Unit III

First and Second Law of Thermodynamics

Content
Topic 1. Law of Conservation of Mass
Topic 2. First Law of Thermodynamics
Topic 3. Second of Law of Thermodynamics

References
Topic 1
Thermodynamics 6th edition by Virgil Moring Faires and Clifford Max Simmang
Thermodynamics for Engineers (SI Version) by Doolittle, J.S. and F.J. Hale
Lecture Notes on Thermodynamics by Powers
DOE Fundamentals Handbook Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow Volume 1
Thermodynamics By Elie Tawil
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Lesson 5

Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson the students are expected to:
1. Memorize the statements of law of conservation of mass and energy
2. Compute thermodynamic problems using the principles of the law of conservation of mass
and energy

Introduction
With an exemption of nuclear processes in which mass is converted to energy or
vice versa and objects moving close to the speed of light, mass is indestructible in “ordinary”
processes. In the study of thermodynamics, we are usually concerned with mass balances
concerning flow processes.

Abstraction

Law of Conservation of Mass

“Mass can neither be created nor destroyed; only its composition can be altered form one form to
another”

Conservation of Mass of Closed Systems

A Closed System has no inlets or exits, so there can be no mass flow into or out of the system.
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 = constant

Conservation of Mass of Open Systems

Steady-State Condition/Stead Flow System
• The properties of the fluids crossing the boundary remain constant at each point in the
boundary.
• The flow rate at each section where mass crosses the boundary is constant
• The rate of mass flow into the system equals the rate of the mass flow out of the system
• The volume of the systems remain constant

𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑣𝐴
∑ 𝑚̇ = ∑ 𝑚̇
𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡

The continuity equation of steady flow:

for one entry, one exit
𝐴1 𝑣1 𝐴2 𝑣2
=
𝑣1 𝑣2

2
Practice Problems:
1. A steady-flow pump takes in 0.055m3/s of liquid water through an inlet pipe that has a diameter of
12cm. The pump supplies water to two pipes having diameters of 4cm and 7cm, respectively. The
volume flow rate in the smaller of the pipes is 0.012m3/s. Determine the velocities in the inlet pipe
and in the two exit pipes.
2. Atmospheric air at 30°C and with a density of 1.2kg/m 3 enters an air-conditioning unit through a
cross-sectional area of 0.06m2 at a velocity of 10m/s. Water is removed from the air and leaves the
air-conditioning system as a liquid at a rate of 45.5 kg/h. The air that leaves the unit is at 15°C and
has a density of 1.21 kg/m3. The discharge cross-sectional area is 0.075m2. Determine the velocity
of the air leaving.
3. An automobile tire is inflated to an absolute pressure 310kPa at a temperature. After a trip , the
temperature of the air in the tire increases to 45°C, while the volume of tire increases by 2% due to
the stretching of the tire material. Calculate the air temperature before the trip starts if the final air
pressure is 330kPa.
4. Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave a single mixture. These data apply:
at the entrance section:
For gas 1: A1= 75 in2, v1= 500 fps, v1 =10 ft3/lb
For gas 2: A2 = 50 in ,
2 𝑚̇= 16.67 lb/s ρ2 = 0.12 lb/ft3
at exit: v3 = 350 fps, v3 = 7 ft3/lb

Find (a) the speed v2 at section 2 and;

(b) the flow and area at the exit section.
5. If a pump discharges 75gpm of water whose specific weight is 61.5 lb/ft3 (g=31.95 fps2), find (a)
the mass flow rate in lb/min, and (b) and total time required to fill a vertical cylinder tank 10ft in
diameter and 12ft high.

Basic Concepts of energy

Energy - the capacity of a system to perform work or produce heat
1. Energy Transferred to a System
eg. work, heat, electrical energy
2. Energy Possessed by a system
eg. potential energy, kinetic energy, internal energy

Gravitational Potential Energy - energy due to its position or elevation

1. A mass of 5kg is 100m above a given datum where the local g = 9.75 m/sec 2. Find the gravitational Force
in newtons and the potential energy of the mass with respect to the datum.
2. Determine the potential energy of 50 lbm of water in a storage tank 100 ft above the ground.

Kinetic Energy - energy or stored capacity for performing working possessed by a moving body by virtue of
its momentum.
1. The combined mass of car and passengers travelling at 72kph is 1500 kg. Find the kinetic energy
of its combined mass.
2. Two identical automobile each has a mass of 1500 kg. Both automobiles start from rest at the
same location, indicated by point 1 (elevation of 1000m). Automobile A follows path X and passes
through point 2 (elevation of 2000m) with a velocity of 15 m/s, while automobile B follows path Y
and passes through point 2 with a velocity of 20 m/s. Determine the change in potential energy
ΔPE and the change in kinetic Energy ΔKE of each automobile between points 1 and 2.

Internal Energy - energy stored within a body or substance by virtue of the activity and configuration of its
molecules and of the atoms within the molecules.

3
P-V Energy (Flow Energy/ Flow Work) - Work Done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually into or out
of a system
Wf = pV
1. The flow energy of 5ft3 of a fluid passing a boundary to a system is 80,000 ft-lb. Determine the
pressure at this point.
2. Determine the specific P-V energy of a 1.5 lbm of steam at 1000psi in an 18ft3 tank.
3. The flow energy of 150L of a fluid passing a boundary to a system is 110kJ. Determine the
pressure at this point.

