“Integrative” qualitative methods in a services

context

Audrey Gilmore
School of Management, University of Ulster at Jordanstown, Newtownabbey,
Northern Ireland, UK, and
David Carson
Professor of Marketing, School of Management, University of Ulster at
Jordanstown, Newtownabbey, Northern Ireland, UK
Discusses the advantages of services marketing phenomena is not widely
using qualitative methods for Introduction documented and reported. Instead, research
services marketing research. Qualitative research methods are well suited carried out in this area had been repetitive to
Describes in particular the to the characteristics of services and the a large extent. For example, since the
use of an “integrative” quali- nature of the service product. Given that a SERVQUAL scale was developed in the mid-
tative research methodology service is an act, a process, and a 1980s it has been used to measure service
in relation to a study concern- performance, service delivery occurs through quality in many contexts with the emphasis
ing quality in marketing in a on the same five dimensions regardless of the
human interaction for most services. It has
services context. Suggests situation. This has now been widely ques-
been recognized that services are difficult to
that the development of an tioned (see for example, Buttle, 1996; Cronin
study through traditional research method-
“integrative” qualitative and Taylor, 1994).
ologies (Bateson, 1985; Bitner et al., 1985;
research methodology is built On a general level, the adaptability and
on the very practical need for Shostack, 1977) as they exist only while being
rendered and are living processes that cannot flexibility of qualitative research methods
researchers to develop the and techniques throughout the entire
“best” possible methodolo- be disassembled (Shostack and Kingman-
Brundage, 1991). research process have many advantages. For
gies for their own specific example, at an early exploratory stage of
research problem or issues. The predominant characteristics of ser-
research, qualitative methods allow the
Combines the notion of an vices which will impact on the nature of
researcher to become familiar with the
integrative research method- research methodologies used are based on the
area(s) of interest, explore the field and con-
ology with the idea of a definition of services as an integration of
sider the dimensions involved because of
“stream of research”, or performances and processes. As such they
their open-ended, non-pre-ordained nature.
research which builds on will involve interaction between people, be
This aids early researcher understanding of
earlier studies and explicitly predominantly intangible and the aspect of
the topic. During the development of the
allows the research to evolve accessibility and timing will be significant in
research design, the adaptability of qualita-
and develop through distinc- the actual delivery of a service.
tive stages over a given time tive methods allows for a relatively flexible
The inherent requirement for interaction
period. plan of action to be followed, evolving with
between people during service delivery can
the experiential learning and development of
create many varying and volatile situations.
the researcher as new themes, ideas and top-
Thus there is potential for ambiguity, misun-
ics of interest emerge. This contributes to the
derstanding and differing perceptions development and understanding of a topic
between customers and service delivery staff. allowing the researcher to begin to see con-
Services have tangible and intangible nections and the influences on the phenom-
dimensions, and are often vague with no ena or topic of interest. Furthermore,
clear cut boundaries between various aspects researcher immersion in the phenomenon
of marketing activity, for example, the pricing throughout the study aids understanding of
of a service in the context of value for money, the whole context in which the phenomenon
the quality of verbal communication and takes place. Therefore, researcher involve-
customers’ understanding of such communi- ment in the analysis and interpretation is
cation in a service encounter situation. The built on the development of experiential
importance of the time dimension in relation understanding throughout the research
to accessibility of services, and the process process over the time of study. Thus the entire
and period of time taken for service delivery, qualitative research process should provide
may require a longitudinal, continuous study an open, flexible, experiential and illuminat-
in a research project focusing on services. ing way to study the complexity of services
With the exception of the conceptual work situations. In this way, qualitative methods
underlying the development of the are well suited to gathering data on dynamic,
SERVQUAL scale (Parasuraman et al., 1985; experiential processes and the interactive
Marketing Intelligence &
Planning 1988) and Grove and Fisk’s (1993) article on nature of services phenomena, where it is
14/6 [1996] 21–26 the advantages of observation studies for important to allow for the experience and
