is an
aneroid capsule, which responds to changes in static pressure.
The airspeed capsule measures the difference between pitot
and static pressure and expands or contracts in response to
airspeed changes. The airspeed linkage transfers movement of
the capsule to the main shaft and causes the shaft to rotate,
thus moving a pivoted ratio arm in the direction A-B.
The altitude (aneroid) capsule expands or contracts and

responds to changes in altitude. Movement of the capsule is
transferred to the ratio arm via a spring and pin, thus causing it
to move in the direction C-D.
5.1-30
Analogue Mach meter
Mach Meter principle
Digital Mach
information
displayed on a
primary flight
display (PFD)
Digital Mach display within an

5.1-31 airspeed indicator
Gyroscopic instruments
Gyroscopic principles
A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated
rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. When by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is
rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel
rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the
angular momentum. Because of this, gyroscopes are useful for left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel
measuring or maintaining orientation. produces rotation of the third axis.
A gyroscope is mounted in two or three gimbals, which are A gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis
pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a free or
single axis. A set of three gimbals, one mounted on the other fixed configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal
with orthogonal pivot axes, may be used to allow a wheel devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to
mounted on the innermost gimbal to have an orientation sense or measure the pitch, roll and yaw attitude angles in a
remaining independent of the orientation, in space, of its spacecraft or aircraft.
support.
In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the outer gimbal,

which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about
an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer
gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its axis
possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the gyroscope
frame (outer gimbal) so as to pivot about an axis in its own
plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the
gyroscope frame (outer gimbal). This inner gimbal has two
degrees of rotational freedom.
The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor
is constrained to spin about an axis, which is always
perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So, the rotor
possesses three degrees of rotational freedom and its axis
possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied to the
input axis by a reaction force to the output axis.
5.1-32
Gyroscope and gimbals
Toy gyroscope
5.1-33
Rigidity
Whilst small, the rotor of a gyroscopic instrument must rotate at
a very high rpm. Giving them inertia, also called rigidity and they
maintain this alignment to a fixed point in space. This basically
happens to every rotating object: wheel, propeller, etc. For
example, this rigidity gives the moving bicycle its stability
preventing it from falling over while riding it.
A number of factors have their influence on rigidity: the mass of

the rotor, its rpm or angular velocity and finally the distance of
the mass to the axis of rotation. The larger the distance the
greater the rigidity with equal rotational speed. Again, a bike
has large wheels and can rotate slowly to obtain enough
stability.
Precession
When you apply a force to a point around the spinning rim of
the gyro, the rotor will tilt as if the force was 90° further in the
direction of motion as shown in the image. This apparent
displacement of the force is called precession.
The amount of precession depends on the following factors:

strength and direction of the force applied, the amount of inertia
of the gyro (mass concentration on the rim), diameter and the
rpm or rotational velocity of the gyro.
5.1-34
Force and resultant movement obstinacy – ‘precession’
5.1-35
Applications of gyroscopes in aircraft
General
The gyro instruments include the heading indicator, attitude The direction indicator or makes it possible to fly accurate turns
indicator and turn coordinator (or turn-and-slip indicator). The and headings but has their own distinctive features and
turn coordinator is not always fitted on an aircraft. characteristics the pilot needs to be aware of.
Each contains a gyro rotor driven by air or electricity and each The direction indicator, formerly called the directional gyro, and
makes use of the gyroscopic principles to display the attitude also known as the heading indicator, uses the principle of
of the aircraft. It is important that instrument pilots understand gyroscopic rigidity to provide a stable heading reference.
the gyro instruments and the principles governing their
operation. Turn coordinator
The turn coordinator indicates the rate of turn of the aircraft. It
Artificial horizon does not indicate the angle of bank.
The attitude indicator is also known as the artificial horizon.
The indicator needle is a miniature aircraft connected to a
The purpose of the attitude indicator is to present the pilot with spring-loaded gimbal of the gyroscope inside the instrument.
a continuous picture of the aircraft’s attitude in relation to the When the indicator needle is at full-scale deflection (as shown
surface of the earth. The figure below shows the face of a below), the aircraft is turning at a rate of 360° per 2-minutes.
typical attitude indicator. It should be noted that other attitude
indicators differ in the details of presentation. The instrument also includes a slip indicator. This is a simple
inertial device sensitive to sideways forces. In a ‘coordinated
The small knob near the bottom of the instrument is used for turn’ there should be no sideways forces, so the slip indicator
vertical adjustment of the miniature aircraft. During straight- should show in the centre.
and-level flight, the miniature aircraft should be adjusted so that
it is superimposed on the horizon line. Older aircraft may have a turn and slip indicator in place of the
turn coordinator. This has a slightly different presentation but
Direction indicator indicates essentially the same information as the turn
The magnetic compass is the primary direction indicator in an coordinator.
aircraft, but it is prone to a number of errors due to acceleration,
turbulence and they are sometimes difficult to read. To solve
this problem, we use a direction indicator based on a gyro.
These are stable, accurate, easy to read and can be coupled
to an autopilot and even synchronised to a magnetic compass.
5.1-36
Vertical and horizontal gyros

5.1-37
Artificial horizon
The attitude indicator is also known as the artificial horizon. Once the artificial horizon line is aligned with the natural horizon
of the earth during initial erection, the artificial horizon is kept
The purpose of the attitude indicator is to present the pilot with horizontal by the gyro on which it is mounted. An erection
a continuous picture of the aircraft’s attitude in relation to the mechanism automatically rights the gyro when precession
surface of the earth. The figure below shows the face of a occurs clue to manoeuvres or friction. When the older-type gyro
typical attitude indicator. It should be noted that other attitude tumbles because of extreme attitude changes, the rotor
indicators differ in the details of presentation. normally precesses slowly back to the horizontal plane.
Pitch attitudes are depicted by the miniature aircraft’s relative Even an attitude indicator in perfect condition can give slight
movement up or down in relation to the horizon bat, also called erroneous readings. Small errors due to acceleration and
the gyro or attitude horizon. Usually, at least four-pitch deceleration are not significant because the erection device
reference lines are incorporated into the instrument. Two are corrects them promptly; nonetheless, the pilot should be aware
below the artificial horizon bar and two are above. of them. Large errors may be caused by wear, dirty gimbal
rings, or out-of-balance parts. Warning flags (see Attitude
The bank indicator, normally located at the top of the Indicator figure, above right) may mean either that the
instrument, shows the degree of bank during turns using index instrument is not receiving adequate electrical power or that
marks. These are spaced at 10° intervals through 30°, with there is a problem with the gyro.
larger marks; placed at 30°, 60° and 90° bank positions.
The nose of the aircraft is depicted by a small white dot located

between the fixed set of wings or by the point of the triangle as
in the figure (see the bottom centre of the attitude indicator
figure, below right). The sky is represented by a light blue and
the earth is shown by black or brown shading. Converging lines
give the instrument a three-dimensional effect.
The small knob near the bottom of the instrument is used for
vertical adjustment of the miniature aircraft. During straight-
and-level flight, the miniature aircraft should be adjusted so that
it is superimposed on the horizon line.
5.1-38
Mechanical attitude indicator
Electronic attitude indicator on the instrument panel of a Cessna Citation
Electronic attitude indicator using an LCD screen

5.1-39
Operation
The attitude indicator uses a vertical gyro. The vertical gyro
senses the relationship between the pitch and roll axes of the
aircraft and a vertical line through the centre of the earth, and it
gives a stable reference, so the actual pitch and bank angle are
known to keep the wings level.
The vertical gyro has two degrees of freedom. The axle of the
wheel is always vertical.
Vertical gyros are located inside horizon indicators or they are

built into separate units as ‘remote’ vertical gyros. Their roll and
pitch signals are used for artificial horizons, autopilots, flight
directors and the weather radar antenna stabilisation.
5.1-40
A vertical gyro used to sense aircraft pitch

and roll
Attitude indicator mechanism
A vertical gyro used as an indicator

of pitch and roll (attitude indicator)
5.1-41
Heading indicator
The heading indicator, formerly called the directional gyro, uses
the principle of gyroscopic rigidity to provide a stable heading
reference. The pilot should remember that real precession,
caused by manoeuvres and internal instrument errors, as well
as apparent precession caused by aircraft movement and earth
rotation, may cause the heading indicator to ‘drift’.
In newer heading indicators, the vertical card or dial on the

instrument face appears to revolve as the aircraft turns. The
heading is displayed at the top of the dial by the nose of the
miniature aircraft. Another type of direction indicator shows the
heading on a ring like the card in a magnetic compass.
Because the heading indicator has no direction-seeking

qualities of its own, it must be set to agree with the magnetic
compass. This should be done only on the ground or in straight-
and-level, unaccelerated flight when magnetic compass
indications are steady and reliable.
The pilot should set the heading indicator by turning the

heading indicator reset knob at the bottom of the instrument to
set the compass card to the correct magnetic heading. On large
aircraft, this function is done using a compass controller.
The pilot of a light aircraft should check the heading indicator

against the magnetic compass at least every 15 minutes to
assure accuracy. Because the magnetic compass is subject to
certain errors, the pilot should ensure that these errors are not
transferred to the heading indicator.
5.1-42
Mechanical direction indicator
Electronic heading indicator on the instrument panel of a Bell 407
Electronic direction indicator using an LCD screen

5.1-43
Operation
The heading indicator works using a gyroscope. The heading
indicator is arranged such that the gyro axis is used to drive the
display, which consists of a circular compass card calibrated in
degrees. The gyroscope is spun either electrically or using
filtered air flow from a suction pump (sometimes a pressure
pump in high altitude aircraft) driven from the aircraft’s engine.
Early directional gyros resembled the magnetic compass with

its gyro rotor suspended in a double gimbal with its spin axis in
a horizontal plane inside the calibrated scale.
The caging knob in the front of the instrument could be turned

to rotate the entire mechanism and bring the desired heading
opposite the reference mark, or lubber line. The rotor remains
rigid in space, as the aircraft turned about the gyro.
Vertical card directional gyro

The vertical card compass has instead of a simple lubber line
in front of the card, a symbol of an aircraft on its face, in front
of the dial, with its nose pointing straight up, representing
straight ahead. The circular dial is connected to the gyro
mechanism, so it remains rigid in space and, as the aircraft
turns about it, the dial rotates. The knob in the lower left-hand
corner of the instrument may be pushed in and rotated, so the
pilot can turn the mechanism to get the dial under the nose of
the symbolic aircraft that corresponds to the heading shown on
the magnetic compass.
5.1-44
An old-style directional gyro
A directional gyro’s operation on the aircraft Directional gyro mechanism

5.1-45
Horizontal situation indicator (HIS)
The horizontal situation indicator (commonly called the HSI) is
an aircraft flight instrument normally mounted below the
artificial horizon in place of a conventional heading indicator. It
combines a heading indicator with a VHF omnidirectional
range-instrument landing system (VOR-ILS) display. This
reduces pilot workload by lessening the number of elements in
the pilot’s instrument scan to the six basic flight instruments.
On the HSI, the aircraft is represented by a schematic figure in

the centre of the instrument – the VOR-ILS display is shown in
relation to this figure. The heading indicator usually slaves to a
remote compass and the HSI is frequently interconnected with
an autopilot capable of following the heading select bug and of
executing an ILS approach by following the localiser and glide
slope.
On a conventional VOR indicator, left–right and to–from must

be interpreted in the context of the selected course. When an
HSI is tuned to a VOR station, left and right always mean left
and right and “TO/FROM” is indicated by a simple triangular
arrowhead pointing to the VOR. If the arrowhead points to the
same side as the course selector arrow, it means “TO”, and if it
points behind to the side opposite the course selector, it means
“FROM”. The HSI illustrated below is a type designed for
smaller aircraft and is the size of a standard 3 ¼-inch
instrument. Airline and jet aircraft HSIs are larger and may
include more display elements.
The most modern HSI displays are solid state LCD displays
(known as electronic horizontal situation indicator – EHSI) and
often integrated with electronic flight instrument systems
(EFIS).
5.1-46
HSI EHSI
5.1-47
Attitude director indicator (ADI)
When an attitude director (artificial horizon) also incorporates
command bars (operated by the flight director), the instrument
is known as an attitude director indicator (ADI).
The most modern ADI displays are solid state LCD displays
(known as electronic attitude director indicator – EADI) and
often integrated with electronic flight instrument systems
(EFIS).
5.1-48
ADI EADI
5.1-49
Attitude and heading reference system (AHRS)
An attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) consists of
sensors on three axes that provide attitude information for
aircraft, including roll, pitch and yaw. They are designed to
replace traditional mechanical gyroscopic flight instruments
and provide superior reliability and accuracy.
The information provided by the AHRS is sent to the attitude

and heading sections of an electronic flight instrument system
(EFIS).
AHRS have proven themselves to be highly reliable and are in

common use in modern aircraft. AHRS are typically integrated
with electronic flight instrument systems (EFIS) which are the
central part of so-called glass cockpits, to form the primary flight
display.
AHRS can be combined with air data computers to form an air

data, attitude and heading reference system (ADAHRS),
which provide additional information such as airspeed, altitude
and outside air temperature.
The AHRS is not, by itself, able to provide a reference to the