Work - (For Mechanical System) The action of a force on an object through a distance
Shaft Work - transitional energy crossing the boundaries of a system that could conceveivably produce
the one and only effect of raising a weight or tuen a shaft against a resistance.
1. Determine the amount of work done if a force of 150lb f is applied to an object until it has moved a
distance of 30 ft.
2. An elevator having a mass of 585 kg is raised a distance of 32 m. Determine the work done,
neglecting frictional effects and the work required for acceleration.

Boundary Work (or simply Work) - work on a moving Boundary of a system (Nonflow processes). Work
performed on or by the working fluid within a system’s boundary is defined as the summation of the product
and volume of the fluid during the process. The work done by the fluid if the working substance expands and
moves the piston against a variable resistance.
2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑣
1

Note:
1) The equation W=∫pdV is valid if the process proceed through a series of internal equilibrium states
(no pressure and temperature gradient at any instant), a process known as internally reversible
process.
2) For an internally reversible process, the area under the curve on the pV plane represents the ∫pdV
to some extent
3) If the system’s work is positive, work is done by the system; work done on the system is negative.
Practice Problem:
1. During a reversible nonflow process, the work done is -148.1 Btu. If V1 =30 ft3 and the pressure
varies as p = -3V + 100psia, where V is in ft3, find V2.
2. Evaluate:
𝑉2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝑉1

For: a) Isochoric process, b) Isobaric, c) Isothermal, d) Polytropic, e) Isentropic

Strain Work – a class of work that involves a force deforming a solid body.
Elastic Work – strain work when the deformations are within the proportional limit and is nearly reversible. It
is viewed as the potential energy of the spring or the stored energy in the spring
2
𝐾𝑠 2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐾𝑠 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = (𝑦 − 𝑦12 )
1 2 2

4
Practice problem:
1. Determine the elastic work required to stretch a spring (Ks = 70.06kN/m) 7.62cm from its free
length.
Surface tension Work – The work done on a liquid film that brings molecules from the bulk to the surface if
the liquid film is stretched to create more surface.
Note: Surface tension decreases with an increase of temperature, but at a particular temperature it is
constant and independent of the area of the surface.

𝑊 = ∫ 𝜎𝐿𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝜎𝑑𝐴

Practice Problem:
1. Find the work input in overcoming the surface tension in a soap bubble with a radius of 6in. The
surface tension of soap bubble at this particular condition is 15 dyne/cm.

Electrical Work – the work required for charge to cross a section of a conductor.

𝑊̇ = 𝐼𝐸

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅
Note: The total net charge of an isolated system is constant.
Practice Problem:
1. What work is delivered by a battery that generates an emf (electromotive force) of 18 Volts at its
terminals while delivering 15 amp. Determine the Joule heat passed in the surrounding, assuming
that there is no other potential losses except that of the single resistor attached to the battery. Also,
compute for the resistance.
Power – the rate of doing work
1. A mass of 210 kg is elevated 24.5m in 1 min 34 s. Determine the power required.
2. A solar cell system is to supply 1050 kWh/month. The average output is 15 percent of the rated
power. Determine the rated power. (assume 30 days/month).
3. A steam turbogenerator delivers 750,000 kW when the steam flow is 2,250,000 kg/h. Calculate the
work done per kg of the steam.

Additional Practice Problems:

1. If a 6L of a gas at a pressure of 100kPaa are compressed reversibly according to pV 2 = C until its
volume becomes 2L, find the final pressure and work.
2. When an automobile is travelling at 60kph, its engine is developing 25 hp. (a) Find the total
resisting force in N. (b) Assuming that the resisting force is directly proportional to the speed what
horsepower must the engine develop to drive the automobile at 100kph?
3. The 600-kg hammer of a pile driver is lifted 2m above a piling head. What is the change in potential
energy? If the hammer is released, what will be its velocity at the instant it strikes the piling. Local g
= 9.65 m/s2
4. An experimental nose cone whose mass is 100 lb is projected 200 miles above the earth’s surface.
What gravitational work was required assuming that the gravity acceleration varies in accordance
with g = A – Bh, where A = 32.174 fps2 and B = 3.31 x 10-6 for the height h in feet.
5. There are 400 kg/min of water being handled by a pump. The lift is from a 20-m deep well and the
delivery velocity is 15m/s. Find the change in potential energy, (b) the kinetic energy, (c) the
required power of the pumping unit; g = 9.75 m/s2.
6. The power required by a plane at 545 kph is 1800 kW. Determine the average resisting force in
newtons.

5
Law of Conservation of Energy
“Energy is neither created nor destroyed”
for any kind of system:
[energy entering] – [energy leaving] = [change of energy stored within system]
First Law of Thermodynamics - a balance of the various forms of energy as they pertain to the specified
thermodynamic system being studied
“One form of energy may be converted into another”
“When a system undergoes a cyclic change, the net heat to or from the system is equal to the network from
or to the system.

∮ 𝑑𝑄 = ∮ 𝑑𝑊

“For any change taking place within a system, the final energy of the system equals the original energy of
the system plus the net energy added to the system during the period in which the changes take place.
U1 + PE1 + KE1 + (U +PV+KE +PE)in + Q = U2 + PE2 + KE2 + (U + PV + KE + PE)out + W
U1 + PE1 + KE1 + (H+KE +PE)in + Q = U2 + PE2 + KE2 + (H+ KE + PE)out + W

First Law of Thermodyanmics for a closed nonflow systems

Q = ΔE + W
for closed systems at rest:
Q = ΔU + W
Note: Although, enthalpy represents energy of a fluid only in a case of flow, it has special used for a closed system at
rest undergoing a constant-pressure process.

for constant pressure process occurring in a closed system at rest

Qp = ΔH

First Law of Thermodynamics for open systems (Flow process)

