Lecture note on Kinematics of Fluid flow 2021/22

CHAPTER THREE
KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW
4.0. Introduction
Kinematics of fluid deals with the geometry of motion, i.e., space – time relationships of fluids
only without regards to the forces causing the motion. They are generally deals with velocity &
acceleration of fluid, and the description and visualization of motion. The concept of a free body
diagram, as used in static of rigid bodies in a fluid static is usually inadequate for the analysis of
moving fluids. Instead, we frequently find the concepts of system & control volume to be useful
in the analysis of fluid mechanics. A fluid system refers to a specific mass of fluid within the
boundaries defined by a closed surface. The shape of the system, & so the boundaries, may change
with time, as when liquid flows through a constriction, as a fluid moves& deforms, so the system
containing it moves & deforms.
In contrast, a control volume refers to a fixed region in space, which doesn’t move or change
shape. It is usually chosen as a region that fluid flows in to & out of it.
The control volume approach is also called the Eulerian approach.
In the Eulerian method the observers concern is to know what happens at any given point in the
space, which is filled by fluid in motion, what are the velocities, acceleration, pressure, etc at
various parts at a given time.
Therefore, Eulerian method is mostly used because it is more useful in the analysis of the majority
of engineering problems.
4.1. Dimension of flow
A Fluid flow said to be one, two or three-dimensional flow depending up on the number of
independent space coordinate & required to describe the flow.
i. One-dimensional flow
When the dependent variables (example, velocity, pressure density etc) are a function of one space
co-ordinate i.e., V= f(x, t) it is known as one-dimensional flow.
Example of one –dimensional flow (1D): flow through pipes & channels, between boundaries, etc
if the velocity distribution is considered constant at each cross-section.
‘’ One-dimension’’ is taken along the central streamline of the flow dependent variables vary only
with x- direction (or s- direction).
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Figure 4.1 One-dimensional flow in a pipe

ii. Two-dimensional flow
When the dependent variables vary only with two-space coordinates, i.e., V= f (x, y, t) the flow is
known as two-dimensional flow (2D). Example: Flow in the main stream of a wide river.

Figure 4.2 Two-dimensional flow over a weir

iii. Three-dimensional flow

When the dependent variables vary only with three-space coordinates,
i.e., V= f (x, y, z, t) the flow is known as three-dimensional flow (3D). In almost any flow situation,
the velocity field actually contains all three-velocity components (u, v, w) & each is a function of
all three-space coordinates (x, y, z).
Example of a 3D flow: the flow of air past an airplane wing provides a complex three-dimensional
flow.
4.1.1. Analysis approaches
The motion of fluid particles can be described by the following methods;
1) Langrangian, and
2) Eulerian method
1) Langrangian method
In this method the observer concentrates on the movement of single particle. The path taken by
the particles and the changes in its velocity and acceleration are studied. In the Cartesian coordinate
system, the position of fluid particle in space (x, y, z) at any time t from its position (a, b, c) at time
t = 0 is given by;

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X = f1 (a, b, c, t)
Y = f2 (a, b, c, t)
Z = f3 (a, b, c, t)
The velocity components are;
x
u=
t
y
v=
t
z
w=
t
Acceleration components;
^2 x
ax =
t ^2
 ^2 y
ay =
t ^2
^2 z
az =
t ^2
At any point, the resultant velocity or acceleration shall be the resultant of the three components
of the respective quantity at that point.
Resultant velocity, V = (u2 + v2 + w2)1/2
Acceleration, a = (ax2 +ay2 +az2)1/2
2) Eulerian method
In the Eulerian method the observers concern is to know what happens at any given point in the
space, filled by fluid in motion, what are the velocities, acceleration, pressure, etc at various part
which is at a given time. Therefore, Eulerian method is mostly used because it is more useful in
the analysis of the majority of engineering problems. In general, fluids flow from one point in
space to another point as a function of time. This motion of fluid is described in terms of the
velocity & acceleration of the fluid particles. At a given time instant, a description of any fluid
property (such as density, pressure, Velocity, & acceleration) may be given as a function of the
fluid’s location.
i.e. V = u (x, y, z, t)i +v (x, y, z, t)j + w (x, y, z, t)k
An infinitesimal change in velocity ( u ) is given by;

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u u u u
 u=  x+ y + z+ t
x y z t

The acceleration components are given by;

u u u u
ax = u +v +w +
x y z t
v v v v
ay = u + v + w +
x y z t
   
az = u + v + w +
x y y t
a x , a y & az are called total or substantial acceleration in the x, y & z direction, the components

 u v  
are called convective acceleration excluding the last expression  , ,&  ;which are
 t t t 
called local acceleration.
Total acceleration  a = a x i + a y j + a z k

• Convective acceleration: - it is instantaneous space rate of change of velocity.