© MCB University Press services marketing research, the suitability involvement of the researcher in a fast-chang-
[ISSN 0263-4503]
of using qualitative methods for studying ing and fluid environment.
[ 21 ]
Audrey Gilmore and Experiential knowledge and understanding
David Carson Suitability of qualitative methods of the researcher
“Integrative” qualitative for services One of the chief advantages of qualitative
methods in a services
Taking account of the services and qualita- research for services contexts is that it per-
context
tive research characteristics, it is possible to mits research to evolve, develop and build on
Marketing Intelligence &
determine the key matching features which earlier pre-understanding. It “allows
Planning
14/6 [1996] 21–26 emphasize the suitability of qualitative meth- researchers to directly experience the world
ods for services marketing research. Figure 1 of informants and all of its variations. Living
illustrates these key matching features which through the ‘highs’ and ‘lows’ of their lives
are considered to be the use of descriptive allows the researcher to know the phenome-
data, the inclusion of the experiential knowl- non under investigation in a way that few
edge and understanding of the researcher, the other methodologies permit” (Hill, 1993).
emphasis on the interpretative analysis of Van Maanen (1979) illustrates this advan-
data, the holistic context of data collection tage further when he compares qualitative
and analysis and the scope of qualitative and quantitative methods:
methods. These are discussed below. Qualitative research focuses on the unfold-
ing of the process rather than social struc-
Descriptive data tures that are often the focus of quantitative
Qualitative data consist of “detailed descrip- researchers. Qualitative researchers in
contrast to their quantitative colleagues
tions of events, situations and interactions
claim forcefully to know relatively little
between people and things providing depth
about what a given piece of observed
and detail” (Patton, 1980). Such data are behaviour means until they have developed
“symbolic, contextually embedded, cryptic, a description of the context in which the
and reflexive, standing for nothing so much behaviour takes place and attempted to see
as their readiness or stubbornness to yield to that behaviour from the position of its origi-
a meaningful interpretation and response” nator.
(Patton, 1980). In addition, the longitudinal
Thus qualitative methods take account of
aspect of many qualitative studies permits
what is learned throughout the research
data to be gathered over a period of time and
process as well as research outcomes and
thus allows the researcher time to develop
results.
experiential understanding of the phenom-
Recognition of the researcher’s experiential
ena. This presents the opportunity to gener-
understanding is also important in the devel-
ate “thick description” (Geertz, 1973) and
opment and interpretation of qualitative
explanation of phenomena, actions, processes
and experiences within an holistic context. data. The experiential nature of qualitative
That is, describing the context in which research, combined with the experiential
behaviours take place, incorporating cultural learning of the researcher, allows deeper
meaning into the written text, and “thick understanding throughout the research to
interpretation” (Geertz, 1973), providing the evolve and build on earlier work.
reader with “a road map” to help him or her
understand the complex nature of the field. Interpretative analysis of data
Therefore, a qualitative report will describe The emphasis on interpretation as being
things that really happen in service organiza- integral to qualitative methodologies is par-
tions and contexts, as researchers experience ticularly suitable in the context of services
them. marketing phenomena where most services
involve actions or performance. Thus
O’Shaughnessy (1987) writes about “interpre-
tative understanding of action” where phe-
nomena are considered within the specific
context, taking account of the subject’s view
Figure 1 and their understanding and meaning of the
Suitability of qualitative research methods for services marketing situation. Furthermore, interpretative analy-
sis can be ongoing throughout the study. This
allows data to be initially coded in several
Service “Matching”/suitability Qualitative research ways (according to the research topic), then
characteristics features characteristics
Integration of acts/ Descriptive data Adaptable, flexible reanalysed and interpreted as further data
performances/ Experiential knowledge Open-ended, not are gathered.
processes and understanding pre-ordained
Interaction between Interpretive analysis Phenomena studied
people of data within context of The holistic dimension
Predominantly Holistic perspective occurrence Another characteristic of qualitative
intangible Researcher
Scope of qualitative research which offers many advantages is the
Importance of methods involvement
accessibility and timing holistic dimension. The object of taking a
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Audrey Gilmore and holistic outlook in any research is to gain a Figure 2