Steady State Flow
1) The mass rate of flow into the system is equal to that from the system, there is neither
accumulation nor diminution of mass within the system.
2) There is neither accumulation nor diminution of energy within the system; it follows that the rate of
heat flow and work is constant.
3) The state of the working substance at any point in the system remains constant.
4) For the determination of properties, one-dimensional flow at inlet and exit boundaries of the system
is assumed; properties are then handled as though uniform across these sections

Applications of the steady-flow equation for turbine

Notes:
1. Unless the working substance is a liquid or unless there are great changes of altitude, the
gravitational potential energy is negligible.
dQ = dH + dKE + dW
2. The overall change in Kinetic energy for a typical turbine is so small that, except for the most
exacting tests, it is usually ignored.
dQ = dh + dW

6
 3. In some circumstances, especially in a first approximation, the heat may be neglected.
dW = -dH

Applications of the steady-flow equation for nozzle

Notes:
1. Nozzle receives a fluid and guides its expansion in an orderly manner to a lower pressure, ith the
objective of converting some of the entering energy into kinetic energy at the exit.
dQ = dH + dK + dW
2. No shafts are turned; W = 0
dQ = dH + dK
3. The time of passage is only a fraction of a seconds, and very close, Q=0
ΔKE = -ΔH = H1 – H2
4. In many cases the entering kinetic energy is negligible as ompared to the final value, KE1 ≈ 0.
KE2 = H1 – H2

Shaft Work (Reversible steady-flow process)

2
− ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑃 = 𝑊 + ∆𝐾𝐸
1

for steady flow process where ΔKE and ΔPE is negligible, the shaft work is
2
𝑊 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑃
1

Note: ∫vdP is represented by the area behind the pV curve.

Unsteady State Transient Flow - characterized by accumulation or diminution of either mass or energy or
both
U1 + PE1 + KE1 + (H+KE +PE)in + Q = U2 + PE2 + KE2 + (H+ KE + PE)out + W
Examples of Unsteady transient flow
1) Fluid may flow outward only from the system (Nonflow to Flow System)
U1 + PE1 + KE1 + Q = U2 + PE2 + KE2 + (H+ KE + PE)out + W

Special case of a nonflow to flow process, W = 0 and Q is negligible: U1 – U2 = Hout

2) Fluid may flow inward only (Flow to Nonflow System)

U1 + PE1 + KE1 + Q = U2 + PE2 + KE2 + (H+ KE + PE)out + W

Special case of a flow to nonflow process, W = 0 and Q is negligible: Hin = U2 – U1

3) Fluid may be flowing both inward and outward but at different rates so the amount of fluid within the
system changes.
4) The engine is warming up (from a cold start or increasing power) or cooling off (decreasing power)

System Efficiency
Ideal Work – Work derived with thermodynamic idealizations
Indicated Work – the actual net work of the system for complete cycles of event.
Brake Work (or Shaft Work) – work that is absorbed by the shaft output of the engine.

7
Mechanical Efficiency (η) - the ratio of the output and input work.
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝜂=
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
Combined Work (or Overall Work) – the work delivered by the generator
Generator Efficiency
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝜂=
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
Frictional Energy – work transformed into heat by frictional effects

Energy Equation for flow of incompressible Fluids

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐸𝑓 + 𝐸𝑎
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

Practice Problems:
1. There are 2-kg of fluid mass in a closed container at rest on a given datum; local gravity is 9.65m/sec 2.
The container is now raised vertically 1000m and the fluid mass is given a swirling velocity of 50m/sec.
Initially, the internal energy of the fluid was 20 kJ. Determine the internal energy after the lifting.
2. The internal energy of a given system is a function of temperature (t,°C) only and is given as U = 30
+ 0.3t IT cal. During the execution of a given process, the work done per degree temperature change
𝑑𝑊
is = 0.11kgm/°C. Find the heat Q as the temperature changes from 200 °C to 400 °C. Also, find
𝑑𝑡
U1 and U2.
3. During a reversible process executed by a nonflow system, the pressure increases from 344.74 kPaa
to 1378.96 kPaa in accordance with pV = C, and the internal energy increases 22, 577 J; the initial
volume is V1 = 85L. Find the heat.
4. A closed system executes a reversible process wherein the pressure and volume vary in accordance
with pVn = C; Q = 16.247 kJ, ΔU = 47.475 kJ. If p1 = 138kPaa, V1 = 141.6L, and p2 = 827.4 kPaa,
find n and V2.
5. During a steady flow process, the pressure of the working substance drops from 200 to 20 psia, the
speed increases from 200 to 1000fps, the internal energy of the open system decreases 25 Btu/lb,
and the specific volume increases from 1 to 8 ft3/lb. No heat is transferred. Sketch an energy diagram.
Determine the work per lb. Is it done on the system or by the substance? Determine the work in hp
for 10lb per min.
6. A turbine operates under steady flow conditions, receiving steam at the following state: pressure
1200 kPa, temperature 188°C, enthalpy 2785 kJ/kg, speed 33.3 m/s and the elevation 3m. The
steam leaves the turbine at the following state; pressure 20kPa, enthalpy 2512 kJ/kg, speed 100 m/s
and elevation 0m. Heat lost to the surroundings at the rate of 0.29kJ/s. If the rate of steam flow
through the turbine is 0.42 kg/s, what is the power output of the turbine in kW?
7. Air enters a nozzle with a velocity of 30m/s. The decrease in enthalpy in the nozzle is 170,000J/kg.
Determine the velocity at exit.
8. Radon gas, initially at 65kPa, 200C, is to be heated in a closed, rigid container until it is at 400C. The
mass of the radon is 0.393kg. A table of properties shows that at 200C, the internal energy of radon
is 26.6 kJ/kg, while at 400C, it is 37.8 kJ/kg. Determine the amount of heat required.
9. An adiabatic tank, which is used in determining the mechanical thermal energy equalities, contains
910 kg of water. A paddle work delivered to the water is 39.6 kJ. Determine the change of specific
and total internal energy of the water.