Earth’s magnetic field. For this capability, it must be connected
to a magnetometer.
5.1-50
Typical AHRS sensor diagram
The primary flight display (PFD)

shows the data from the AHRS
AHRS with magnetometer
AHRS using MEMS technology

5.1-51
Turn and slip indicator/turn coordinator
Turn and slip indicator

These are actually two instruments in one housing. The simpler This tilt is opposed by both a dashpot which smooths out the
instrument is an inclinometer set into the dial. This is a curved force and by a calibrated spring which restricts the amount the
glass tube filled with a damping liquid, and riding in it is a black gimbal can tilt. A pointer is driven by the gimbal in such a way
glass ball. When the aircraft is perfectly level and there are no that it indicates not only the direction of yaw but the amount of
other forces acting on it, the ball will rest in the bottom centre its deflection is proportional to the rate of yaw.
of the tube between two marks. In flight, the ball indicates the
relationship between the pull of gravity G and centrifugal force
Z caused by a turn. The pull of gravity is affected by the bank
angle: the steeper the bank, the more the ball wants to roll
toward the inside of the turn toward the low wing. Centrifugal
force, on the other hand, pulls the ball toward the outside of the
turn. The greater the rate of turn, the greater the centrifugal
force. A coordinated or balanced turn is one in which the bank
angle is correct for the rate of turn, and the ball remains
centred.
The gyroscopic part of the turn and slip indicator is a rotor, spun
either by air or by an electric motor. This rotor has its spin axis
parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft, and the axis of the
single gimbal is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. A
centring spring holds the gimbal level when there is no outside
force acting on it. When the rotor is spinning, and the aircraft
rotates about its vertical, or yaw, axis, a force is carried into the
rotor shaft by the gimbal in such a way that one side of the shaft
is moved forward while the other side is moved back.
Precession causes the rotor to tilt, as the force is felt, at 90° to
the point of application in the direction of rotor rotation.
5.1-52
Turn and slip indicator
Rate Gyro inside Indicator
Location of the turn

coordinator on a turboprop
5.1-53
Turn coordinator
A turn and slip indicator can show rotation about only the Instruments, either the turn and bank indicator or the turn
vertical axis of the aircraft yaw. But since a turn is started by coordinator, have the standard rate turn clearly marked. Light
banking the aircraft, that is, by rotating it about its longitudinal aircraft are equipped with 2-minute turn indicators while heavy
axis, a turn indicator would be of more value if it sensed this aircraft are equipped with 4-minute turn indicators. This is very
rotation also. useful to pilots who are out of visual contact with the ground
and for air traffic control when appropriate separation of aircraft
The mechanism of a turn coordinator is similar to that used in is desired. The pilot banks the aircraft such that the turn and
a turn and slip indicator, except that its gimbal axis is tilted, slip indicator points to the standard rate turn mark and then
usually about thirty degrees, so the gyro will precess when the uses a watch to time the turn. The pilot can pull out at any
aircraft rolls, as well as when it yaws. This is especially handy desired direction depending on the length of time in the turn.
since a turn and slip indicator is affected by adverse yaw at the
beginning of a turn, but a turn coordinator senses enough roll A rate half turn (1.5° per second) is normally used when flying
to cancel any deflection caused by adverse yaw. faster than 250 kt. The term rate two turn (6° per second) is
used on some low-speed aircraft.
Rather than using a needle for its indicator, the turn coordinator
uses a small symbolic aircraft with marks on the dial opposite
its wing tips. When the aircraft is turned at a standard rate to
the left, the wings of the symbolic aircraft align with the mark on
the left side of the instrument dial, the one marked ‘L’. When
the rate of yaw is correct for the bank angle, the ball will be
centred between the two lines across the inclinometer.
Turn rates
A standard rate turn for (light) aircraft is defined as a 3° per
second turn, which completes a 360° turn in 2 minutes. This is
known as a 2-minute turn, or rate one (= 180°/minute).
For heavy aircraft, a standard rate turn is a 4-minute turn.
5.1-54
Turn coordinator indication and gyro rotor tilt
Turn and slip indicator, and turn

coordinator mechanisms
Examples of turn coordinator indications
indications
5.1-55
Compasses
Direct reading compass
Also known as magnetic compass, standby compass, whisky • the reading is corrected in accordance with the
compass, ‘E’ type compass. associated card.
Its main body is a cast aluminium housing, and one end is It requires no electrical power, except for its illumination at
covered with a glass lens. Across this is a vertical reference night. It is a mandatory requirement for all aircraft under CS-25.
mark called a ‘lubber line’. Inside the housing and riding on a
steel pivot in a jewel post is a small brass float surrounded by Remote reading compass
a graduated dial which is part of a cone. Around the full 360° of A remote reading compass is a device that measures the
the dial are 36 marks, representing the tens of degrees. Above aircraft’s heading relative to the earth’s magnetic field
every third mark is either a one or a two-digit number electrically and sends the electronic data to an electronic
representing the number of degrees with the last zero left off. display unit in the cockpit.
Zero is the same as 360° and is north. Nine is east, or 90°, 18 Early analogue devices were called flux valves, or flux gates,
is south (180°), and 27 is 270° or west. Two small bar-type and provided a three-phase signal proportional to the magnetic
permanent magnets are soldered to the bottom of the float, field direction. The output of the flux valve is used to adjust the
aligned with the zero and 18 marks, north and south. gyroscope which provides the heading change information.
The flux valve maintains the gyroscope alignment with the
The housing is filled with compass fluid, which is a hydrocarbon earth’s magnetic field.
product very similar to kerosene, but with certain additives that
keep it clear. Due to the high cost of such a system, the flux valve was fitted
to larger aircraft only. On small aircraft, the pilot must manually
The instrument is not very accurate. It is affected by magnetic adjust the heading indicator by visual reference to the direct
components in the aircraft. Next to the compass is a compass reading compass. This must be done before take-off and at
correction card. This card shows the errors that the particular least every 15 minutes during flight.
compass has, at each of the main compass headings.
Modern aircraft use a solid-state device called a magnetometer
Additionally, the compass heading is correct only if: (or magnetic heading sensor, or electronic compass). Modern
magnetometers are relatively inexpensive and very reliable.
• the aircraft is horizontal;
• there is no acceleration; and
5.1-56
Remote reading compasses (magnetometers)
Direct reading compass with compass correction card
Data from the flux valve makes corrections to the directional gyro – the gyro drives the indicator
5.1-57
Instrument layout
Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an The magnetic compass will be above the instrument panel,
aircraft that provides the pilot with information about the flight often on the windscreen centre post.
situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed and
direction. They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly the
aircraft in level flight, and make turns, without a reference
outside the aircraft such as the horizon.
Visual flight rules (VFR) require and airspeed indicator, an

altimeter, and a compass or other suitable magnetic direction
indicator.
Instrument flight rules (IFR) additionally require a gyroscopic

pitch-bank (artificial horizon), direction (directional gyro) and
rate of turn indicator, plus a slip-skid indicator, adjustable
altimeter, and a clock.
Flight into Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) require

radio navigation instruments for precise take-offs and landings.
The term is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for cockpit

instruments as a whole, in which context it can include engine
instruments, navigational and communication equipment.
Many modern aircraft have electronic flight instrument systems.
Most aircraft have four of the flight instruments located in a

standardised pattern called the basic-T arrangement. The
attitude indicator is in the top centre, airspeed to the left,
altimeter to the right and heading indicator under the attitude
indicator. The other two, turn-coordinator (if fitted) and vertical-
speed indicator, are usually found under the airspeed and
altimeter but are given more freedom in location.
5.1-58
The four primary instruments in a turboprop aeroplane arranged in a basic-T
5.1-59
Stall warning
Lift detector system
The stall warning system is sensitive to the aircraft’s angle of When the data indicate an imminent stall, the computer
attack. It provides no indication until the angle of attack has actuates both the stick shaker and an auditory alert.
reached a critically high level, and the aircraft is close to
stalling. The shaker itself is composed of an electric motor connected
to a deliberately unbalanced flywheel. When actuated, the
The sensor is a ‘lift detector’ switch, located at the leading edge shaker induces a forceful, noisy, and entirely unmistakable
of the wing. In all normal flight angle of attacks, the airflow shaking of the control yoke. This shaking of the control yoke
forces the switch paddle down, and the circuit is switched off. matches the frequency and amplitude of the stick shaking that
At a pre-defined high angle of attack, the airflow approaches occurs due to airflow separation in low-speed aircraft as they
the switch paddle from beneath, which lifts it up, and the switch approach the stall. The stick shaking is intended to act as a
closes the electrical circuit. backup to the auditory stall alert, in cases where the flight crew
may be distracted.
The electrical circuit is connected to a speaker in the cockpit.
The audio warning is either a screeching sound or is a recorded In larger aircraft (especially in T-tailed jets that might be
voice saying “Stall!” repeatedly. Some aircraft also annunciate vulnerable to deep stall), some stall protection systems also
the stall visually on the central warning system. include a stick pusher system to automatically push forward on
the elevator control, thus reducing the aircraft’s angle of attack
Stick shaker system and preventing the stall.
Larger aircraft use a stick shaker system, in addition to an aural
and visual annunciator. Both systems have to be tested and armed before take-off and
remain armed during flight.
A stick shaker is a mechanical device to rapidly and noisily
vibrate the control yoke (the stick) of an aircraft to warn the pilot
of an imminent stall. A stick shaker is connected to the control
column of most civil jet aircraft.
The stick shaker is a component of the aircraft’s stall protection

system, which is composed of fuselage- or wing-mounted angle
of attack (AOA) sensors that are connected to an avionics
computer. The computer receives input from the AOA sensors
and a variety of other flight systems.
5.1-60
Definition of angle of attack
A lift detector switch on

the leading edge of a wing
Lift detector microswitch Typic stall annunciation
5.1-61
Angle of attack indicator
An elaboration of the stall warning system is the simple angle
of attack indicator that uses a pickup similar to the electric stall
warning vane. But instead of a micro-switch to turn on a light or
actuate a buzzer, the vane moves a synchro position sensor
that drives the indicator.
These vanes are often called ‘alpha’ (α) vanes, and the
indicator is called an ‘alpha’ indicator.
The angle of attack (alpha angle) is indicated on the EFIS

display as shown below.
The alpha angle signal can also be supplied to a stall computer

which can then display the aircraft’s angle of attack relative to
the stall angle and if necessary initiate stall protection systems
(known as ‘alpha Prot’ and ‘alpha MAX’) such as stick shaker
and/or throttle advance (Airbus A320, etc.)
Many modern transport category aircraft have the vane

installed on the side of the fuselage.
5.1-62
Alpha vane
Angle of attack
(alpha angle) display
on a PFD
Analogue angle of
attack indicator
Alpha Prot and Alpha Max 11A-9 082

5.1-63
Glass cockpit (EFIS)
Introduction
An electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) is a flight deck
instrument display system in which the display technology used
is electronic rather than electromechanical.
EFIS normally consists of a primary flight display (PFD), multi-

function display (MFD) and engine indicating system (EIS). On
a light aircraft, the EIS is normally (but not always) integrated
into the MFD.
The first EFIS units were installed on large commercial aircraft

and did not attract much interest from the general aviation
market. This was because cathode ray tube (CRT) displays
were used, which were heavy and required a complex cooling
system. Liquid crystal displays (LCD) are now exclusively used.
These are light, inexpensive, do not generate excessive heat,
and their attraction to the general aviation market is increased
by the introduction of EFIS screens that can be fitted without
modification of the instrument panel, so retrofitting of EFIS
panels is common.
Although relatively expensive to make the modification from

‘steam gauges’ to ‘glass cockpit’, the maintenance and upkeep
are low, and reliability is high. Furthermore, expandability and
options for future upgrades and add-ons are good since
normally only a software change is required.
Many avionics companies manufacture EFIS systems for light

aircraft, both for new aircraft builds and for aftermarket
customers. These include L3, Aspen Avionics, Chelton,
Avidyne, and the highly popular manufacturer, Garmin.
5.1-64
MFD (centre display unit) and PFD (left and right display units) of the Garmin G1000
5.1-65
EFIS overview
The popular Garmin G1000 is used for the following overview G1000 system following an update, but the bottom card must
of the EFIS architecture and displays. The system is typical, stay in both the PFD and MFD to ensure accurate terrain
and all other systems are similar. awareness information.
The Garmin G1000 is an integrated flight instrument system Primary flight display (PFD)
manufactured by Garmin typically composed of two display The primary flight display shows the basic six flight instruments
units, one serving as a primary flight display, and one as a in ‘Basic-T’ configuration, including the airspeed indicator, the
multi-function display. It serves as a replacement for most altimeter, the heading indicator, and course deviation indicator.
conventional flight instruments and avionics. A small map called the ‘inset map’ can be enabled in the corner.
Beyond that, additional features are found on newer and larger The buttons on the PFD are used to set the squawk code on
G1000 installations, such as in business jets. This includes: the transponder. The PFD can also be used for entering and
activating flight plans. The PFD also has a ‘reversionary mode’
• a third display unit, to act as a co-pilot PFD which can display all information normally shown on the MFD
• an alphanumeric keyboard (for example, engine gages and navigational information). This
• an integrated flight director/autopilot (without it, the capability is provided in case of an MFD failure.
G1000 interfaces with an external autopilot)
Multi-function display (MFD)
The display unit is available in two options, one has autopilot The multi-function display typically shows a moving map on the
controls built in, the other option does not have autopilot right side and engine instrumentation on the left. Most of the
controls. For this option, an autopilot control panel can be other screens in the G1000 system are accessed by turning the
purchased separately at a later date. knob on the lower right corner of the unit. Screens available
from the MFD other than the map include the setup menus,
Both the PFD and MFD each have two slots for SD memory information about nearest airports and NAVAIDs, Mode-S
cards. The top slot is used to update the Jeppesen aviation traffic reports, terrain awareness, XM radio (where available),
database (also known as NavData) every 28 days, and to load and flight plan programming.
software and configuration to the system. The aviation
database must be current to use GPS for navigation during IFR
instrument approaches. The bottom slot houses the world
terrain and Jeppesen obstacle databases. While terrain
information rarely changes or needs to be updated, obstacle
databases can be updated every 56 days through a
subscription service. The top card can be removed from the
5.1-66
Display unit and LRU installation
Audio panel
5.1-67
MEMS technology The magnetometer provides magnetic heading information to
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) (also written as the autopilot and the display unit indications (HSI). It is normally
micro-electro-mechanical, MicroElectroMechanical or connected to the AHRS (rather than the Integrated Avionics
microelectronic and microelectromechanical systems and the Units directly) because the heading gyro (in the AHRS) is the
related micromechatronics) is the technology of very small primary heading change sensor, and the Magnetometer
devices. provides that gyro with a reference to the earth’s magnetic field.
The aviation application of these is solid-state (no moving Transponder