David Carson comprehensive and complete picture of the Concept of “integrative” methodology
“Integrative” qualitative whole context in which the phenomena of
methods in a services interest occur. It is an attempt to describe and
context Small Observation
understand as much as possible about the survey study
Marketing Intelligence & whole situation of interest. While acknow-
Planning
14/6 [1996] 21–26 ledging that “no study can capture an entire
culture or group” (Fetterman, 1989), the holis-
Focus Conversations
tic orientation “...forces the fieldworker to see group with “key
beyond an immediate cultural scene or event discussions informants”
in a classroom, hospital room, plant, office, Source: Adapted from Carson and Coviello (1995)
city street” (Fetterman, 1989). Each scene
exists within a multilayered and interrelated
context and it requires multiple methods to adapted as appropriate for the specific
ensure the researcher covers all angles. This research topic.
orientation helps the researcher discover the The use of integrative methods is consid-
interrelationships among the various sys- ered to be particularly relevant in a services
tems and subsystems in the organization context given the predominantly repetitive
under study, genuinely through an emphasis nature of research carried out in this area
on the contextualization of data. Contextual- over the past ten years, as mentioned earlier.
izing data involves placing observations, The advantages of using qualitative methods
experiences and interpretations into a larger in an integrative way for services marketing
perspective. and management decision making are that
they will allow the researcher to take account
Scope of qualitative methods of specific organizational contexts. This is an
Qualitative methods are “an array of inter- aspect which many other research methods
pretative techniques which seek to describe, have neglected. Such studies will not be about
decode, translate and otherwise come to testing variables, nor about testing tech-
terms with the meaning, not the frequency” niques, but about determining key issues, for
(Van Maanen, 1983) of certain more or less example, what “service quality” in marketing
naturally occurring phenomena in the social activity and decision making means in a
world. They allow flexibility and variety as specific context. Therefore, the use of a com-
they are a “pot-pourri of interpretative bination of methods for an integrative quali-
techniques” (Hari Das, 1983). tative research methodology is considered to
Some of the most commonly used qualita- be a useful development in the study of the
tive methods include focus group discussions, complex, interactive and processual nature of
surveys, observations, ethnographies, con- services.
versational analysis, content analysis and in-
depth interviews. The use of one or more of
these different methods or a combination of a Integrated qualitative research
number of these will allow data to be gathered methods for studying quality in a
on verbal (or “noise”) occurrences, visually services context
recorded occurrences, written reports and
documentation, and researcher experiential The development of an “integrative” qualita-
data within a specific context. tive research methodology has been built on
Given the advantages of qualitative meth- the very practical need for researchers to
ods as described above, there are many rea- develop the “best” possible methodologies for
sons for borrowing and adapting these meth- their own specific research problem or issues.
ods from their social science background for It is where the researcher combines “the most
use in organizational and managerial situa- suitable research methods from the social
tions. In particular these methods can be sciences at specific and appropriate stages of
readily adapted for research into the market- the research” (Carson and Coviello, 1995).
ing of services and marketing management The use of “integrative” methods has devel-
decision making in the context of specific oped from the idea that “individual studies
organizational and marketing situations. The should be carefully designed to build upon
remainder of this paper will focus on the what has been learned in previous studies”
importance and value of adapting qualitative (Davis et al., 1985). To this end, Davis et al.
methods by using them in an integrative way suggest that a “stream of research” is needed.
for investigating specific services managerial For example, the integration of small-scale
issues. The concept for integrative qualitative exploratory or cross-sectoral studies to
research is illustrated in Figure 2. The explore services marketing characteristics
number of methods used can be expanded and and identify key conceptual issues, with case
[ 23 ]
Audrey Gilmore and studies of service companies which have the be made in relation to the findings of that
David Carson specific characteristics of interest, with large- stage of study.
“Integrative” qualitative scale survey research to study, compare and The use of a variety of qualitative
methods in a services
evaluate particular aspects of interest on techniques with a combination of interpreta-