8
10. An air compressor (an open system) receives 272 kg per min air at 99.29kPa and a specific volume
of 0.026m3/kg. The air flows steady through the compressor and is discharged at 689.5kPa and
0.00511 m3/kg. The initial internal energy is 6241 J/kg. The cooling water circulated around the
cylinder carries away 4383 J/kg of air. The change in kinetic energy is 896 J/kg increase. Sketch
energy diagram. Compute the work.
11. A centrifugal pump operating under steady flow condition delivers 2,270 kg/min of water from an
initial pressure of 82,740 Pa to a final pressure of 275, 800Pa. The diameter of the inlet pipe to the
pump is 15.24cm and the diameter of the discharge pipe is 10.16 cm. What is the work?
12. AIr in the spring-restrained piston-cylinder arrangement with P1 =100 kPa, V1 = 0.002 m3, x1 = 0 m,
no force on the piston at state 1, expands until V2 = 0.003 m3. Assume that Patm = 100 kPa, A = 0.018
m2 and Fspring = kx with k = 16.2 kN/m. Find the final pressure of the air and the work done by the air
on the piston.

Application
Worksheet Number 5 (to be uploaded separately in msugensanVLE)

Assessment
Self-check Quiz and Worksheet

9
Unit II
Vapors and Gases
Content
Topic 1. Pure Substances
Topic 2. Ideal and Real Gases

References
Topic 1
Thermodynamics 6th edition by Virgil Moring Faires and Clifford Max Simmang
Thermodynamics for Engineers (SI Version) by Doolittle, J.S. and F.J. Hale
Lecture Notes on Thermodynamics by Powers
DOE Fundamentals Handbook Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow Volume 1
Thermodynamics By Elie Tawil
Saturation Thermodynamics retrieved last September 23, 2020 from
https://www.engineersedge.com/thermodynamics/saturation.htm#:~:text=Saturation%20Ther
modynamic%20The%20term%20saturation%20defines%20a%20condition,pressure%20is%
20called%20the%20saturationtemperature%20or%20boiling%20point.
 Ideal and Real Gases
Lesson 4

Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson the students are expected to:
1. Memorize the statements of fundamental gas laws.
2. Compute thermodynamic problems using the principles of various gas laws.

Introduction
In the study of thermodynamics, we would often encounter systems with working
substances in gaseous phase. These gases behave differently under different conditions
making the analysis more complex. To simplify the analysis most engineering problems
idealized the behavior of these gases under some range of condition.

Activity. Classroom-Under-Pressure (This activity will be posted in MSU-GenSan VLE in Moodle.)

Everyone misses the face-to-face classroom set-up. It's time to bring back some
memories and recreate classroom scenario under pressure.
The scenario: You are all quietly sitting in your assigned seat while waiting for Ma'am
Mitch to enter the classroom. As soon as she entered the classroom, she gave you a
seatwork that has to be submitted after 30 mins. After giving the instructions, she left the
classroom to allow you to work freely on your seatwork.
The class now is under pressure with a limited amount of time to answer the
seatwork. Create a brief storyline as to how the everyone in the classroom would behave
from waiting for Ma'am Mitch to moments after the seatwork was successfully submitted.
(Do not include conversations just describe the scenes. Keep it short and entertaining.)

Analysis
Guide Questions:
1. Did the students occupy same amount of space all the time?
2. Did they have some serious intellectual arguments that heated up the situation? If yes,
how did this argument affects the space between each students?
3. When you submitted the seatwork successfully and was relieved from the pressure, how
did it felt?
4. If the seatwork (pressure) was not given to you, would you have behave differently?

Abstraction

Ideal Gas
- substance in gaseous phase that obeys the Boyles law and Charles law.

2
Boyle’s Law
“if the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of the gas varies
inversely with the absolute pressure during a change of state”
(Pv)T = C

Charles’ Law
“If the pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change of state, the
volume will vary directly as the absolute temperature.”
𝑣
( ) =𝐶
𝑇 𝑃
“If the volume of a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change of state,
the pressure will vary directly as the absolute temperature.”
𝑃
( ) =𝐶
𝑇 𝑣

Figure 1. Ideal Gas Thermodynamic Surface

Avogadro’s Law
“Equal volumes of all ideal gases at particular pressure and temperature contain the same
number of molecules”

Ideal Gas Equation of State

𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇

where:
R = Specific Gas Constant
𝑅̅
𝑅=
𝑀
M = molar mass
𝑅̅ = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
8 314.3 𝐽 1545.32 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏
𝑅̅ = =
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 ∙ 𝐾 𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 ∙ °𝑅

Practice Problem:
1. Compute R of the following:
a. Ammonia
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Carbon Monoxide
d. Hydrogen

3
 e. Oxygen
Note:
1) All gases approach the ideal gas behavior as pressure decreases.
2) Ideal gases have constant specific heat

Joule’s Law
“The chage in the internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of only the temperature
change”
𝑇2
𝑢 = ∫ 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
𝑇2
ℎ = ∫ 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1

Note: The equation above is only for ideal gases. All gases approach conformity to Joule’s Law as
their pressure is decreased.