parts) transducers and sensors. For example, gyros and The minimum regulatory requirement is for a standard Mode-C
pressure sensors utilising piezoelectric technology. transponder which replies to ATC interrogations while the
optional Mode-S bidirectional communications with ATC can
Attitude and heading reference system indicate traffic in the area as well as announce itself
The system uses solid-state sensors (MEMS) to measure spontaneously via ‘squittering’ without prior interrogation.
aircraft attitude, rate of turn, and slip and skid. This data is then
provided to all the integrated avionics units and display units. A Mode-S transponder is required if any type of traffic
The AHRS is the central attitude and heading sensor and awareness system is to be installed. If ADS-B is to be used,
provides outputs to both the autopilot and to the display units then a special Mode-S transponder is required.
for attitude and heading indication (via the integrated avionics
units)
Some other EFIS manufacturers combine the AHRS and ADC

into one unit. This is called an ADAHRS (air data and attitude
and heading reference system).
Magnetometer
The magnetometer measures aircraft heading and is a digital
version of a traditional compass. It does so by aligning itself
with the magnetic flux lines of the earth. It uses MEMS
technology so has no moving parts. It is located in a remote
part of the aircraft airframe, so it is far from any other aircraft
electrical components that may cause magnetic deviation.
Usually, it is located at a wing tip.
5.1-68
Mode-S transponder
Integrated avionics unit
Attitude and heading

reference system (AHRS)
Magnetometer
Air data computer (ADC)
5.1-69
Other system variations
The Genesys Aerosystems IDU 680 EFIS provides all the same The Processor Units are effectively the video drivers. These are
functionality as the Garmin G1000, but the architecture is integrated into the back of the display units. Unlike the Garmin
slightly different. G1000, the NAV/COM and GPS are separate units. The GPS
receiver is a WAAS/SBAS enabled ‘module’ which plugs
Each EFIS consists of two display units. An aircraft can be a directly into the back of the processor units/display units.
single EFIS or a dual EFIS system (the latter is the normal
installation on training aircraft). The AHRS and ADC is a combined unit (ADAHRS) which also
plugs directly into the back of the processor units/display units.
Each Display Unit has two display areas, an upper and lower The only inputs to this module are the Pitot and Static pressure
half of the screen. The outboard display unit has the PFD on lines.
the upper half. This is fixed and cannot be moved. The other
three half displays are the MFDs, can be configured to display Both of the Display Units are identic and have the same part
any of the following data pages: number. However, the wiring harness supplies the same
information to all four screen halves. Apart from the primary
• MAP via GPS; flight instrumentation (which always displays of the PFD), the
• HSI (including CDI); other screen halves (MFDs) display only the pages that have
• NAV log; been selected by the pilot via the on-screen menus.
• stormscope indication;
• traffic indication;
• audio/radio control panel; and
• engine indicating and crew alerting system (EICAS)
Many of the above system indications can be overlaid onto the

HSI and/or MAP pages. The pages can be moved,
interchanged and even duplicated on any of the three available
half-screens via a menu. This can be done in flight.
On a 2-EFIS installation, there will be 2-PFD half screens

(always upper-outboard), and six configurable MFD screens. A
separate audio panel is not required, because the audio
frequencies and volume controls are managed from a page on
the MFD.
5.1-70
A Genesys Aerosystems
IDU 680 EFIS display unit
with integrated processor
A Genesys Aerosystems IDU 680 trainer aeroplane two-EFIS units and plug-in modular
installation (MD902). Six screen-halves are configurable by the GPS and ADAHRS
pilot, two of which (upper outboard) are always PFDs.
A Genesys Aerosystems IDU 680 EFIS showing just some of

the available pages selectable for display on the three
available MFDs
5.1-71
Reversionary modes and system failures
Since the PFD supplies information essential to the flight and
control of the aircraft, all EFIS systems, regardless of
manufacture, provide an automatic reversionary mode.
For example, if the outboard display unit (which normally

indicates the primary flight information) fails, the information will
automatically switch to the working MFD, usually maintaining
the engine instrumentation and possibly also an inset
navigation screen, in a ‘composite’ type configuration.
If one or more of the LRUs that supply the information to the

integrated avionics units fails, or if an integrated avionics unit
(or part of) fails, this event is clearly indicated on the associated
part of the display, with a bold red cross flag, and text indicating
which source unit has failed.
5.1-72
Garmin G1000 with failed (or dimmed) PFD showing MFD in reversionary mode
Garmin G1000 PFD with failed supply LRUs Garmin G1000 MFD with failed engine/airframe unit
(AHRS, ADC and NAV/COMM receivers) and failed NAV/COM receiver
5.1-73
Touchscreen EFIS
The newest EFIS from Garmin have been produced with
touchscreen LCD technology.
This reduces the number of knobs and keys necessary around

the bezel of the screens. The screens use an infrared
technology to operate the screen buttons and swipe zooming
and scrolling similar to iPad and smartphone page navigation.
5.1-74
Touchscreen displays
5.1-75
Other aircraft system indications
An EFIS overlay is any system which is an optional plug-in to For the airframe systems, the electrical parameters (voltage
the standard architecture. In most cases, these require and current) are the minimum parameters indicated, but some
additional hardware. The software may already pre-exist on the aircraft installations may process and indicate other parameters
EFIS or it may require an update from the manufacturer. such as control trim positions. This requires utilisation of
position sensors such as linear variable differential transducers
Engine/airframe systems indications (LVDT) located on the respective trim system.
Engine and airframe parameters are measured and indicated
either on a dedicated EICAS display unit or on a pilot selectable
page on the MFD (also sometimes called the EICAS page).
EICAS has different meanings depending on the manufacturer.

Originally a Boeing term meaning engine indicating and crew
alerting system other manufacturers have adopted the same
acronym to mean engine instrument crew advisory system (MD
aircraft), and engine instrument crew alerting system by others,
etc. However, the name EICAS is generally understood to be
regarding engine instrumentation and system status indication.
The engine/airframe unit measures a large variety of engine

and airframe parameters, including engine rpm, manifold
pressure, oil temperature, cylinder head temperature, exhaust
gas temperature, and fuel level in each tank. This data is then
provided to the integrated avionics units.
Typically, airframe systems that are indicated are hydraulics,

fuel and electric parameters.
Conventional transducers are fitted to the engine to measure

oil pressure and temperature, etc., and the outputs of these are
plugged into the engine/airframe unit for conversion into digital
output for processing by the integrated avionics units and
ultimately the indication of the display units.
5.1-76
Typical EICAS display showing turboprop engine and

Engine/airframe unit aeroplane system parameters
(EAU)
5.1-77
Terrain awareness and warning systems (TAWS)
These ‘terrain depiction’ systems show the terrain in colour Premature descent alert. This function uses the predicted
codes just as sectional charts. This system is an optional flight path information (determined from an approach
overlay on the MFD MAP page and is called topography. navigation source) and its own airport database to determine if
the aircraft is below the normal (typically three degrees)
A true TAWS system can look ahead of the aircraft and warn approach path for the nearest runway. If a conflict is detected,
the pilot of impending impact with the ground; thus, monitoring a warning is given to the pilot.
the pilots’ actions and providing an audible and visual alert if
the aircraft is about to have a date with the ground. Hopefully, Attention alerts. The system provides appropriate visual and
the pilot of a TAWS-equipped aircraft will never hear a terrain audio alerts for both cautions and warnings and indications of
or obstacle warning, but the safety margins are there just in imminent contact with the ground.
case.
Class-A TAWS
The TAWS computer receives position information from a GPS This Class of TAWS requires the four systems as described for
receiver (with WAAS/SBAS) and compares that position with Class B TAWS, but requires a fifth function.
the internal terrain or obstacle database.
Terrain awareness display. The TAWS equipment provides
The terrain and obstacle database is stored on an SD card, terrain information to a suitable display system − radar or
which is plugged into a slot provided on the front of the display multifunction display.
unit. If the TAWS computer detects a possible conflict between
the future flight path of the aircraft and terrain, visual and The TAWS equipment is either contained in a remote avionics
audible warnings are given to the pilot. box that feeds a multi-function display or contained entirely in
the display unit controller. The larger aircraft generally use the
Class-B TAWS remote box configuration, while the smaller aircraft use
For those aircraft that require Class-B TAWS, the systems combined units.
include a minimum of four basic functions:
A light aircraft EFIS system can include any level of terrain
Forward-looking terrain avoidance. This function looks awareness, from a very basic topography MAP overlay to a full
ahead and below the aircraft flight path to provide a suitable Class-A Taws with visual and aural warnings of conflicts.
alert if a potential threat exists.
5.1-78
Basic TAWS indication on a Garmin 530 moving map
Terrain altitude/colour correlation for terrain proximity
Garmin G1000 MAP view with TOPO mode (topography) but no TAWS
5.1-79
Ground proximity warning system
A Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is a system Mode-1 warnings occur when the aircraft is below 2,450 feet
designed to alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of radio altitude and the barometric altimeter shows an excessive
flying into the ground or an obstacle. The GPWS is a type of rate of descent.
terrain awareness warning system (TAWS) used on
commercial transport aircraft. More advanced systems, When excessive descent rate is detected, the warning light will
introduced in 1996, are known as enhanced ground proximity illuminate and the aural warning sounds. “Sink rate!” or
warning systems (EGPWS). “Whoop, whoop! Pull up!”
Ground proximity warning system is a Honeywell tradename. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m-a_2WBgB0o
Warnings Mode-2 warnings occur when the terrain is rising at an

It has been proven that a human voice can attract a person’s excessively fast rate. When this is encountered the light
attention more quickly than a warning light or other visual illuminates and the aural warning says the word “Terrain!” or
indication. For this reason, aural warnings are used in the “Whoop, whoop! Pull up!”
GPWS when the aircraft is in a dangerous position relative to
the ground. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IXAWpjdxSbQ
During operation, a GPWS senses the nearness of the ground Mode-3 warnings occur when the aircraft has initiated a climb
and warns the pilot if the aircraft is too near the ground when it after takeoff or after a missed approach. If there is a loss of
is not in a configuration for landing. It does this by monitoring altitude under these conditions, the “GROUND PROXIMITY”
the radio altimeter to determine the actual height above the light will illuminate, and the aural warning will say “Don’t sink”
ground. It also monitors the air data computer, instrument http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnp-cif6kaE
landing system, and landing gear and flap position to determine
if the aircraft is properly configured for its distance from the Mode-4 warnings occur during the landing phase of a flight. If
ground. If it is too near the ground for its location or there is insufficient terrain clearance when the landing gear is
configuration, the system will warn the pilot. up, or the flaps are not in land configuration. The warning will
sound “Too low gear!” or “Too low flaps!” and the
A typical GPWS in an aircraft will warn the flight crew of five “GROUND PROXIMITY” light illuminates.
types of hazards:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dzRTyZYV3m8
5.1-80
GPWS Mode 1
GPWS Mode 4A
GPWS Mode 2a
GPWS Mode 4B
GPWS Mode 3
5.1-81
Mode-5 warnings occur when the aircraft is on ILS approach.
If the aircraft sinks below the glideslope, the amber GS light will
illuminate, and the aural warning will repeat “Glideslope,
glideslope.”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJFxmTYzr7g
Mode 6 provides alerts and callouts for descent below

predefined altitudes, decision height (DH), minimums and
approaching decision height, approaching minimums.
Alerts for an excessive roll or bank angle are also provided as

part of this mode. The “Excessive bank angle” aural alerts
are given twice and then suppressed unless the roll angle
increases by an additional 20%.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KezTVsg2p1M
Specific callouts are selected via program pin from predefined

menus. Mode-6 alerts and callouts produce aural and
ARINC 429 output indications, but do not produce visual
indications.
5.1-82
GPWS Mode 5
GPWS Mode 6
5.1-83
Windshear alerting
Mode 7 produces optional alerts for flight into excessive wind

shear conditions during takeoff or final approach. The
windshear warning produces aural, visual and ARINC 429
output indications.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9yjtbUO4GUc
Windshear detection is active during the initial takeoff and final

approach phases of flight.
Alert and warnings are provided when the level of wind shear
exceeds predetermined threshold values.
The actual wind shear value measured represents the vector

sum of inertial acceleration versus air mass accelerations along
the flight path and perpendicular to the flight-path.
These shears result from vertical winds and rapidly changing