• Local acceleration: - it is the local time rate of change of velocity.
Example1: A fluid flow is described by the velocity field; V = 5x 3 i - 15 x2 y j + t k.
Evaluate the velocity & acceleration components at points (1, 2, 3, 1)
4.2. Describing the pattern of flow
Although fluid motion is complicated, there are various concepts that can be used to help in the
visualization & analysis of flow fields. This pattern of flow may be described by mean of
streamlines, stream tubes, path lines and streamlines.
Stream lines: - it is an imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such a way that the
tangent to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow at those pints.

Figure 4.3 Streamlines

Since the velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the streamlines, there can be no component of
velocity at right angles to the streamlines and hence there is no flow across the streamlines. Since

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the instantaneous velocity at a point in a fluid must be unique in magnitude & direction, the same
point can’t pass more than one streamlines. Therefore, streamlines don’t cross or intersect each
other. The velocity vector at point p must be tangent to the streamline at that point.

dy v
= tan  =
Therefore, dx u

 udy = vdx …………. Equation of streamlines

Example: - Given the velocity field:

V = 5x3 i – 15x 2 y j, obtain the equation of the streamlines.

Stream tube: - is a tube Imaginate to be formed by a group of streamlines passing through a small
closed curve. A fluid can enter or leave a stream tube only at its ends.

Figure 4.4 Stream tube

Path line: - a path line is a line traced out by a given single fluid particle as it moves from one
point to another over a period of time.
In steady flow path lines &streamlines are identical.
Streak lines: - A Strike line consists of all particles in flows that have previously passed through
a common point. They can be obtained by taking instantaneous photographs of marked particles
that all passed through a given location in the flow field at some earlier time.

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In experimental work often a color or a dye is injected in the flowing fluid, in order to trace the
motion of the fluid particles. The resulting trail of color is known as streak lines.
For steady flow, each successively injected particle follows precisely behind the previous one,
forming a steady streak line that is exactly behind the previous one, forming a steady streak line
that is exactly the same as the streamline through the injection point.
Hence, path line, streamlines & streak lines are the same for steady flows.
4.3. Types of flow
A. Classification according to type of fluid
(i) Ideal fluid flow – the fluid is assumed to have no viscosity. The velocity distribution is thus
assumed uniform ---- (idealized)
(ii) Real fluid flow: viscosity is taken in to consideration, which leads to the development of shear
stress b/n moving layers. However. Some fluids such as water are near to an ideal fluid, and
this simplifying assumption enables mathematical methods to be adopted in the solution of
certain flow problems.
(iii) Compressible fluid flow: - if variation of pressure results in considerable changes in volume
& density. Gases are generally treated as compressible.
(iv) Incompatible fluid flow - if extremely large variation in pressure is required to affect very
small changes in volume. Liquids are generally treated as incompressible.
B. Classification according to variation of velocity, displacement and etc.
a) Steady flow: - A flow is said to be steady if at any point in the flowing fluid characteristic
such as velocity, pressure, density etc. don’t change with time. However, this characteristic
may be different at different points in the flowing fluid.

V p
 = 0, = 0 , etc
t t
b) Unsteady flow: - if at any point in the flowing fluid any one of all of the characteristics, which
describes the behavior of fluids in motion changes with time.