Specific Heat Ratio, k

- The ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure and the specific heat at constant
volume of a given substance
𝑐𝑝
𝑘=
𝑐𝑣
𝑅
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑘−1
𝑘𝑅
𝑐𝑝 =
𝑘−1
Practice Problem
1. A gas has a specific heat at constant volume of 3.157kJ/kg-K and specific heat ratio of 1.668.
Determine the specific heat at constant pressure and gas constant.

Real Gases

Notes: Many gases deviate from the Boyle’s and Charles Law at low temperatures and High Pressure.

Compressibility Factor, Z
- the deviation from ideality of a gas

𝑃𝑣 = 𝑍𝑅𝑇

Practice Problems:
1. Carbon Monoxide exists at a pressure of 120 x 104 N/m2 and a temperature of 92°C. There
are 4.2kg of CO present. Determine the volume of CO. (R = 0.2968kJ/kg-K)
2. Determine the density of steam at a pressure of 15.5MPa and a temperature of 410°C.
(R=0.4615kJ/kg-K)
a) Using the steam table
b) Using the ideal gas law
c) Using the compressibility chart

Note: Compressibility Factor is dependent to temperature

Van Der Waals Equation of State

𝑎
(𝑃 + ) (𝑣 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑜 𝑇
𝑣2

4
 𝑃𝑐 𝑣𝑐 3
=
𝑅𝑜 𝑇 8
Practice Problem:
a. Determine the density of steam at a pressure of 15.5MPa and a temperature of 410
using reduced property
b. using compressibility charts
2. C. For water vapor: a = 5.538 x 105 Pa (m3/kg-mol), b = 0.305 m3/kg-mol
3. Determine the specific volume of steam at a pressure of 20 MPa and a temperature of 600°C.

Reduced Properties
The ratio of the property in a given state to the value of the property at the critical state.
𝑃 𝑣 𝑇
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃 𝑣=𝑣 𝑇𝑟 = 𝑇
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

Practice Problems:
1. What is the boiling temperature of ammonia at a pressure of 320kPa? Assume that tables
of ammonia are not available but those of steam are available.
2. What is the density of CO2 at a pressure of 7MPa and a temperature of 47°C.
a. using reduced property
b. using compressibility charts

Additional Practice Problems

1. An automobile contains a certain volume of air at 30psig, 70°F. The barometric pressure is
29.50inHg. If, due to running conditions the temperature raise to 160°F, what will be the
gage pressure.
2. Mr. Atkinson is on trial for criminal negligence because his company’s steam boiler exploded.
Mr. Atkinson’s job was to monitor the pressure in the boiler to make sure that it does not go
above the safe limit of 6895 kPa gauge. He testifies that just before the explosion, his control
panel showed that the pressure was 5860 kPa gauge, the temperature was 400°C, and the
specific volume was 0.037m3 /kg. All gauges were tested and was found to be functional
during the investigation following the explosion. The prosecutor says that Mr. Atkinson fell
asleep while on duty. As a technical witness, what can you say about the case?
3. A worker pressurized a rigid pipe (with an inside diameter of 30mm and length of 20m) with
dry air to check for leaks. The temperature and absolute pressure of the air in the pipe were
35°C and 205kPa, respectively. After 24 hours, the worker returns and finds out that the
absolute pressure drops to 183kPa, while the air temperature inside the pipe decreases to
21°C. Has air leaked out of the pipe? If yes, calculate the mass of air that has leaked out
through the fittings.
4. 1.A drum 6-in in diameter and 40-in long contained acetylene at 250 psia and 90°F. After
some of the acetylene was used, the pressure was 200 psia and the temperature was
85°F, what proportion of the acetylene was used?What volume would the used acetylene
occupy at 14.7 psia and 80°F? (R for acetylene is 59.35 ft.lb/lb.°R)
5. The Volume of the passenger compartment of an air craft is 2100 m 3. An automatic
equipment maintains the air inside the plane at a pressure of 98kPa and a temperature of
23°C. Calculate the mass of the air inside the plane. Determine the percent increase in the
mass of the air if the pressure is increased to 101 kPa and the temperature drops to 20°C.
6. Air in a cylinder undergoes a cooling process. Initially, the air inside the piston is at P₁ =
200kPa and T₁ = 500 °C and the piston is the height of 2m. It gradually slides down the
frictionless wall of the cylinder. A stop is placed at the height of one meter to retrict the piston
from sliding further down the cylinder. Find a) the emperature when the piston reaches the
stops, b) the pressure if the cooling continues to T = 20°C. The area of the piston is A =
0.2m². Trace the path of the process in a pv diagram.

5
7. Calculate the density of Ethane at 171 bar and 458K; Assume for Ethane: Tc = 305 K, Pc =
48.480 bar, R = 319.3 J/ kg-K
a) Assuming it behaves as a perfect gas
b) Using the compressibility chart.
8. A Tank having a volume of 3.8m3 contains the refrigerant R-12, at a pressure of 800kPa and
a temperature of 60°C. Determine the mass of refrigerant present using. The critical
pressure is 4115.5kPa and the critical temperature is 112°C.
9. A tank having a volume of 1.32m3 contains nitrogen under a pressure of 6482kPa at a
temperature of 35°C. Determine the mass of nitrogen present?
10. Determine the specific volume of steam at 4MPa, 275°C by (a) ideal-gas law, (b) use of
compressibility factor.
11. A jet engine uses 42g of air per gram of fuel. The rate of flow is 2420kg of fuel per hour. The
air is at 8.26kPa, -35°C. Determine the rate of airflow in m3/min.
12. For a certain gas R =25.8 (ft-lb)/(lb-°R) and k =1.09
a. What are the values of cp and cv ?
b. What mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 15 cu. Ft at 75 psia and 80 °F?
c. If 30 BTU are transferred to this gas at constant volume in (b), what are the resulting
temperature and pressure?
13. For a certain gas R =320 (J)/(kg-K) and cv = 0.84 kJ/kg-K
a. Find cp and k ?
b. If 5 kg of this gas undergone a reversible nonflow constant pressure process from
V1 = 1.133m3 and p1 = 690 kPa to a state where t2 = 555°C, Find ΔU and ΔH