horizontal winds.
Windshear warnings are given for decreasing headwind (or

increasing tailwind) and severe vertical downdrafts. Windshear
alerts are given for increasing headwind (or decreasing
tailwind) and severe updrafts. The windshear microburst
phenomenon and windshear caution and warning levels are
illustrated below.
5.1-84
GPWS Mode 7 - windshear
5.1-85
Enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGPWS)
Honeywell’s enhanced ground proximity warning system
(EGPWS) serves as an independent monitor of an aircraft’s
position relative to surrounding terrain.
EGPWS uses aircraft inputs such as position, attitude, airspeed

and glideslope, which along with internal terrain, obstacles, and
airport databases predict a potential conflict between the
aircraft’s flight path and terrain or an obstacle. The result is a
visual and audio caution or warning alert. When coupled with
the display, the surrounding terrain can be viewed relative to
the aircraft position, providing strategic terrain information up to
30 minutes before a potential terrain conflict.
Compared to the GPWS, the EGPWS requires additional

systems of inputs and outputs:
• Terrain database;
• The display unit (e.g. weather radar display, nav display
or MFD integration); and
• GPS
5.1-86
EGPWS schematic
5.1-87
Terrain database System block diagram
Local terrain processing extracts and formats local topographic The enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGPWS)
terrain data from the EGPWS terrain database. This database generates aural voice and visual warnings when one of the
divides the earth’s surface into grid sets referenced horizontally following conditions occurs between radio altitudes 30 feet and
on the geographic (lat/long) coordinate. Elements of the grid 2,450 feet for Modes 2, 4, 5 and between 10 feet and 2,450 feet
sets record the highest terrain elevation. for Modes 1 and 3.
Grid sets vary in resolution depending on geographic location. • Mode 1: excessive rate of descent
Because the overwhelming majority of ‘controlled flight into • Mode 2: excessive terrain closure rate
terrain (CFIT)’ accidents occur near an airport, and the fact that • Mode 3: altitude loss after takeoff or go around
aircraft operate in close proximity to terrain near airports, higher • Mode 4: unsafe terrain clearance when not in landing
resolution grids are used around airports. Lower resolution configuration
grids are used outside of airport areas where en route aircraft • Mode 5: excessive deviation below glideslope.
altitude makes accidents unlikely and for which detailed terrain
features are not of importance to the flight crew. In addition to the basic GPWS functions the GPWS has an
enhanced function (EGPWS) which provides, based on a
Digital elevation models (DEMs) are available for most of the worldwide terrain database:
airports around the world today. The global EGPWS terrain
database is organised in a flexible and expandable manner. • A terrain awareness display (TAD), which predicts the
Using digital compression techniques, the complete database terrain conflict, and displays the terrain on the ND.
is stored in non-volatile memory of 20 MByte within the LRU. • A terrain clearance floor (TCF), which improves the low
Updates and additions are easily done by inserting a single terrain warning during landing.
PCMCIA card in a card slot on the LRU front-panel. Status
LEDs on the LRU front-panel allow the operator to monitor the The cockpit loudspeakers broadcast, even if turned off, the
database load progress and completion. aural warning or caution messages associated with each mode.
The audio volume of these messages is not controlled by the
Obstacle database loudspeaker volume knobs. (These knobs allow adjustment of
Provisions are also made for future use of an obstacle audio volume for radio communication only).
database providing obstacle data in the vicinity of major
airports. This database will provide altitude data for man-made GPWS lights come on to give a visual warning for Modes 1 to 4.
obstacles or groups of obstacles that protrude above the For Mode 5 the glideslope (G/S) lights illuminate on the captain
EGPWS terrain protection floors. and first officer instrument panel.
5.1-88
5.1-89
EGPWS terrain alerting and display EGPWS terrain picture
The enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGPWS) The ND presents the terrain picture. The terrain appears in
incorporates terrain alerting and display functions. These different colours and densities according to its relative height.
functions use aircraft geographic position, aircraft altitude, and
an internal terrain database to predict potential conflicts • Solid red warning terrain (approximately 30 seconds
between the aircraft flight path and the terrain and to provide from impact)
graphic displays of the conflicting terrain. • Solid yellow caution terrain (approximately
60 seconds from impact)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TUZbOoQrlXQ • 50% red dots more than 2,000 feet above reference
altitude
The caution and warning envelopes use the terrain clearance • 50% yellow dots 1,000 to 2,000 feet above reference
floor as a baseline, and virtually look ahead of the aircraft in a altitude
volume which is calculated as a function of airspeed, roll • 25% yellow dots 500 feet below to 1,000 feet above
attitude and flight path angle. reference altitude
• 25% green dots 500 feet below to 1,000 feet below
If the aircraft penetrates the caution envelope boundary, the reference altitude
aural message “Caution terrain! Caution terrain!” is • 12.5% green dots 1,000 to 2,000 feet below reference
generated, and alert discretes are activated for visual altitude
annunciation. Simultaneously, the conflicting terrain areas are • Black no close terrain
shown in solid yellow colour on the terrain display. • Magenta unknown terrain
If the aircraft penetrates the warning envelope boundary, the
aural message “Terrain, terrain − pull up!” is generated, and
alert discretes are activated for visual annunciation.
Simultaneously the conflicting terrain areas are shown in solid
red colour on the terrain display.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=frqYcbfKb4s
5.1-90
5.1-91
Terrain clearance floor (TCF)
A number of airports throughout the world have approaches or
departures that are not entirely compatible with standard
GPWS operation. These airports are identified in the database
in such a way that when the GPWS recognises such an airport,
it modifies the profile to avoid nuisance warnings.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IJr8SSyStLQ
The terrain clearance floor (TCF) creates an increasing terrain

clearance envelope around the intended airport runway directly
related to the distance from the runway it is active during
takeoff, cruise and final approach.
5.1-92
5.1-93
EGPWS architecture and interfaces
The GPWS computer receives 115 V AC from the “GND PROX When the flap inhibit switch on the GPWM is in the inhibit
WARN” circuit breaker on the circuit breaker panel. The terrain position, a flap inhibit discrete signal goes to the GPWC. This
weather relays receive 28 V DC from the “TERRAIN DISPLAY” simulates a flaps landing position in the GPWC. The GPWM
circuit breaker on the circuit breaker panel. also sends a test discrete signal to the GPWC. The GPWC
uses the test discrete to start a self-test of the GPWS.
The GPWC provides a ground discrete to energise the terrain
weather relays. This discrete lets the GPWC connect with the The PSEU sends air/ground discrete data to the GPWC for in-
DEUs so that terrain data shows on the navigation displays. air logic to inhibit BITE in the air and for flight leg counting.
The terrain select discrete can be set manually with the “TERR”
switch on the EFIS control panel or automatically by the pop- The GPWC sends an advisory inhibit discrete to the TCAS
up function. The pop-up function allows terrain data to show computer when the GPWC gives an aural message. The
automatically on the navigation displays when a terrain GPWC aural messages have a higher priority than the TCAS
awareness warning is detected. This function only occurs when aural messages. With the exception of Mode-6 aural
both of the navigation displays are not currently showing terrain messages. Mode-6 aural messages can occur at the same time
data. as TCAS aural messages.
When the terrain weather relays energise, they send 28 V DC The GPWC also sends a predictive wind shear inhibit discrete
to the GPWC relay monitors to show relay position. to the weather radar receiver-transmitter when the GPWC
gives an alert with a higher priority than the weather radar alert.
Gear position from the landing gear lever switch module in the
P2-3 goes to the gear inhibit switch in the ground proximity The GPWC sends discretes to the captain and first officer
warning module. The ground proximity warning module glideslope inhibit switch. The lights come on for GPWC Mode-5
(GPWM) sends the landing gear position discrete to the alerts. When you push the light assemblies, a discrete goes to
GPWC. The gear inhibit switch in the inhibit position sends a the GPWC to turn off the lights and stop the aural warnings.
discrete to the GPWC that simulates the landing gear in the
extended position. The GPWC sends a GPWC INOP discrete to the GPW control
module to turn on the amber INOP light.
The GPWM terrain inhibit discrete prevents the enhanced
function of the GPWS. The discrete does not affect the GPWS alert and warning aural messages go to the REU. The
operation of Modes 1 through 7. Terrain cautions, terrain REU sends the aural messages to the flight compartment.
warnings, terrain displays, and terrain aural messages are
inhibited.
5.1-94
EGPWS schematic
5.1-95
Synthetic vision technology (SVT)
Also known as synthetic vision system (SVS). Synthetic vision In order for SVT to represent a faithful view of what we see out
provides situational awareness to the operators by using of the windshield, the synthetic images must be shown relative
terrain, obstacle, geopolitical and other databases. A typical to the heading and track of the aircraft. The track is the path of
SVT application uses a set of databases stored on board the the aircraft over the ground, and heading is where the nose is
aircraft, an image generator computer, and a PFD. Navigation pointed. Those images only line up when there is zero
is obtained using GPS. crosswind and the aircraft has no crab angle. If SVT did not
consider both heading and track, a runway or obstacle would
Although synthetic vision is not intended to replace traditional not be in the proper relationship to the nose of the aircraft, and
attitude and directional cues as the primary flight reference, it that would be potentially confusing when you break out of the
clearly does augment the pilot’s view of this data – by giving it clouds or are peering through murk or darkness.
a realistic visual frame of reference. Thus, the ‘big picture’ that
pilots once struggled to mentally synthesise from a myriad of To keep the SVT display in proper orientation both laterally and
instruments on their panel is now clearly laid out right in front of vertically the system needs to calculate the aircraft’s flight path
them. in 3D. The flight path is not where the aircraft is pointed but is
its current trajectory projected ahead based on forces acting on
For example, when flying in areas or at altitudes where rising the aircraft. You need inertial sensors to calculate a flight path
terrain may pose a hazard, SVT uses its terrain-alerting because it is the inertia, or energy, that propels the aircraft on
database to colourise the landscape – clearly showing with its path, not airspeed or attitude.
yellow or red overlays those areas where potential flight-into-
terrain risks exist. Pilots will also appreciate SVT’s pathways or highway-in-the-
sky (HITS) guidance. Depicted as 3D ‘flying rectangles’,
Also, any towers or obstacles that may encroach upon the flight pathway guidance symbols help pilots stay on course when
path are colour-highlighted and clearly displayed with height- flying en route legs, VNAV legs, GPS/WAAS/SBAS vertical
appropriate symbology. approach procedures, ILS approach procedures, and arrival
and departure procedures. When on an ILS approach, pilots
The actual terrain and obstruction data are already stored in will take advantage of the system whereby SVT relies on ILS
the terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) database. signals to position the pathway. Therefore, when pilots fly
TAWS is already a part of many EFIS systems, so the through the SVT boxes on an ILS approach, they will
information required to create the SVT images is already automatically fly the precision glideslope. Pathways may be
existing. No additional hardware is required. enabled or disabled via a PFD softkey.
5.1-96
Landing with SVT

Garmin G1000 SVT on PFD and TOPO on MFD
Garmin G1000 MFD with terrain Highway-in-the-sky with SVT

5.1-97
Traffic awareness Traffic advisory system (TAS)
Two types of traffic awareness are available to the light aircraft: Traffic advisory systems (TAS), which are based on the
technology originally developed for air-transport category traffic
Traffic information service (TIS) – Using ADS-B to transmit alert and collision avoidance systems (TCAS), have been
the traffic position information from a ground facility to the available for general aviation aircraft for several years, but have
aircraft which displays it on the PFD and MFD. been cost-prohibitive for many pilot/owners.
Traffic advisory system (TAS) – This is an independent Avidyne’s TAS detects and actively interrogates other aircraft
airborne system utilising directional antennas and a suitable transponders within range, display the surrounding traffic on a
Mode-S transponder. host of compatible display systems, and provide audible and
visual alerts in the event of a potential traffic conflict. They
The traffic can be displayed on a dedicated traffic page or provide real-time traffic monitoring and advisories, are not
overlaid on the MFD MAP page and the PFD with SVT. radar-coverage limited, and operate independently of ground-
Only traffic advisories are provided (with warnings and based systems.
cautions). As yet, no avionics manufacturer has launched a The system provides traffic advisories by calculating range,
system which provides Resolution Advisories within the budget bearing, and altitude of intruder aircraft relative to the host
of the average general aviation pilot/owner. aircraft, and provide a graphical overlay view and traffic
Traffic information service (TIS) depiction with TCAS symbology on display systems from many
A function of the ADS-B system (see description later), a other manufacturers.
ground-based facility receives aircraft GPS position data via The system uses 2x blade antennas, one of which scans
suitably enabled Mode-S transponders on the aircraft. The laterally, the other scans fore and aft, each on a 90° electronic
facility then transmits the information of all aircraft in the vicinity sweep angle, to locate proximity aircraft bearing relative to the
(usually a 55 nm radius) to any aircraft with a suitably TIS aircraft, and a Mode S transponder to interrogate the proximity
enabled Mode-S receiver and EFIS display unit. traffic’s flight management system for data such as altitude,
TIS uses the Mode-S transponder for the traffic data link. TIS vertical speed and airspeed.
receives traffic information from ground stations and is updated
every five seconds. A typical EFIS such as the Garmin G1000
displays up to eight traffic targets within a 7.5 nm radius, from
3,000 feet below to 3,500 feet above the requesting aircraft.
5.1-98
Avidyne’s TAS uses two directional antennae

to find the proximity traffic’s relative bearing
5.1-99
Traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS)
General Inputs
A traffic collision avoidance system or traffic alert and collision To function properly, TCAS requires the following inputs:
avoidance system (both abbreviated as TCAS) is an aircraft
collision avoidance system designed to reduce the incidence of • aircraft address code
mid-air collisions between aircraft. It monitors the airspace • air-air Mode-S transmissions received by the Mode-S
around an aircraft for other aircraft equipped with a transponder
corresponding active transponder, independent of air traffic • own aircraft’s maximum cruising true airspeed capability
control, and warns pilots of the presence of other transponder- • pressure altitude
equipped aircraft which may present a threat of mid-air collision • radio altitude
(MAC).
Intruder’s requirements
It is a type of airborne collision avoidance system mandated by The main problem with TCAS is that it can only detect and alert
the International Civil Aviation Organisation to be fitted to all to aircraft which have operating transponders. It can only
aircraft with a maximum take-off mass (MTOM) of over deconflict with aircraft which have operating and serviceable
5,700 kg (12,600 lb) or authorised to carry more than altitude reporting (Mode C) transponders. It is therefore
19 passengers. It requires that it is installed for aircraft with important that all aircraft, even those not receiving a radar
more than 30 passengers. service, have their transponders switched on in both Mode A
and Mode C.
TCAS is based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR)
transponder signals but operates independently of ground- Definitions
based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential
conflicting aircraft. Traffic advisory (TA) − An indication given to the flight crew
that a certain intruder is a potential threat.
It differs from the Traffic Advisory System (TAS) previously
described, in that it is able to provide vocalised instructions to Resolution advisory (RA) − An indication given to the flight
avoid danger, known as a ‘Resolution Advisory’ (RA). The crew recommending a manoeuvre intended to provide
suggestive action may be ‘corrective’, suggesting the pilot separation from all threats
change vertical speed by announcing, “Descend, descend!”,
“Climb, climb!” or “Adjust vertical, speed adjust!” (meaning
reduce vertical speed).
5.1-100
TCAS resolution advisory (RA)