context
both a cross-sectoral and longitudinal basis. tive techniques will achieve a wider and more
Marketing Intelligence &
By doing so this “eliminates many of the in-depth understanding of the complex, often
Planning
14/6 [1996] 21–26 deficiencies of a single research method” vague service processes and outcomes. In
(Carson and Coviello, 1995). addition, they will permit the study of the
In much earlier work, Evans (1971) argues interactive and performance dimensions of
for methodological integration, particularly services studied within their natural setting
within the context of organizational research, over a longitudinal time period which incor-
in order to achieve some confidence in the porates recognition of a “change” environ-
representativeness of a study’s findings. He ment. An integrative variety of methods can
contends that: “generalisability of findings is be chosen to suit the purpose of the research,
enhanced by the coordination or integration and to build on and develop understanding as
of findings from studies using different the research time progresses. Clearly the
research methods”. He illustrates this by choice of a variety of methods whereby each
means of a flow chart which documents the one contributes some understanding about
specific aspects of services marketing/man-
use of a case study, followed by a sample sur-
agement will be important, and should allow
vey, followed by a laboratory experiment and
the next research stage to build and develop
finally a field experiment. He acknowledges
on previous learning and understanding.
that feedback loops are possible (for example,
Thus the combination of methods used can
sample survey to case study, laboratory exper-
provide a rich portrait of the phenomena
iment to sample survey, etc.) depending on
under study. This allows the researcher to
the purpose of the research.
learn about the “inputs and outcomes but
To some extent, this practice has been used
also gain an understanding of the texture,
in organizational research, although it has
activities and processes” (Belk et al., 1989)
not been documented as an “integrative”
occurring in the day to day operations and
research methodology. For example,
activities and the impact of these occurrences
Mintzberg (1979) describes his own extensive
on managerial activity. In addition the use of
research on the management of organizations
a variety of methods may lead to an early
as “direct research”, a term he uses to cap-
configuration of some of the key dimensions
ture the critical focus of his research in
involved in services marketing phenomena
understanding strategy formation in organi- and encourage rapid progression to further
zations. The development of the “emerging aspects of study (for example, focus on the
strategy for direct research”, which includes relevant managerial dimensions impacting
three stages of study as Mintzberg (1979) on services activity). This also permits fur-
articulates, provides a comprehensive synop- ther experiential understanding of the worst
sis of the use of a variety of methodological and best scenarios in relation to the phenom-
techniques and interpretative methods for a ena under study.
particular research purpose. A model which may be expanded and
The use of qualitative methods in an inte- reshaped for a variety of different research
grative way can be linked with the concept of purposes is shown in Figure 3. It illustrates
the “stream of research” approach as an example of the application of an “integra-
described by Davies et al. (1985) and tive” qualitative research methodology using
Mintzberg’s three stages. Thus the concept of a longitudinal “stream of research”.
a stream of research is linked with the Figure 3 illustrates that at stage 1 a single
description of stages of research. This inte- company can be the focus of an in-depth study
grative, stage by stage process of data collec- by using a variety of methods. For example, a
tion and interpretation can aid development small survey, observations, focus group dis-
in the understanding of quality in services cussions and conversations with staff and
marketing for service managers over time by supervisors may be used in a services situa-
allowing each part or “stage” of the research tion. Initially, a small survey may be carried
to build on what had been learned in a previ- out with a sample of users over a relatively
ous “stage”. This will also contribute to the short time (for example, a four-week period).
researcher’s experiential understanding of The survey may focus on a number of issues
the phenomena under study, further develop- in relation to aspects of the services delivery,
ment of expertise in data collection methods, process and activities. It may indicate what
and interpretation of the data. At the end of the majority of customers like and dislike
each stage specific marketing decisions can about the service process.
[ 24 ]
Audrey Gilmore and Figure 3
David Carson Integrative stream of research
“Integrative” qualitative
methods in a services
Stage 1
context
One company Small Observation
Marketing Intelligence & case study survey study
Planning
14/6 [1996] 21–26