Application
Worksheet Number 2 (to be uploaded separately in msugensanVLE)

Assessment
Self-check Quiz and Worksheet

6
Unit I
Vapors and Gases
Content
Topic 1. Pure Substances
Topic 2. Ideal and Real Gases

References
Topic 1
Thermodynamics 6th edition by Virgil Moring Faires and Clifford Max Simmang
Thermodynamics for Engineers (SI Version) by Doolittle, J.S. and F.J. Hale
Lecture Notes on Thermodynamics by Powers
DOE Fundamentals Handbook Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow Volume 1
Thermodynamics By Elie Tawil
Saturation Thermodynamics retrieved last September 23, 2020 from
https://www.engineersedge.com/thermodynamics/saturation.htm#:~:text=Saturation%20Ther
modynamic%20The%20term%20saturation%20defines%20a%20condition,pressure%20is%
20called%20the%20saturationtemperature%20or%20boiling%20point.
 Pure Substances
Lesson 3

Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson the students are expected to:
1. Demonstrate mastery on the use of several thermodynamic property tables and charts
2. Compute problems related to the changes in the states of vapor using the principles of
thermodynamics

Introduction
In the study of thermodynamics, we would often encounter systems with working
substances in multiphases. The properties of this substances are often found in property
tables and charts. This chapter discusses how to use this property tables and charts for
further thermodynamic applications.

Activity. Boiling-Water (This activity will be posted in MSU-GenSan VLE in Moodle.)

Watch the video.

Analysis
Guide Questions:
1. At what time frame did the water started to boil? Defend your answer.
2. Is there a change in the property of the water? If there is, list down the changes.
3. What do you think causes the motion of the water? Explain.

Abstraction

Pure Substances

Pure Substance is a material with homogeneous and invariable composition. When it exist in a
multiple phase mixture, the chemical composition is the same in all phases.

Phases of Pure Substances

1. Solid Phase
2. Liquid Phase
3. Vapor Phase
*There is no sharp line of distinction between vapor and gas. In general, a gas is considered to be
far removed from its liquid state where as a vapor is thought to be rather liquefiable. However, at low
pressure a so-called vapor may be treated as an ideal gas for most engineering purposes.

Changes in Phases
a) Melting (or Fusion) – phase change from solid to liquid
b) Freezing (or Solidifying) - phase change from liquid to solid
c) Vaporization (or Boiling) - phase change from liquid to gaseous phase

2
 d) Condensation - phase change from gaseous phase to liquid
e) Sublimation - phase change from solid to gaseous phase

Heat – the amount of energy flowig from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature
differences.
a) Latent heat – heat required to change the phase of a substance.
𝑄 = 𝑚∆ℎ

1) Latent heat of Vaporization (or enthalpy of evaporation, hfg) – the heat for the
evaporation of a saturated liquid into a saturated vapor. For water at 100°C: hfg =
2257.06kJ/kg
2) Latent heat of Fusion (or enthalpy of fusion, hif) – the amount of heat to change the solid
to a liquid, or vice versa. For water: hif = 333.2 kJ/kg

b) Sensible Heat – heat required to raise the temperature of a substance.

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇

Specific Heat Capacity, cp– the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a
subsatnce by a unit per unit mass. For water: cp = 4.182 kJ/kg-K; for ice: cp = 2.05 kJ/kg-K

Sample Problem:
1) Five kilograms of ice at -10°C is heated to melt into water at 0°C; then additional heat is
added to vaporize the water into steam. The saturated vapor exit at 100°C. Calculate the
different heat enthalpy values involved in the process.

Sketch:

Required: Heat Enthalpy values (Q or ΔH)

Given:
Working Substance: Water
m = 5 kg

Property 1 process 2 process 3 process 4 process 5

phase ice Sensible ice Latent Water Sensible Sat. Latent Sat.
Heating Heating Heating Water Heating Vapor
T -10°C 0°C 0°C 100°C 100°C

Assumptions:
1) The water is heated at constant pressure (1 atm). Hence For water cp = 4.182 kJ/kg-K;
for ice: cp = 2.05 kJ/kg-K; hfg = 2257.06 kJ/kg; hif = 333.2 kJ/kg
2) System is closed, hence there is no flow of mass in and out of the system.

Solution:
for process 1-2:
𝑘𝐽
𝑄1−2 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 5𝑘𝑔 (2.05 ⁄𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 ) (273.25 𝐾 − 263.15 𝐾 )
𝑄1−2 = 102.5 𝑘𝐽

for process 2-3:

𝑘𝐽
𝑄1−2 = 𝑚ℎ = 5𝑘𝑔 (333.2 ⁄𝑘𝑔 )
𝑄1−2 = 1666 𝑘𝐽

for process 3-4:

3
 𝑘𝐽
𝑄1−2 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 5𝑘𝑔 (4.182 ⁄𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 ) (373.25 𝐾 − 273.15 𝐾 )
𝑄1−2 = 2091 𝑘𝐽

for process 4-5:

𝑘𝐽
𝑄1−2 = 𝑚ℎ = 5𝑘𝑔 (2257.06 ⁄𝑘𝑔)
𝑄1−2 = 11285.3 𝑘𝐽

for process 1-6:

𝑄1−6 = ∑ 𝑄 = 102.5 𝑘𝐽 + 1666 𝑘𝐽 + 2091 𝑘𝐽 + 11285.3 𝑘𝐽
𝑄1−6 = 15144.8 𝑘𝐽

∴The heat enthalpy values for each of the process is different. The values are
102.5kJ for process 1-2, 1666kJ for process 2-3, 2091kJ for process 3-4 and 11285.3kJ for
process 4-5. And, the total heat required to vaporize the 5 kg of ice with an initial temperature
of -10°C to 100°C is 15144.8kJ.