5.1-101
Airborne equipment
Antennas
ACAS II uses two antennas, one above and one below the
aircraft. The top antenna is a direction finding one, as is often
the bottom one. Several installations may use an
omnidirectional receiver antenna on the bottom surface, but no
directional information is then available if the transponded
signal is not received by the top antenna. These antennas are
kept separate from the normal SSR antenna.
Control unit
A typical TCAS control unit is similar to an SSR controller, with
the additional functions of selecting either traffic alert or both
traffic alert and resolution advisory functions. The VFR function
allows an automatic change in transponder code to a
preselected VFR code (7000 in the UK).
5.1-102
TCAS control unit and display TCAS system schematic
5.1-103
Displays
There are four different symbols which may appear on the In modern glass cockpit aircraft, the TCAS display may be
TCAS cockpit display. These appear in a position on the integrated in the navigation display (ND) or electronic horizontal
display relating to the relative position of the other aircraft, situation indicator (EHSI); in older glass cockpit aircraft and
although if the system cannot determine the bearing of that those with mechanical instrumentation, such an integrated
aircraft it will show the relevant symbol in a convenient position TCAS display may replace the mechanical Vertical Speed
with the words “no bearing”. Manufacturers claim a bearing Indicator (which indicates the rate with which the aircraft is
accuracy of 2°. descending or climbing).
The symbol displayed is selected by the equipment depending

on the intruder’s position and closing rate. A TA which is not a
threat will appear initially as an open white (or sometimes blue)
diamond on the display. This means it is more than 6 nm or
more than 1,200 ft vertically (if a Mode-C signal is received)
away from your aircraft.
A solid diamond indicates that the other traffic is within that safe
zone (i.e. proximate), but the computer calculates it is still not
a threat.
If the computer calculates that the intruder is potentially

hazardous, the symbol will change to a solid yellow circle. A
voice TA will be given of “Traffic, traffic”. About
10-15 seconds later, if the intruder is assessed as an actual
collision threat, the symbol will change to a red square, and a
voice command will give an indication of the computed RA,
which will be displayed exactly on the cockpit display.
If the intruder is transponding with Mode C, the symbol will

have beside it the relative altitude in hundreds of feet. If the
relative altitude is changing by more than 500 ft/min, a plus or
minus sign will also appear.
5.1-104
TCAS vertical speed indicator

(VSI) displays visual
resolution advisories
Traffic information on the navigation display (ND)
Traffic
information on
a dedicated Display symbology
TCAS display
5.1-105
Vibration measurement and indication
A turbine engine has an extremely low vibration level and a
change in vibration, due to an impending or partial failure, may
go unnoticed. Many engines are therefore fitted with vibration
indicators that continually monitor the vibration level of the
engine.
Vibration transducer
Early vibration transducers were of the moving coil type and up
to three could be located at strategic locations around the
engine (HP compressor case, LP turbine case, etc.). The units
of vibration for these systems were in terms of Relative
Amplitude
An alternative system consists of a piezoelectric crystal and a

mass inside a casing. As the engine vibrates, the mass will
exert a force upon the crystal which will emit a small alternating
current of a frequency equal to the frequency of vibration. This
is then amplified and displayed in the flight deck via an
ammeter.
Airborne vibration monitoring (AVM) system

A modern system has a pair of piezoelectric crystals contained
within one housing. This provides for dual channel redundancy.
Each transducer detects a broadband vibration signal that
reflects all the vibrations in the engine. This broadband signal
is processed by a microprocessor and the frequency of the
rotating spools (N1, N2 and for RR engines N3) so that the
amplitude of vibration of these major assemblies can be
displayed, usually on EICAS or ECAM
5.1-106
Early vibration monitoring system
5.1-107
Piezo-electric vibration transducer
5.1-108
5.1-109
Engine condition monitoring
The airborne vibration monitoring plays an important part in the
condition monitoring programme of the engine and the aircraft
as a whole.
Airlines download the data from the airborne vibration

monitoring system, stored within the maintenance computer,
and plot ‘trend’ graphs against time. The trends are analysed
on a ground computer to determine if there is any incipient
failure of an engine component.
By careful positioning of multiple vibration probes on the

engine, the different spools (N1, N2 and N3) can be analysed
separately, compared against the respective rpm data, and the
location of the failing component can be identified and rectified
efficiently before any in-flight engine shutdown is necessary.
5.1-110
A vibration trend analysis
5.1-111
Temperature measurement
Static air temperature (SAT)

The SAT is the temperature of the real undisturbed air around The difference between TAT and SAT is called ram rise (RR)
the aircraft. The air data computer reads the TAT from the and is caused by compressibility and friction of the air at high
temperature probe and needs the Mach number to calculate velocities.
the SAT.
In practice, the ram rise is negligible for aircraft flying at
This temperature is used to calculate true airspeed (TAS) and airspeeds under Mach 0.2
to inform the passengers of the outside air temperature.
For airspeeds over Mach 0.2, as airspeed increases the
The majority of temperature sensors use a platinum wire temperature exceeds that of still air. This is caused by a
element which is contained either in a probe mounted in what combination of kinetic (friction) heating and adiabatic
is termed a ‘flush bulb configuration’, or in a specially designed compression
probe, that is shielded from solar radiation.
• Kinetic heating − As the airspeed increases, more and
In the type of sensor shown below the probe protrudes through more molecules of air per second hit the aircraft. This
a hole in the aircraft skin. causes a temperature rise in the direct reading
thermometer probe of the aircraft due to friction. Kinetic
If the sensing element is mounted flush with the aircraft skin heating for modern passenger jets is almost negligible.
(flush bulb), it will sense only the static air temperature (SAT). • Adiabatic compression − This is caused by a
The recovery factor, or the ratio of the indicated to the actual conversion of energy and not by direct application of
temperature, of this type of sensor varies from 0.75 to 0.90, heat. At airspeeds over Mach 0.2, in the remote reading
which is dependent on the aircraft geometry, and location of the temperature probe (TAT-probe), the outside airflow
bulb. which may be several hundred knots, is brought virtually
to rest very rapidly.
Total air temperature (TAT)
The TAT is the temperature of the air compressed by the impact The energy (specific kinetic energy) of the moving air is
of the flying aircraft. At higher airspeeds, the temperature is then released (converted) in the form of a temperature
increased. rise (specific enthalpy).
This temperature is used for the power setting of the engines.
5.1-112
TAS and SAT indication
TAS and SAT indication on ECAM (Airbus)
Static air temperature sensor

5.1-113
Total air temperature (TAT) probe
For aircraft operating at high Mach numbers, it is usual to sense
and measure the maximum temperature rise possible. This is
called the total air temperature (TAT) or ram air temperature
(RAT) and is the temperature of the air when it is brought to
rest (or nearly so) without the addition or removal of heat.
The advantages of this type of thermometer over the flush bulb

type are that it has a virtually zero time-lag, and also has a
recovery factor of approximately one. This type of probe is
normally connected directly to a flight deck indicator, and also
to the Mach number module of an air data computer (ADC).
An air intake, which is mounted on top of a small streamlined

strut is secured to the aircraft skin at a predetermined location
at the nose, where it is free from any boundary layer activity. In
flight, air pressure within the probe is slightly higher than
outside, and air flows through the probe. Separation of water
droplets from the air is achieved by causing the air to turn
through 90° before it passes over the sensing element.
Bleed holes in the casing also allow boundary layer air to be

drawn off due to the pressure differential, which exists across
the casing.
A pure platinum resistance wire, which is sealed within two

concentric platinum tubes is used to sense the temperature,
and a heating element is mounted on the probe to prevent any
ice forming.
The heater has a minimal effect on the indicated temperature

readings, with typical values being 0.9°C at Mach 0.1 and
0.15°C at Mach 1.0.
5.1-114
Total air temperature probe
Total air temperature probe
Rosemount
probe (Airbus
A380) with Rosemount probe with bleed air
combined alpha
vane
5.1-115
Flight data recorder (FDR)
Requirements
The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) requires that all • flight deck warnings;
turbine-powered aircraft with a take-off weight greater than • landing gear position; and
5,700 kg and with seating for more than nine passengers shall • radio altitude.
be equipped with a flight data recorder. The device must be
capable of retaining data recorded during at least the last The data recorded must be from essentially the same sources
25 hours of aircraft operation, although this figure may be as those which supply the information displayed to the flight
reduced to 10 hours for aircraft with a take-off weight of less crew and it must include any parameters that are peculiar to
than 5,700 kg. the operating characteristics of the aircraft design.
The data recorded must be sufficient to establish the following The flight data recorder must automatically begin recording all
flight parameters: the above data before the aircraft is capable of moving under
• altitude; its own power and must automatically cease recording after the
• airspeed; aircraft is no longer capable of moving under its own power. In
• heading; practical terms, this usually means that recording starts with the
• the attitude in pitch and roll; start of the first engine and ceases at shut-down of the last
• acceleration; engine. The recorder must be contained within a container
• thrust or power on each engine; painted in a distinctive orange or yellow colour and its recovery
• the configuration of lift or drag devices; must be assisted by reflective material and an underwater
• radio transmission keying; locating device that is automatically activated upon immersion.
• use of automatic flight control systems;
• angle of attack; and
It must be so installed in the aircraft that the probability of
• air temperature.
damage to the recorded data from shock, heat or fire is
minimised. This is usually satisfied by locating the flight data
For aircraft with a take-off weight in excess of 27,000 kg, it is recorder as far aft as practicable, typically in the vicinity of the
required that additional data must be recorded in order to be rear pressure bulkhead.
able to establish the following parameters, as well as those
listed above: The electrical supply to the recorder must be from a bus bar
• primary flight control positions;
that can be expected to provide power under all circumstances,
• pitch trim;
without jeopardising essential or emergency services. There
• primary navigation information, as displayed to the flight
must also be a pre-flight testing facility to check the
crew; serviceability of the recorder.
5.1-116
5.1-117
System monitoring
The flight data recorder system has its own built-in test In an alternative method, the acceleration force moves a
equipment (BITE) and the serviceability of this and the recorder pendulum in the sensing mechanism. The detector always
should be checked before the first flight of the day. FDRs are forces the sensing-mass to the centre position. The current
subject to annual inspection and to calibration on a 5-year from the amplifier is proportional to the acceleration.
cycle. Dedicated airspeed and altitude sensing equipment are
subject to bi-annual inspection and calibration. Underwater locator beacon
You find the underwater locator beacon on the front panel of
Aircraft integrated data system (AIDS) the flight data recorder. The beacon has a high impact case
Many of the larger transport aircraft types are equipped with which contains; a mercury battery; a water sensitive switch; an
data gathering and retention systems for monitoring the health electronic timer module and piezoelectric transducer.
and performance of the engines and aircraft systems. The
system most commonly used is known as the aircraft integrated After water entry, it transmits a 37.5 kHz pulse every second.
data system (AIDS), which provides the option of a real-time The range of the beacon is two miles in any direction and the
display of current operating conditions or downloading and system operates for about 30 days. At one side of the beacon
printing out of the data when the aircraft is on the ground. Some is an end cap with the name “BATTERY ACCESS”, the other
operators make use of an extension to AIDS known as the end cap contains the water switch. Keep the switch end of the
aircraft communication addressing and reporting system beacon clean and replace the battery when the label
(ACARS), whereby the system can be interrogated from the “REPLACE BATTERY BY: xx/xx/2xxx ” tells you to do so.
operator’s ground base and technical data downloaded whilst
the aircraft is in flight. The data recorded and stored by AIDS
can be interchanged with the flight data recorder and the FDR
data can be printed out during aircraft maintenance.
Three-axis accelerometer
The three axes accelerometer detects acceleration along the
longitudinal, the lateral and the vertical axes. The unit is at the
centre of gravity of the aircraft.
The unit has, for each axis, a sensor. The sensor has a bar
which bends when there is acceleration. The resistance value
of the strain gauge changes when the bar bends. The strain
gauge is a part of a resistance bridge and results in a change
in the output voltage.
5.1-118
Flight data recorders
5.1-119
Typical flight data recording system
The purpose of the digital flight data recorder system (DFDRS) For test and maintenance purposes on the ground as well as
is to record various critical flight parameters in a solid-state for pre-flight check, it is possible to supply power to the FDR by
memory to fulfil the mandatory requirements of crash recording. pressing the ground control push button on the overhead panel.
The DFDRS basically includes a flight data acquisition unit, a