Conversations Focus group

with staff discussion

Action
Redefine/expand/refocus research agenda
Develop new ideas/directions

Outcomes
Descriptive data to which the
Stage 2 company could specifically
Companies in similar respond with tangible actions
Small Observation
industry and survey Experiential knowledge
geographical location study
development of researcher
Ongoing interpretive analysis,
allowing data to be initially
coded in several ways, then
Content analysis reanalysed and interpreted
Conversations of promotional as further data are gathered
with staff material Holistic perspective/
understanding of phenomena
Action
Add wider dimensions to agenda
Redefine/expand/refocus research agenda
Develop new ideas/directions

Stage 3
Companies in similar
industry in different In-depth Observation
geographical interviews study
locations/or specific
aspect(s) within one
company

Conversations Content analysis

of promotional
with staff material

In addition to the survey, an observation In addition conversations may be carried

study may be used in order to delve beyond out with frontline staff and supervisors
what customers and staff said they did and regarding the perception of their roles in the
their opinions, and gather information about service delivery process, for example, dealing
their observed behaviour. This will result in with customers, handling customers’ com-
the collection of information which relates to plaints, and the overall management of cus-
customers’ actual responses to marketing tomer service throughout the service deliv-
activity and the participation and involve- ery time. This will build insights and under-
ment of staff. For example, observations to standing of the feelings of staff delivering the
overall service and how this may impact on
reveal what services people use, how they use
the actual service delivery.
them and how staff interact with customers
Stage 2 may build on the descriptive data,
at various stages of the delivery process.
experiential knowledge and ongoing interac-
If appropriate, separate staff and customer
tive analysis of the data gathered during
focus group discussions may also be used.
stage 1 by carrying out a study of some simi-
The focus group discussions may be
lar companies operating within the same
conducted in a non-directive and unstruc- industry (that is, competitors of the company
tured fashion to aid in the generation of the studied in stage 1). This will develop the
researcher’s experiential understanding and researcher’s understanding of the phenom-
analysis of the activity of the company’s staff ena under study, through wider experience of
who deliver the service. For example, broad, other companies’ approaches to carrying out
open-ended questions may be used, discus- service activities. In addition it will provide
sions may focus on the experiences and data on the overall policies and priorities of
expectations of customers, and the experi- different companies within the same indus-
ences and opinions of staff. This will provide try and contribute descriptive data in rela-
information about the reasons for opinions, tion to the different levels of service, activi-
attitudes and perceptions. ties and processes.
[ 25 ]
Audrey Gilmore and A further stage in the research stream, as Carson, D. and Coviello, N. (1995), “Researching
David Carson the model in Figure 3 suggests, could add the marketing/entrepreneurship interface”,
“Integrative” qualitative further progression and depth to the study. in Researching the Marketing/
methods in a services For example, stage 3 could build on stages 1 Entrepreneurship Interface, University of
context Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL.
and 2 by focusing on companies which oper-
Marketing Intelligence & ate in the same industry but this time in dif- Cronin, J.J. Jr and Taylor, S. (1994), “SERVPERF
Planning ferent geographical locations; or conversely and SERVQUAL: reconciling performance-
14/6 [1996] 21–26 based and perceptions-minus expectations
by focusing on a specific aspect(s) of the ser-
vice delivery and researching it in more measurement of service quality”, Journal of
depth within one company. The integrative Marketing, Vol. 58, January, pp. 125-31.
methods could be chosen to suit the specific Davies, C.D., Hills, G.E. and LaForge, R.W. (1985),
“The marketing/small enterprise paradox: a
issues identified in earlier stages of the
research agenda”, International Small Busi-
research and take account of accessibility to
ness Journal, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 31-42.
these companies.
Evans, W. (1971), “Introduction: the organisa-
tional experiment”, in Evans, W. (Ed.), Organ-
isational Experiments: Laboratory and Field
Summary of the advantages of the Research, Harper & Row, New York, NY.
use of integrative methodology Fetterman, D. (1989), Ethnography. Step by Step,
The use of an integrative stream of qualita- Sage, Newbury Park, CA.
tive research methods for investigating com- Geertz, C. (1973), The Interpretations of Cultures,
Basic Books, New York, NY.
plex, indistinct service marketing issues was
Grove, S. and Fisk, R. (1993), “Observational data
illustrated in the context of the characteris-
collection methods for services marketing: an
tics of services, such as their processual and
overview”, Journal of the Academy of Market-
interactive nature. An integrative stream of
ing Science, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 217-24.
research provides a useful and practical
Hari Das, T. (1983), “Qualitative research in organ-
application of research methods for specific
isational behaviour”, Journal of Management
managerial purposes within an organiza- Studies, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 301-14.
tional context. Hill, R. (1993), “Ethnography and marketing
The advantages of continuing services research: a postmodern perspective”, Ameri-
research over the various stages is that it can Marketing Association Conference Proceed-
allows for the changing and evolving nature ings, Summer 1993, pp. 257-60.
of service activity and performance; monitor- Mintzberg, H. (1973), The Nature of Managerial
ing the fluctuating aspects of services and the Work, Harper & Row, New York, NY.
influences on their delivery in the context of Mintzberg, H. (1979), “An emerging strategy of
the service organizations’ environment and ‘direct’ research”, Administrative Science
relevant competitive activity. The advantage Quarterly, 24 December, pp. 582-9.
of building the study stage by stage allows for O’Shaughnessy, J. (1987), Explanation in Buyer
improved researcher experiential under- Behaviour, Central Concepts and Issues,
standing and knowledge over time, the ability Columbia University, New York, NY.
to look at an increasing depth and/or width of Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. and Berry, L.
issues and to identify the key components in (1985), “A conceptual model of service quality
a given research topic within the context of and its implications”, Journal of Marketing,
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Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. and Berry, L.
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