Practice problems:
1. How much thermal energy is required to change a 40 g ice cube from a solid at -10 °C
to steam at 110 °C?
2. If 32kJ of thermal energy is discharged through a 1 kW resistor immersed in and at
equilibrium with 500 ml of water. The water is at an initial temperature of 20 °C. Find
the final, equilibrium temperature of the water. The 100-g resistor has specific heat of
710 J/kg°C.

Vapor Pressure Curve

gedankenexperiment for water to boil

Let’s boil water at constant pressure of 100kPa in a cylinder with a piston that is free to move.

State 1:
a) Phase: liquid (subcooled liquid)
b) Temperature: 20°C
c) Pressure: 100kPa
d) Specific volume: ~0.0010018 m3/kg

Process 1-2. Isobaric Sensible Heating. The addition of heat causes an increase in the temperature
of the water that consequently cause an slight expansion of the fluid.

State 2:
a) Phase: liquid (subcooled liquid)
b) Temperature: > 20°C
c) Pressure: 100kPa

4
 d) Specific volume: ~0.001012 m3/kg (at 50°C)

Process 2-3. Isobaric Sensible Heating until saturated state. Water temperature continues to
increase until reaching the saturated state

State 3:
a) Phase: Saturated liquid (saturated)
b) Temperature: 99.62°C
c) Pressure: 100kPa
d) Specific volume: ~0.001043 m3/kg

Process 3-4. Isobaric Latent Heating (Vaporization)

State 4:
a) Phase: Saturated (mix phase)
b) Temperature: 99.62°C
c) Pressure: 100kPa
d) Specific volume: ~0.8465 m3/kg (50% liquid, 50%vapor)

Process 5-6. Isobaric Latent Heating (Vaporization)

State 5
a) Phase: Saturated vapor
b) Temperature: 99.62°C
c) Pressure: 100kPa
d) Specific volume: 1.6940 m3/kg

Figure 1. T-V diagram of Water

Propety Diagram
Vapor Pressure Curve - The graphical representation of this relationship between temperature and
pressure at saturated conditions.

5
 Figure 2. Vapor-Pressure Curve (P-T diagram)

Figure 3. T-v diagram Figure 4. P-v diagram

Figure 5. T-s diagram

Saturation – a condition in which mixture of vapor and liquid can exist together at a given temperature
and pressure.

Saturation Temperature (Boiling point, Tsat) – The temperature at which vaporization starts to occur
for a given pressure.

Saturation pressure, Psat – The pressure at which vaporization starts to occur for a given temperature.

6
Note: The saturation temperature (that is the boiling point) increases as pressure increases, as long as the
pressure increase is not too high.

Saturated Liquid – when the substance is all liquid and is at Tsat

*Saturated Liquid Curve/Line – the locus of all states of saturated liquid

Saturated Vapor (Dry and saturated vapor) – when the substance is all vapor and is at Tsat.
*Saturated Vapor Curve/Line – the locus of all states of saturated vapor

Two-phase Mixture (or Wet Saturated Vapor) – the substance is composed of co-existing liquid and vapor
with both at Tsat. The refers to the area beneath the vapor pressure curve.

Moisture Content (or Percentage moisture, y) – the fraction or percentage by mass that is liquid. It
refers to the ratio of the mass of the liquid to the total mass of both liquid and vapor.
Quality (or Dryness Fraction, x) – the fraction or percentage by mass that is vapor. It is the ratio of
the mass of the mixture which is vapor (vap) to the total mixture mass.

𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑞
𝑥= 𝑦=
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

Note: There are two important limits to remember: a) x = 0: corresponds to mvap = 0. This is the all liquid limit.
b) x = 1: corresponds to mvap = mtotal . This is the all gas limit.

Subcooled liquid – liquid existing at a temperature lower than the saturation temperature fro a given
pressure. (Customarily, the term can be used interchangeably with compressed liquid)

Compressed Liquid – liquid existing at a pressure in excess of the saturation pressure for a given
temperature.
Note: Liquids are only slightly compressible, particularly at low temperatures. A moderate increase in the
pressure exerted on the liquid produces only a very small change in the properties of the liquid (provided that
its temperature is not change).

Superheated Vapor – vapor existing at temperature in excess of the saturation temperature at the
given pressure.
*Degree of superheat – the difference between the actual pressure and the saturation
temperature for a given pressure.

Triple Point – a point in which the system is in an equilibrium condition where the pressure and
temperature with a mixture of some solid, some liquid and some vapor steadily coexist and can
continue to do so as long as the pressure and temperature remains the same.

Table 1. Triple Point of some substances

Substances Pressure Temperature
Water 0.08865 psia 32.018°F
0.6113kPa 0.01°C
Ammonia (NH3) 0.88 psia -107.86°F
Nitrogen (N2) 1.086 psia 114.1°R
Carbon Dioxide 5.1atm -56.6°C

Critical Point – The point at which the vapor and liquid curve meet and a vapor is indistinguishable
from the liquid.
Note: a) Above a critical pressure, P = Pc(H2O) = 22.089 MPa, there is no phase change observed.
b) At the critical pressure and temperature, the specific volume takes the value vf = vg = vc

7
For Water:
Pc = 22.09 MPa Tc= 374.14 °C vc = 0.003155 m3/kg
uf =ug = 2014 kJ/kg hf =hg = 2084 kJ/kg sf = sg = 4.406 kJ/kg.