V
  0, p  0 , etc
t t
c) Uniform flow: - this occurs when the velocity both in magnitude & direction remains constant
with respect to distance, i. e it doesn’t change from point to point

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 v =o
s

Example flow of fluid under pressure through long tube of constant diameter.

d) Non- uniform flow: -if there is a change in velocity either in magnitude or direction with
respect to distance, then

V
0
s
e) Laminar flow: - in laminar flow the particles of fluid move in an orderly manners & the steam
lines retain the same relative position in successive cross section. Laminar flow is associated
with low velocity of flow and viscous fluids.
f) Turbulent flow: - Here the fluid particles flow in a disorder manner occupying different
relative positions in successive cross section. Turbulent flow is associated with high velocity
flows.
Around 1883, Reynolds established the boundary between the laminar and turbulent flow, using
the dimensionless number called Reynolds’s number, Re.
VD
Re = → V − mean velocity

D -diameter
 - Kinematics viscosity
Reynolds showed that if;
Re < 2000 ----- Laminar flow
Re > 4000 ----- Turbulent flow
It is in between 2000 & 4000 it is transition flow.

4.4. Continuity Equation

The continuity equation is a mathematical statement of the principle of conservation of mass.
Considers the following fixed region with flowing fluid. Since fluid is neither created nor
destroyed with in the region it may be stored that the rate of increase of mass contained within the
region must be equal to the differences between the rate at which the fluid mass enters the region
& the rate of which it leaves the region.

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Fixed region
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid leaving
entering the region the region

However, if the flow is steady, the rate of increase of the fluid mass with in the region is equal to
zero; then the rate at which fluid mass enters the region is equal to the rate at which the fluid mass
leaves the region.
Considers flow through a portion of a stream tube:

At section-1, Area of elementary tube = dA1

Average velocity = V1
Density = 1
 Mass of fluid per unit time flowing past section-1 = 1 dA1 V1 [ Kg/s]

Similarly at section-2, Area of elementary tube= dA2

Average velocity = V2
Density = 2
 Mass of fluid flowing per unit of time past section 2 = 2 dA2 V2
For steady flow, by the principle of conservation of mass
1 dA1 V1 = 2 d A2 V2
For the entire area of the stream tube:


A1
1 dA1 V1 = 
A2
 2 dA2 V 2 = cons tan t

If 1 and 2 are average densities at section (1) and (2), then

1  V1dA1 =  2  V 2 dA2 =  VA = cons tan t
A1
nd
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1 V1 A1 = 2V2 A2 =  VA = constant

This is equation of continuity applicable to steady, one-dimensional flow of compressible as well

as incompressible (1 = 2) flow
For incompressible flow, = constant and doesn’t vary form point to point, 1 = 2
 A 1 V1 = A2 V2 = Q = constant
This is continuity equation for steady incompressible flow.
Q is the discharge (or Volumetric flow rate or flow) defined as
Q = AV [m2 m/s = m3/s = Volume/time]
Q Q
Q = A1 V2 = A2 V2 V1 = ,V 2 =
A1 A2
Hence, the velocity of flow is inversely proportional to the area of flow section.
The general equation of continuity for three-dimensional (3D) flow can be derived as follows.
Consider a flow through a rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions: x,  y,  z

Figure 4.3 Derivation of a differential equation of continuity

The mass of fluid flowing per unit time through the left face is:
 𝑀⁄𝑡 = 𝜌𝑉/𝑡
 𝑀⁄𝑡 = 𝜌𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 /𝑡
 M / t =  U ( y  z )

The mass of fluid flowing out of the parallelepiped in the X direction is


= u (  y  z ) + ( u  y z )  x
x

 The net mass of fluid that remain in the parallelepiped per unit time:

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 
=  u y  z −   u y  z + (u  y  z )  x
 x 

=− (u  y  x  z )
x

By similar procedure the mass of fluid remaining in the others two pairs of faces (y, z – directions):

Y-direction = − ( v )  x  y  z
y
−
Z-direction = (  w ) x y z
z
The net total mass of fluid that remains in the parallelepiped per unit time is:

 ( u )  ( v )  ( w) 
= -  + +   x  y  z − − − − − − − − − − − −1
 x y z 

The mass of fluid in the parallelepiped is:

(  x  y  z ) & Its rate of increase with time is:



t
(   x y z )= ( x  y  z ) − − − − − − − −2
t

Equating 1 & 2 we get:

    v    w   
-   (  u ) +   +    =
 x  y   z    t

  u  v   w
+   +    +    = 0 - (General continuity equation in 3-D Flow)
t  x   y   z 