flight data recorder (FDR), a linear accelerometer, an “EVENT”
push button and a control panel to meet the minimum
requirements.
The flight data acquisition unit is a computer which collects

various basic aircraft system parameters and converts them by
internal processing.
The flight data recorder is located in the rear part of the aircraft.
It stores, in a solid-state memory the data of the last 25 hours
collected by the FDAU. The memory board is located in a
mechanical protected box. The front face of the FDR includes
an underwater locator beacon.
The aircraft systems send basic parameters to the flight data

acquisition unit (FDAU) via various system computers. The
information about the aircraft is provided to the FDAU directly
by pin programming.
The linear accelerometer is installed at the aircraft centre of

gravity to provide the three axes acceleration data.
When pushed, the “EVENT” push button is used to record an

event mark in the flight data recorder (FDR) memory. The
“EVENT” push button is located on the pedestal.
Power interlock − the flight data recorder is automatically

supplied with power when one engine is started and will stop
five minutes after the last engine shutdown.
5.1-120
FDR system
5.1-121
Fuel quantity measurement and indication
Capacitance type
Capacitance type fuel quantity measuring systems measure The dielectric constant of the fuel is approximately two, but it
the mass of the fuel, rather than just its level in the tank. This is varies according to its temperature and so a compensator is
an electronic system that measures the capacitance of the built into the bottom of one of the tank units. It is electrically in
probe, or probes, which serve as the tank sender units. A parallel with the probes and cancels the changes in dielectric
capacitor can store electrical charges, and it consists of two constant as the temperature of the fuel changes.
conductors called plates separated by some form of dielectric
or insulator. Digital technology is also incorporated into a quantity indicating
system.
The capacity of a capacitor depends upon three variables: the
area of the plates, the separation between the plates, which is The indicator contains a power supply unit, a probe driver, an
the thickness of the dielectric, and the dielectric constant of the A/D converter and a processor unit. A combined digital read-
material between the plates. The probes in a capacitance fuel out with analogue pointer and scale provides a safe reading.
quantity indicating system are made of two concentric metal
tubes which serve as the plates of the capacitor. The area of
the plates is fixed, as well as the separation between them, so
the only variable we have is the material which separates them.
These probes are installed so they cross the tank from top to
bottom, and when the tank is empty, the plates are separated
by air which has a dielectric constant of one. When the tank is
full, the dielectric is the fuel which has a constant of
approximately two. In any condition between full and empty,
part of the dielectric is air and part is fuel, and so the capacity
of the probe varies according to the level of fuel in the tank.
One of the big advantages of this system is that the probes can
be tailored for tanks of all sizes and shapes, and all probes in
the aircraft can be connected so the system integrates their
output to show the total amount of fuel on board.
5.1-122
Capacitance-type fuel quantity

measurement
5.1-123
Ultrasonic type
The fundamental distinction between ultrasonic and
capacitance gauging is that ultrasonic gauging uses a
technologically different suite of in-tank sensors that is
accompanied by changes in both the signal conditioning
interface and software within the processor.
Once fuel height and the associated fuel parameters have been
accurately determined, the calculation of fuel quantity is very
similar to that of a capacitance system.
Ultrasonic fuel height measurement relies on the phenomenon

that sound energy can be transmitted through the liquid and be
reflected at an interface with that liquid.
A key consideration in the measurement is that the velocity of

sound in fuel is inversely proportional to temperature, with
some further variation due to fuel type.
The basic principle of ultrasonic fuel gauging is its dependence

on two measurements:
• the speed with which the ultrasound travels through fuel,

as measured by a velocimeter; and
• the round-trip time for sound to travel upwards through
fuel from the transmitting transducer to the fuel surface
and downwards back to the receiving transducer, as
measured by a probe.
5.1-124
Ultrasonic-type fuel quantity measurement sensors
5.1-125
The ultrasonic probe is configured as a transducer assembly at This is achieved by incorporating a labyrinth-type baffle in the
the lower end with a stillwell attached and mounted vertically transducer assembly.
above it. The probe may be constructed from metal and/or
composite materials. The overall length of the probe, for a given To help eliminate false measurement, it is important that any
location, is the same as an equivalent capacitance probe, spurious ultrasound reflections created within the stillwell are
barring any necessary mounting clearances. kept to a minimum at all times. This is achieved by ensuring the
inside surface of the stillwell is smooth by uniformly coating or
The transducer assembly features a piezoelectric ceramic disk lining the surface with acoustically suitable material. Also,
that acts as a transceiver to both generate and receive careful attention to the probe mountings should be made as the
ultrasound. The thickness and diameter of the crystal mechanical interface with the outside of the stillwell can lead to
determine the resonant frequency of the crystal. Typically, a internal reflections. To that end, the lower mounting bracket
crystal with a resonant frequency between 1 and 10 MHz is should be fixed to the bubble shroud and the upper movable
selected. The transducer assembly comprises the disk and a mounting bracket(s), with damper(s) located on the stillwell.
resistive discharge network, mounted directly on to the disk, to
safely dissipate any abnormal energy created by temperature A typical probe and an assembly view are shown below.
or mechanical shock, a mechanical labyrinth or bubble shroud,
and provision for the electrical connections to the in-tank
harness. Care must be taken in the mounting of the disk within
the transducer to ensure that resonance is not impeded. Also,
as the resonating disk will emit ultrasound not only up the
stillwell but downwards into the assembly to cause unwanted
reflections, the sound absorbent material is required to be
located under the disk.
The purpose of the stillwell is to both collimate the sound

generated and received by the transducer and provide a
‘sheltered’ area to make measurements. The stillwell protects
measurements from major phenomenon such as fuel slosh or
large bubbles. The design of the stillwell and transducer
assembly has to be such that fuel can readily enter the stillwell
so that the level follows that outside the stillwell but prevents
the ingress of large bubbles caused by turbulence that may be
created by operations such as refuelling.
5.1-126
Ultrasonic-type fuel quantity measurement stillwell sensor Ultrasonic-type fuel quantity measurement stillwell sensor
5.1-127
Standby instruments
Older EFIS equipped light aircraft may have three conventional • a single instrument reduces weight and scan times vs.
mechanical analogue gages as standby instruments. reading multiple instruments; and
• its solid-state design (using MEMS technology) offers
This is the minimum requirement: increased reliability compared to electro-mechanical
instruments.
• an airspeed indicator;
• an attitude indicator; The instrument contains an AHRS internally.
• an altimeter; and
• a heading indicator, The external inputs to the instrument are Pitot and static
pipelines, and a magnetometer. If the magnetometer fails,
These instruments must be provided as standby and operate heading information will not be available. If the Pitot-static
independently of aircraft power. system fails, airspeed and altitude information will not be
available. These areas of the display will be replaced with red-
For example, the Trilogy ESI provides backup for attitude, cross flags. Attitude information is provided by internal MEMS
altitude, airspeed, slip/skid and optional heading information. It gyroscopes and will be available in the event of loss of any
is 100% solid-state, integrated standby system. The Trilogy ESI other inputs.
replaces traditional electromechanical standby instruments and
combines the information into a compact and easy to read
4" x 3" LCD display. Its space-saving footprint, internal lithium-
ion battery and complete digital design make it the ideal
standby for both new aircraft, as well as those outfitted with
ageing or traditional analogue gauges.
Key features are:
• it combines attitude, altitude, airspeed, slip/skid and

optional heading data into a single digital display;
• logically grouped flight data eliminates multiple
instruments, making the transition to standby easier;
• internal battery provides flight data for a minimum of one
hour after power loss (the minimum regulatory
requirement is half an hour)
5.1-128
A conventional four-gauge standby system, and a composite LCD standby instrument

comprising three of the four minimum standby instrumentation requirements
Trilogy ESI - Inputs are Pitot

and static, power supply (for
battery charging) and
magnetometer (for magnetic
heading reference).
The trilogy electronic standby instrument (ESI)

A conventional three-gauge standby system
provides three of the primary flight instruments
in a single LCD display
5.1-129
Flight management system (FMS)
A flight management system (FMS) is an optional component The NDB contains all of the information required for building a
of a modern light aircraft avionics suite. An FMS is a specialised flight plan, consisting of:
computer system that automates a wide variety of in-flight
tasks, reducing the workload on the pilot. • waypoints/intersection;
• airways (highways in the sky);
A primary function is the in-flight management of the flight plan. • radio navigation aids including distance measuring
Using various sensors (such as GPS often backed up by radio equipment (DME), VHF omnidirectional range (VOR),
navigation) to determine the aircraft’s position, the FMS can non-directional beacons (NDBs) and instrument landing
guide the aircraft along the flight plan. systems (ILS);
• airports;
The FMS usually requires no more hardware than that which is • runways;
already incorporated into a modern light aircraft EFIS. The only • standard instrument departure (SID);
requirement is the software which is hosted on the EFIS • standard terminal arrival (STAR); and
computers. The FMS sends the flight plan for display to the • instrument approach procedure (IAP).
EFIS.
Waypoints can also be defined by the pilot(s) along the route
The FMS contains a navigation database (NDB). The or by reference to other waypoints with the entry of a place in
navigation database contains the elements from which the flight the form of a waypoint (e.g. a VOR, NDB, ILS, airport or
plan is constructed. The navigation database (NDB) is normally waypoint/intersection).
updated every 28 days, in order to ensure that its contents are
current. The ability to set a series of waypoints and destination makes
any EFIS system a virtual FMS providing LNAV capability
within the P-RNAV specification when using GPS with
WAAS/SBAS.
Some systems also allow selection of a vertical flight plan, and

coupled with autopilot, this provides VNAV capability.
5.1-130
Flight plan page on Garmin G1000

5.1-131
Commercial aircraft EFIS
An electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) is a flight deck Depending upon the phase of flight and pilot selections, the
instrument display system in which the display technology used flight director will provide appropriate lateral guidance to
is electronic rather than electromechanical. maintain the selected track, heading or approach and missed
approach track and vertical guidance for climb and descent,
Early EFIS systems portray information using cathode ray tube level off, approach and missed approach. This greatly reduces
(CRT) technology. Later instrument displays are presented on pilot workload while in manual flight and facilitates flight
multi-colour liquid-crystal display (LCD) screens, which replace monitoring with the autopilot engaged as all required
some or all of the conventional flight instruments for both pilots. information is displayed on a single instrument.
A typical EFIS system comprises a primary flight display (PFD)
(electronic attitude direction indicator (EADI)) and an electronic
horizontal situation indicator (EHSI) (navigation display). In
some designs, the two displays are integrated into one.
The primary flight display (PFD) is an instrument which

integrates and depicts, on a single display, all of the information
that was historically presented on a number of individual
electromechanical instruments. The PFD has evolved from a
basic attitude indicator/flight director combination, presented
electronically on a CRT, to an electronic attitude direction
indicator (EADI) which, variable by manufacturer, added
additional information such as heading, altitude and airspeed.
The modern PFD displays virtually all of the information that the
pilot requires to determine basic flight parameters (altitude,
attitude, airspeed, the rate of climb, heading, etc.) plus autopilot
and auto-throttle engagement status, flight director modes and
approach status.
5.1-132
5.1-133
PFD and ND
The two main display units that together make up the EFIS for A320 intro and EFIS
commercial aircraft are the primary flight display and the https://youtu.be/AwhbY7TvQS4
navigation display.
The primary flight display (PFD) is usually located in a

prominent position, either centrally or on either side of the
cockpit. It will in most cases include a digitised presentation of
the attitude indicator, airspeed and altitude indicators (usually
as a tape display) and the vertical speed indicator. It will in
many cases include some form of heading indicator and
ILS/VOR deviation indicators. In many cases, an indicator of
the engaged and armed auto flight system modes will be
present along with some form of indication of the selected
values for altitude, speed, vertical speed and heading. It may
be pilot selectable to swap with the ND.
A navigation display (ND), which may be adjacent to the PFD,

shows the current route and information on the next waypoint,
current wind speed and wind direction. It may be pilot
selectable to swap with the PFD.
On the left side of the cockpit (captain’s side), the PFD is on

the left of the ND. On the right side of the cockpit (first officer’s
side), the PFD is on the right of the ND.
This is to ensure that the PFD, which is the more important of

the two for controlling the attitude of the aircraft) is always
directly opposite the captain’s and F/O’s line of vision.
However, these arrangements can be changed at the discretion
of the pilots.
5.1-134
5.1-135
Primary flight display (PFD)
A primary flight display or PFD is a modern aircraft instrument The centre of the PFD contains an attitude indicator, which
dedicated to flight information. Much like multi-function gives the pilot information about the aircraft’s pitch and roll, and
displays, primary flight displays are built around an LCD or CRT the orientation of the aircraft with respect to the horizon.
display device. Representations of older six-pack or ‘steam
gauge’ instruments are combined on one compact display, Unlike a traditional attitude indicator, however, the mechanical
simplifying pilot workflow and streamlining cockpit layouts. gyroscope is not contained within the panel itself but is rather a
separate device whose information is simply displayed on the
Most airliners built since the 1980s − as well as many business PFD.
jets and an increasing number of newer general aviation
aircraft − have glass cockpits equipped with primary flight and The attitude indicator is designed to look very much like
multi-function displays. traditional mechanical attitude indicators. Other information
that may or may not appear on or about the attitude indicator
Mechanical gauges have not been completely eliminated from can include the stall angle, a runway diagram, ILS localiser and
the cockpit with the onset of the PFD; they are retained for glide-path ‘needles’, and so on. Unlike mechanical instruments,
backup purposes in the event of total electrical failure. this information can be dynamically updated as required; the
stall angle, for example, can be adjusted in real time to reflect
While the PFD does not directly use the pitot-static system to the calculated critical angle of attack of the aircraft in its current
physically display flight data, it still uses the system to make configuration (airspeed, etc.). The PFD may also show an
altitude, airspeed, vertical speed, and other measurements indicator of the aircraft’s future path (over the next few
precisely using air pressure and barometric readings. An air seconds), as calculated by onboard computers, making it
data computer analyses the information and displays it to the easier for pilots to anticipate aircraft movements and reactions.
pilot in a readable format. A number of manufacturers produce
PFDs, varying slightly in appearance and functionality, but the A320 PFD
information is displayed to the pilot in a similar fashion. https://youtu.be/6A2Kxx3yxGg
The details of the display layout on a primary flight display can

vary enormously, depending on the aircraft, the aircraft’s
manufacturer, the specific model of PFD, certain settings
chosen by the pilot, and various internal options that are
selected by the aircraft’s owner (i.e., an airline, in the case of a
large airliner). However, the great majority of PFDs follow a
similar layout convention.
5.1-136
A typical PFD layout
5.1-137
To the left and right of the attitude indicator are usually the Often this part of the display shows not only the current
airspeed and altitude indicators, respectively. The airspeed heading, but also the current track (an actual path over the
indicator displays the speed of the aircraft in knots, while the ground), current heading setting on the autopilot, and other
altitude indicator displays the aircraft’s altitude above mean sea indicators.
level (AMSL). These measurements are conducted through the
aircraft’s pitot system, which tracks air pressure Other information displayed on the PFD includes navigational
measurements. As in the PFD’s attitude indicator, these marker information, bugs (to control the autopilot), ILS
systems are merely displayed data from the underlying glideslope indicators, course deviation indicators, altitude
mechanical systems and do not contain any mechanical parts indicator QFE settings, and much more.
(unlike an aircraft’s airspeed indicator and altimeter).
Although the layout of a PFD can be very complex, once a pilot
Both of these indicators are usually presented as vertical is accustomed to it the PFD can provide an enormous amount
‘tapes’, which scroll up and down as altitude and airspeed of information with a single glance.
change. Both indicators may often have ‘bugs’, that is,
indicators that show various important speeds and altitudes, The great variability in the precise details of PFD layout makes
such as V speeds calculated by a flight management system, it necessary for pilots to study the specific PFD of the specific
do-not-exceed speeds for the current configuration, stall aircraft they will be flying in advance so that they know exactly
speeds, selected altitudes and airspeeds for the autopilot, and how certain data are presented. While the basics of flight
so on. parameters tend to be much the same in all PFDs (speed,
attitude, altitude), much of the other useful information
The vertical speed indicator, usually next to the altitude presented on the display is shown in different formats on
indicator, indicates to the pilot how fast the aircraft is ascending different PFDs. For example, one PFD may show the current
or descending, or the rate at which the altitude changes. This angle of attack as a tiny dial near the attitude indicator, while
is usually represented with numbers in ‘thousands of feet per another may actually superimpose this information on the
minute.’ For example, a measurement of “+2” indicates an attitude indicator itself. Since the various graphic features of the
ascent of 2,000 feet per minute, while a measurement of “-1.5” PFD are not labelled, the pilot must learn what they all mean in
indicates a descent of 1,500 feet per minute. There may also advance.
be a simulated needle showing the general direction and
magnitude of vertical movement.
At the bottom of the PFD is the heading display, which shows

the pilot the magnetic heading of the aircraft. This functions
much like a standard magnetic heading indicator, turning as
required.
5.1-138
5.1-139
5.1-140
5.1-141
Navigation display (ND) Chronometer indication
The ND is located next to the PFD and displays horizontal Displays elapsed time in white when on-side chronometer is
situation data to the pilot and is able to be superimposed with started.
the weather radar or EGPWS (terrain information from the
International Mesh Terrain database) and/or TCAS. ND display ILS marker beacon
features include: Flashes blue for the outer marker, amber for middle marker and
white for the inner marker.
Groundspeed and true airspeed
Displays aircraft speeds in green as determined by ADIRS. Runway
Displays selected runway as oriented runway symbol. Down to
Wind direction/speed scale if range 10, 20 or 40 nm is selected.
Displays wind direction and speed with respect to true north in
numeric form and wind direction in respect to magnetic north in Holding pattern
green arrow form. Dashes indicate no wind data received. Displays active holding pattern.
Approach (APP) messages VOR/DME Navaid

Displayed in green when an ILS or VOR approach has been Displays green if a current waypoint, white if it is the “TO”
selected on the MCDU. waypoint, blue when tuned for display and magenta when not
a part of the flight plan but displayed as an option as selected
• TO waypoint information. on the FCU.
• Identification (e.g. LGW) − displays in white.
• Track to go (e.g. 011) − displays in green.
• Distance to go (e.g. 5.5nm) − displays in green.
• Estimated time of arrival (e.g. 05:36) − displays in green.
Arc mode range marks

Displays range scale selected on the EFIS control panel (10 to
320 nm) in white.
Weather radar image

Displays when the radar is operating in all modes except PLAN.
The echo colours correspond to the precipitation rate.
5.1-142
Airbus A320 panel
Boeing 737 NG panel
5.1-143
Left/right Navaid displays
Display the following information for the selected Navaid, the
left side for receiver one and the right side for receiver two:
• The type of Navaid (ADF in green or VOR in white).

• The shape and colour of the associated bearing pointer.
• Navaid identification (or frequency if no identification is
available).
• DME distance if a DME is co-located to the selected
VOR.
• The method of tuning.
• M for Navaid manually tuned through the MCDU.
• R for Navaid tuned from an RMP.
Waypoints
Active waypoint displays white, all others green. Others
magenta when WPT display selected. Various display options
are available, selectable from the mode control panel.
A320 ND
https://youtu.be/Fb5GwlX2oCA
5.1-144
5.1-145
5.1-146
5.1-147
5.1-148
The ND, positioned inboard of the PFD, is

independently controlled by the captain
and first officer. There are five modes
available for display: ROSE NAV, ROSE
ILS, ROSE VOR, ARC and PLAN
5.1-149
EICAS and ECAM
The display of the parameters associated with engine EICAS – engine indicating and crew alerting system
performance and airframe systems control by means of CRT- The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel,
or LCD-type display units has, like those of flight instrument and two computers supplied with analogue and digital signals
systems, become a standard feature of many types of aircraft. from engine and system sensors as shown in the schematic
The display units form part of two principal systems designated functional diagram shown below. The computers are
as engine indicating and crew alerting system (EICAS) and designated ‘left’ and ‘right’, and only one is in control at a time;
electronic centralised aircraft monitoring (ECAM) system, the other is on ‘standby’, and in the event of a failure it may be
which were first introduced in Boeing 757 and 767 aircraft and switched in either manually or automatically.
the Airbus A310 respectively. At the time of their introduction,
there were differing views on the approach to such operating Operating in conjunction with the system are discrete caution
factors as flight deck layouts and crews’ controlling functions, and warning lights, standby engine indicators and a remotely-
the extent to which normal, alerting and warning information located panel for selecting maintenance data displays. The
should be displayed, and in particular, whether engine system provides the flight crew with information on primary
operating data required to be displayed for the whole of a flight, engine parameters (full-time), with secondary engine
or only at various phases. parameters and advisory/caution warning alert messages
displayed as required.
In respect of EICAS, engine operating data is displayed on its
LCD display units (DUs), thereby eliminating the need for EICAS cam
traditional instruments. The data, as well as those relevant to https://youtu.be/8tjmIklS9A4
other systems, are not necessarily always on display but in the
event of malfunctions occurring at any time, the flight crew’s B767 Engines Overview, EICAS Indications and EEC
attention is drawn to them by an automatic display of messages https://youtu.be/BwMaAITQzL8
in the appropriate colours.
The ECAM system, on the other hand, displays systems’

operation in checklist and schematic form, and as this was a
concept based on the view that engine data needs to be
displayed during the whole of a flight, traditional instruments
were retained in the Airbus A310. It is of interest to note,
however, that in subsequent types produced by this
manufacturer, e.g. A320, the ECAM system is developed to
include the display of engine data in one of its display units.
5.1-150
5.1-151
Display units
These units provide a wide variety of information relevant to
engine operation and operation of other automated systems.
The units are mounted one above the other as shown below.
The upper unit displays the primary engine parameters; speed,

EGT, and warning and caution messages. In some cases, this
unit can also display EPR depending on the type of engines
installed and on the methods of processing data by the thrust
management control system. The lower unit displays
secondary engine parameters, i.e. N2 speed, fuel flow, oil
quantity, pressure and temperature, and engine vibration. In
addition, the status of non-engine systems, e.g. flight control
surface positions, hydraulic system, APU, etc., can also be
displayed together with aircraft configuration and maintenance
data.
5.1-152
EICAS: engine data displays

5.1-153
Seven colours are produced by the DUs and they are used as Display modes
follows: EICAS is designed to categorise displays and alerts according
to function and usage, and for this purpose, there are three
White All scales, normal operating range of modes of displaying information: (i) operational, (ii) status, and
pointers, digital readouts. (iii) maintenance. Modes (i) and (ii) are selected by the flight
crew on the display select panel, while mode (iii) is selected on
Red Warning messages, maximum operating the maintenance panel which is for the use of engineers only.
limit marks on scales, and digital readouts.
• Operational mode
This mode displays the engine operating information
Green Thrust mode readout and selected EPR/N1
and any alerts required to be actioned by the crew in
speed marks or target cursors.
flight. Normally only the upper display unit presents
information; the lower one remains blank and can be
Blue Testing of system only.
selected to display secondary information as and when
required.
Yellow Caution and advisory messages, caution
• Status mode
limit marks on scales, digital readouts.
When selected this mode displays data to determine the
dispatch readiness of an aircraft and is closely
Magenta During in-flight engine starting, and for
associated with details contained in an aircraft’s
cross-bleed messages.
minimum equipment list. The display shows positions of
the flight control surfaces in the form of pointers
Cyan Names of all parameters being measured
registered against vertical scales, selected sub-system
(e.g. N1 oil pressure, TAT, etc.) and status
parameters, and equipment status messages on the
marks or cues.
lower display unit. Selection is normally done on the
ground either as part of pre-flight checks of dispatch
The displays are selected according to an appropriate display items or prior to shut-down of electrical power to aid the
selection mode. flight crew in making entries in the aircraft’s technical log.
• Maintenance mode
This mode provides maintenance engineers with
information in five different display formats to aid them
in troubleshooting and verification testing of the major
sub-systems. The displays, which are presented on the
lower display unit, are not available in flight.
5.1-154
From top-left to bottom right, these are the

gear, doors, hydraulic, electrical, and
environmental status displays
(Not shown are the secondary engine

indicators, fuel, and miscellaneous indicators,
including control surfaces position)
5.1-155
Display select panel
This panel, as shown below, permits control of EICAS functions 5. Display brightness control − The inner knob controls
and displays and can be used both in flight and on the ground. the intensity of the displays, and the outer knob controls
It is normally located on the centre pedestal of an aircraft’s flight the brightness balance between displays.
deck, and its controls are as follows, although aircraft type 6. Thrust reference set switch − Pulling and rotating the
installations vary: inner knob positions the reference cursor on the thrust
indicator display (either EPR or N1) for the engine(s)
1. Engine display switch − This is of the momentary- selected by the outer knob.
push type for removing or presenting the display of 7. Maximum indicator reset switch − If any one of the
secondary information on the lower display unit. measured parameters, e.g. oil pressure, EGT, should
2. Status display switch − Also of the momentary-push exceed normal operating limits, this will be automatically
type, this is used to display the status mode information alerted on the display units. The purpose of the reset
referred to earlier, on the lower display unit. The display switch is to clear the alerts from the display when the
is known as a ‘status page’. excess limits no longer exist.
3. Event record switch − This is of the momentary-push
type and is used in the air or on the ground, to activate
the recording of fault data relevant to the environmental
control system, electrical power, hydraulic system,
performance and APU. Normally, if any malfunction
occurs in a system, it is recorded automatically (called
an ‘auto event’) and stored in a non-volatile memory of
the EICAS computer. The push switch also enables the
flight crew to record a suspect malfunction for storage,
and this is called a ‘manual event’. The relevant data can
only be retrieved from memory and displayed when the
aircraft is on the ground and by operating switches on
the maintenance control panel.
4. Computer select switch − In the “AUTO” position it
selects the left, or primary, computer and automatically
switches to the other computer in the event of failure.
The other positions are for the manual selection of the
left or right computers.
5.1-156
EICAS: display select panel
Boeing 747 EICAS: display select panel
5.1-157
Alert messages
The system continuously monitors a large number of inputs The master warning and caution lights are located adjacent to
(typically over 400) from engine and airframe systems’ sensors the display units together with a ‘cancel’ switch and a ‘recall’
and will detect any malfunctioning of systems. If this should switch. Pushing the ‘cancel’ switch removes only the caution
occur, then appropriate messages are generated and and advisory messages from the display; the warning
displayed on the upper display unit in a sequence messages cannot be cancelled. The ‘recall’ switch is used to
corresponding to the level of urgency of action to be taken. Up bring back the caution and advisory messages into the display.
to 11 messages can be displayed, and at the following levels: At the same time, the word “RECALL” appears at the bottom of
the display.
• Level A — Warning requiring immediate corrective
A message is automatically removed from the display when the
action. They are displayed in red. Master warning
associated condition no longer exists. In this case, messages
lights are also illuminated, and aural warnings (e.g.
which appear below the deleted one each move up a line.
fire bell) from a central warning system are given.
When a new fault occurs, its associated message is inserted
on the appropriate line of the display. This may cause older
• Level B — Cautions requiring immediate crew messages to move down one line. For example, a new caution
awareness and possible action. They are displayed message would cause all existing caution and advisory
in amber, and also by message caution lights. An messages to move down one line.
aural tone is also repeated twice.
If there are more messages than can be displayed at one time,
the whole list forms what is termed a ‘page’, and the lowest
• Level C — Advisories requiring crew message is removed, and a page number appears in white on
awareness. Also displayed in amber. No the lower right side of the list. If there is an additional page of
caution lights or aural tones are associated messages, it can be displayed by pushing the cancel switch.
with this level. Warning messages are carried over from the previous page.
The messages appear on the top line at the left or right