For steady flow, =0
t
 u  v   w
   +    +    = 0 (Steady compressible fluid)
  x   y    z 

For incompressible flow  doesn’t change with x, y, z, and t i.e.,  = Constant

u v w
 + + =0 - (Continuity equation for incompressible, steady flow in 3D)
x y z

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4.5. Stream function ( ) and velocity potential ()

4.5.1. Stream function
It is scalar function defined under (incompressible fluid, steady state flow and two-dimensional
flow). Its mathematical definition is as follows:
𝜕 𝜕
If  (x, y) such that ⁄ = −𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜕𝑥
⁄ = 𝑢 where  stream function.
𝜕𝑦
1) Stream function is constant along a streamline
𝑑𝑥⁄ 𝑑𝑦
For streamline, 𝑢 = ⁄𝑣 ↔ 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 0. The total differential of a stream function, d
is given by:
 
 𝑑 =
𝜕 𝜕
dx + dy
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

 𝑑 = −vdx + udy

 𝑑 = 0 (Hence  remains constant along a streamline) and every streamline has its own .
2) For irrotational flow, stream function satisfies Laplace equation.
Rotational flow: - is defined as the average angular velocity of two elements originally at right
angles to each other. The mathematical definitions of rotations about the three axes are as
follows:
 v u   w v   u w 
 z = 1 2  −  ,  x = 1 2  −  and  y = 1  −
 x y   y z  2  z x 

Angular velocity is a vector quantity:  =  xi +  y j + z k

Irrotational flow: - occurs when the cross-gradient of the velocity (or shear) are zero or cancel
each other so that angular velocity is zero. For instance, angular velocity for two-dimensional
 v u 
flow,  z = 1 2  −  = 0 for irrotational flow.
 x y 
 v u 
 z = 1 2  −  = 0
 x y 
v u
 z = − =0
x y
𝜕 𝜕 ⁄ 𝜕 𝜕
 z = 𝜕𝑥 (− ) − 𝜕𝑦 ( ⁄ ) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝜕2
 z = − − =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2 𝜕2
 z = + = 0 (Hence Laplace equation is satisfied)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

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4.5.2. Velocity potential ()

Velocity potential () is a useful function in solving flow problems. The velocity potential is
related to velocity components as follows:

− 
u=
x

− 
v=
y
For two dimensional irrotational flow:
 v u 
 z = 1 2  −  =0
 x y 
       
−  − − =0
x  y  y  x 
 2  2
− =0
yx xy

For two-dimensional continuity equation:

u v
+ =0
x y
 2   2
+ =0
x 2 y 2
This equation is known as Laplace equation. The inviscid, incompressible, Irrotational flow fields
are governed by Laplace’s equation.
4.6. Flow Nets
A flow net is a 2D diagram of equipotential lines (lines of equal head) and streamlines. They are
built from field observations and/or theoretical constraints. Equipotential lines are the loci of points
of equal potential (or head), and streamlines correspond to directions of groundwater flow.
A potentiometric map represents typically a family of equipotential lines, which may or may not
have flow lines depicted. A water-table map is an example of a potentiometric map, as it represents
the lines of equal head that intersect the water table.
The equipotential lines must be spaced so that equal head drops occur between adjacent
equipotential lines and equal volumetric flow occurs between adjacent flow lines as shown in
figure 4.4.

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 - equipotential line

 - streamline

Figure 4.4 Flow net

Equipotential lines are usually denoted by h1, h2 ... (or Φ1, Φ2 ...) and streamlines by Ψ1, Ψ2 ...
Thus, we can determine the discharge between two flow lines,

h
Q = Cons tan t = k A
L
Q1 = Q2

where,
ΔQ1 – flow rate between Ψ1, and Ψ2
A – Area of the “flow tube”
K – Hydraulic conductivity
L1 – distance between equipotential lines Φ1, and Φ2

The rates of flow can be inferred from flow nets if the hydraulic conductivity is known. Often the
total volumetric rate of flow (Q) can be calculated by:
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Nf
Q = N f k h = KH
Ne

where,
Nf – number of flow channels
Ne – number of equipotential drops
H = Ne * Δh – total head drop
Multiplied by the length of the section considered (for example, to determine Q under a dam, we
would multiply by the length of the dam)

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