(depending on aircraft type) of the display screen as shown
below. In order to differentiate between a caution and an
advisory, the latter is always indented one space to the right.
5.1-158
EICAS: Alert message levels
Some examples of EICAS warnings and cautions
5.1-159
Display unit failure
If the lower display unit should fail when secondary information
is being displayed on it, an amber alert message appears at the
top left of the upper display unit, and the information is
transferred to it as shown below. The format of this display is
referred to as ‘compact’, and it may be removed by pressing
the “ENGINE” switch on the display select panel. Failure of a
display unit causes the function of the panel “STATUS” switch
to be inhibited so that the status page format cannot be
displayed.
5.1-160
EICAS compact format

5.1-161
Display select panel failure
If this panel fails the advisory message “EICAS CONTROL
PANEL” appears at the top left of the upper display unit
together with the primary information, and the secondary
information automatically appears on the lower display unit.
The cancel/recall switches do not operate in this failure
condition.
Standby engine display (SED)

Some older EICAS installations are provided with an LCD
standby instrument.
This indicator provides primary engine information in the event

that a total loss of EICAS displays occurs. As shown below, the
information relates to N1 and N2 speeds and EGT; the displays
are of the LCD type. Operating limit values are also displayed.
The display control switch has two positions: “ON” and “AUTO”.
In the “ON” position, the displays are permanently on. In the
“AUTO” position the internal circuits are functional, but the
displays will be automatically presented when the EICAS
displays are lost due to the failure of both display units or both
computers.
The test switch has three positions and is spring-loaded to a

centre off position. It is screwdriver-operated and when turned
to the left or right, it changes over power supply units within the
indicator to ensure that they each provide power for the
displays. The test can be performed with the display control
switch in any position.
5.1-162
Standby engine display
5.1-163
Maintenance control panel
This panel is for use by maintenance engineers for the purpose The message “TEST IN PROGRESS” appears at the top left of
of displaying maintenance data stored in system computer display unit screens and remains in view while testing is in
memories during flight or ground operations. progress. On satisfactory completion of the test, the message
“TEST OK” will appear. If a computer or display unit failure has
The layout of the panel and the principal functions of each of occurred, the message “TEST FAIL” will appear followed by
the controls are shown below. messages indicating which of the units has failed.
The five display select switches are of the momentary-push A test may be terminated by pressing the “TEST” switch a
type, and as each one is activated, a corresponding second time or, if it is safe to do so, by releasing an aircraft’s
maintenance display page appears on the lower display unit parking brake.
screen.
The display units revert to their normal primary and secondary
System failures which have occurred in flight and have been information displays
automatically recorded (‘auto event’) in computer memory, as
also data entered as ‘manual event’, can be retrieved for
display by means of the ‘event record’ switch on the panel.
A self-test of the whole system, which can only be activated

when an aircraft is on the ground and its parking brake set, is
performed by means of the “TEST” switch on the maintenance
control panel. When the switch is momentarily pressed, a
complete test routine of the system, including interface and all
signal-processing circuits, and power supplies, is automatically
performed. For this purpose, an initial test pattern is displayed
on both display units with a message in white to indicate the
system being tested, i.e. “L EICAS” or “R EICAS”, depending
on the setting of the selector switch on the display select panel.
During the test, the master caution and warning lights and aural
devices are activated, and the standby engine indicator is
turned on if its display control switch is at “AUTO”.
5.1-164
Maintenance control panel
5.1-165
EICAS computers
The EICAS computer is located in the main electronic The computer will test the interface and circuits of the complete
equipment compartment. The computer unit performs all EICAS system and will display al characters and colours. The
interface, data processing, control and display generation FIM (fault isolation manual) is used for any faults noted.
function required and is software controlled.
When the test is complete, a message “TEST OK, SELF TEST
The front case has no system lights, BITE or controls. There is COMPLETED” or “TEST FAIL” is displayed.
a connector for software loading with the appropriate tool or
equipment. There is also a data loading point in the flight deck.
Normally (in “AUTO”) the left computer is in command of

displays and the right computer is in backup mode in case the
left computer fails. “MANUAL” selection of the active computer
is provided by selecting “L” or “R” rather than the “AUTO”
position.
EICAS BITE operation

EICAS BITE test can only be accomplished when the aircraft is
on the ground.
The EICAS self-test mode is initiated by pressing the “TEST”

button on the EICAS maintenance panel. After depressing the
“TEST” switch:
• the DUs will display identical formats with the message

“TEST IN PROGRESS”;
• the master “CAUTION” lights illuminate and a beeper
tone sounds;
• the level B aural command output signal is generated
• the master “WARNING” lights, the “CONFIG” light and
siren are activated; and
• the take-off ground signal is generated.
5.1-166
5.1-167
ECAM – electronic centralised aircraft monitoring
The units comprising this system, as originally developed for
the Airbus A310, are shown in the functional diagram shown
below. As far as the processing and display of information are
concerned, it differs significantly from EICAS in that data
relates essentially to the primary systems of the aircraft and are
displayed in check-list and pictorial or synoptic format. Other
differences relate to display locations and selection of system
operating modes.
5.1-168
5.1-169
Display units
These units are mounted side-by-side, or upper and lower,
depending on aircraft type installation; the upper unit is
dedicated to information on the status of systems, warnings
and corrective action in a sequenced check-list format, while
the right/lower unit is dedicated to associated information in
pictorial or synoptic format.
A320 ECAM introduction

https://youtu.be/_dxEt0KSME0
5.1-170
5.1-171
Display modes
There are four display modes, three of which are automatically In the example considered, the warning relates to a single
selected and referred to as flight phase-related, advisory (mode system, and by convention, such warnings are signified by
and status), and failure-related modes. The fourth mode is underlining the system title displayed. In cases where a failure
manual and permits the selection of diagrams related to any can affect other subsystems, the title of the sub-system is
one of 12 of the aircraft’s systems for routine checking, and also shown boxed, as for instance in the display shown below.
the selection of status messages provided no warnings have Warnings and the associated lights are cleared by means of
been ‘triggered’ for display. The selections are made by means “CLEAR” push-button switches on either the ECAM control
of illuminated push-button switches on the system control panel or a warning light display panel.
panel.
Status messages, which are also displayed on the left/upper
In normal operation, the automatic flight phase-related mode is display unit, provide the flight crew with an operational
used, and in this case, the displays are appropriate to the summary of the aircraft’s condition, the possible downgrading
current phase of aircraft operation, i.e. pre-flight, take-off, climb, of autoland capability, and as far as possible, indications of the
cruise, descent, approach, and after landing. The left/upper aircraft status following all failures except those that do not
display unit displays an advisory memo mode, and the affect the flight.
right/lower unit displays a diagram of the aircraft’s fuselage,
doors, and arming of the escape slides deployment system. Warnings and cautions
The failure-related mode takes precedence over the other two

modes and the manual mode. In this case, while taxying out for
take-off, the temperature of the brake unit on the rear right
wheel of the left main landing gear bogie has become
excessive. A diagram of the wheel brake system is immediately
displayed on the right/lower display unit, and simultaneously
the left/upper unit displays corrective action to be taken by the
flight crew. In addition, an aural warning is sounded, and a light
(labelled “L/G WHEEL”) on a central warning light display panel
is illuminated. As the corrective action is carried out, the
instructions on the left-hand display are replaced by a message
in white confirming the result of the action. The diagram on the
right/lower display unit is appropriately ‘redrawn’.
5.1-172
5.1-173
A320 ECAM electrical
https://youtu.be/mWMka-tttp8
A320 ECAM engine data

https://youtu.be/arh3b-sh_B4
A320 ECAM fuel

https://youtu.be/KBXzZKYv_L0
A320 ECAM gear

https://youtu.be/_ukEkYvEybk
A320 hydraulics
https://youtu.be/16sCEEkzQ2Q
5.1-174
5.1-175
Control panel ECAM (Airbus) and EICAS (Boeing) differences
The layout of this panel is shown below; all switches, with the
exception of those for display control, are of the push-button,
illuminated caption type.
1. SGU selector switches control the respective symbol

generator units, and the lights are off in normal operation
of the system. The “FAULT” caption is illuminated amber
if a failure is detected by an SGU’s internal self-test
circuit. Releasing a switch isolates the corresponding
SGU, and causes the “FAULT” caption to extinguish,
and the “OFF” caption to illuminate white.
2. Synoptic display switches permit individual selection
of synoptic diagrams corresponding to each of the 12
systems and illuminate white when pressed. A display is
automatically cancelled whenever a warning or advisory
occurs.
3. CLR switch light illuminated white whenever a warning
or status message is displayed on the left-hand display
unit. Pressed to clear messages.
4. STS switch permits manual selection of an aircraft
status message if no warning is displayed; illuminated
white. Pressing the switch also causes the CLR switch
to illuminate. A status message is suppressed if a
warning occurs or if the CLR switch is pressed.
5. RCL switch enables previously cleared warning
messages to be recalled provided the failure conditions
which initiated them still exist. Pressing the switch also
causes the “CLR” switch light to illuminate. If a failure no
longer exists, the message “NO WARNING PRESENT”
is displayed on the left-hand display unit.
5.1-176
5.1-177
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5.1-178

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Module 11A

Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics,

Angle of attack indicator ________________________ 62 Standby instruments __________________________ 128

“THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK”

Basic aircraft system

An alternate static air valve is connected into this line to supply

Basic pitot-static system layout

Duplicated interconnected pairs (left and right sides of the

Alternate static ports can be used in the event of blockage by

Newer types of aircraft, with a digital electronic flight Instrument

Dual pitot-static system layout

Air data computer schematic, inputs and outputs

Air data computer has pitot and static

Pitot static system with air data computer

Principle of the aneroid capsule

An altimeter face with

The whole assembly is encased in a container, which is fed with

Location of altimeter on a Location of altimeter on a

The barosetting, therefore, is QFE.

Pressure measurement reference points

The vertical speed indicator has as its operating mechanism a

When the aircraft begins to climb, the pressure inside the

Location of VSI on a turboprop

When the aircraft noses over to begin a descent, the inertia of

Basic IVSI display

Instantaneous vertical speed indicator mechanism

Rearranging the formula, the difference between the pitot and

An airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gauge that

It should be noted that the airspeed indicator is, in fact, a

• Equivalent airspeed (EAS) – The calibrated airspeed Memory aids

It is the airspeed at sea level which represents the same

Note that instrument error and position error are

Location of ASI on a turboprop

An airspeed indicator showing:

Cockpit indications of airspeeds and ground speeds

On a large transport category aircraft, the indicated airspeed

A basic airspeed An airspeed indicator with an

Airspeed, windspeed and groundspeed relationship

The first capsule unit is an airspeed capsule and is connected

The altitude (aneroid) capsule expands or contracts and

Analogue Mach meter

Mach Meter principle

Digital Mach display within an

In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the outer gimbal,

Gyroscope and gimbals

A number of factors have their influence on rigidity: the mass of

The amount of precession depends on the following factors:

Force and resultant movement obstinacy – ‘precession’

Vertical and horizontal gyros

The nose of the aircraft is depicted by a small white dot located

Mechanical attitude indicator

Electronic attitude indicator on the instrument panel of a Cessna Citation

Electronic attitude indicator using an LCD screen

Vertical gyros are located inside horizon indicators or they are

A vertical gyro used to sense aircraft pitch

Attitude indicator mechanism

A vertical gyro used as an indicator

In newer heading indicators, the vertical card or dial on the

Because the heading indicator has no direction-seeking

The pilot should set the heading indicator by turning the

Angle of attack indicator 62 Standby instruments __ 128