Fusion Line – line that seprates the solid and liquid phases
Sublimation Line - line that seprates the solid and vapor phases
Vaporization Line - line that seprates the vapor and liquid phases

Vapor Tables
(Refer to Steam Table uploaded in moodle.)

There are separate table in a steam table : a) Saturated Steam Table, b) Superheated Steam
Table, and the Compressed table.

Note: the subscript f denotes saturated liquid, g a dry saturated vapor and the subscript fg the
change in property during vaporization.

The property of the substance at a given quality x is:

v = vf + xvfg
u = uf + xufg
h = hf + xhfg

Practice Problems:
1) Determine the enthalpy and specific volume of a saturated water at 300°C and water at
300°C under a pressure of 50 MPa.
2) Determine the difference between (a) the specific volume and (b) enthalpy of saturated
water at 40°C and water at a pressure of 5MPa, 40°C
3) Specify the state of steam having a pressure of 0.6MPa and an anthalpy of 2570 kJ/kg.
4) Steam at a pressure of 1MPa has a specific volume of 232.7 x 10-3 m3/kg. Specify the
state of the steam.
5) Steam at a pressure of 0.4758MPa has an internal energy of 2559.5 kJ/kg. Specify the
state of the steam.
6) Steam at a temperature of 140°C has an entropy of 6.355kJ/kg-K. Specify the state of the
steam.
7) Steam exists in a vertical cylinder at a temperature of 200°C. The piston in the cylinder
matains the pressure at 1MPa as the steam is heated by the addition of heat of 223.3
kJ/kg. Specify the final state of the steam.
8) Steam at 3MPa, 400°C expands isentropically to a pressure of 0.6MPa. Specify the final
condition.
9) Water enters a steam generator at 25 MPa and 240°C. Steam leaves at 22MPa and
550°C. Determine the heat added per kilogram. (Q = ΔH).
10) Steam at 6MPa and 480°C is throttled to 4MPa for part-load operation of a small turbine.
Determine (a) the final state of the steam and (b) the change in entropy during throttling.

8
Vapor Charts
Mollier Diagram (h-s diagram) – a chart on which enthalpy is the ordinate and entropy the abscissa.
On this chart a series of isobars (constant pressure lines), a series of constant quality and
superheat lines, and a series of constat temperature lines are plotted. (Refer to the
uploaded chart in Moodle)

Practice Problem:
1. Use the Mollier Chart to determine the properties (h, v, s) of one kilogram of steam at 100
bar, 600°C.
2. Three kilogram of steam change state from 1 bar, x1 = 90% to 300°C isentropically. Find s1,
P2, ΔH, ΔV.
3. Two kilogram of steam occupy 4m3 at 250°C. What is its state?

Application
Worksheet Number 3 (to be uploaded separately in msugensanVLE)

Assessment
Self-check Quiz and Worksheet

9
Unit I
Introduction to Thermodynamics
Content
Topic 1. Dimensions, Units and Conversion
Topic 2. Thermodynamic Properties, Systems, and Processes

References
Topic 1
Dimensions and Units in Fluid Mechanics retrieved last September 4, 2020 from
https://www.me.psu.edu/cimbala/Learning/Fluid/Introductory/dimensions_and_units.htm
Dimensional Analysis retrieved last September 4, 2020 from https://byjus.com/physics/dimensional-
analysis/
Thermodynamics 6th edition by Virgil Moring Faires and Clifford Max Simmang

Topic 2
Thermodynamics 6th edition by Virgil Moring Faires and Clifford Max Simmang
Thermodynamics for Engineers (SI Version) by Doolittle, J.S. and F.J. Hale
Lecture Notes on Thermodynamics by Powers
DOE Fundamentals Handbook Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow Volume 1
Thermodynamics By Elie Tawil
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES, SYSTEMS, AND PROCESSES
Lesson 2

Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson the students are expected to:
1. Identify extensive, intensive, and specific properties of a working substance in a
thermodynamic system.
2. Calculate the values of thermodynamic properties of a working substance in a
thermodynamic system
3. Recognize the thermodynamic process taking place in a thermodynamic system.

Introduction
The primary concern of thermodynamics is work-heat transformation. The transfer
of energy to and from a working substance to its surrounding involves different types of
processes corresponding to changes in its property. Thus, this lesson is provided to acquaint
the students with common thermodynamic systems and processes.

Activity. What’s-inside-the-box? (This activity will be posted in MSU-GenSan VLE in Moodle.)

Sketch your refrigerator showing what’s inside it.

Analysis
Guide Questions:
1. Name at least three things that can be found inside the refrigerator.
2. Why do you keep these things inside the refrigerator?
3. What would happen if you keep your refrigerator door open most of the time?

Abstraction

Thermodynamics and Thermodynamic System

Thermodynamics is a science relating heat and work transfers and the related changes in the
properties of the working substance; it’s from the Greek words θ´ǫρμη, therme: heat, and
δ´υναμις, dynamis: power.

Engineering Thermodynamics refers to the science that involves the design and analysis of devices
and systems for energy conversion. It deals with heat and work and those properties of
substances related to heat and work.

Thermodynamic System is the quantity of matter of fixed mass and identity upon which attention is
focused on study.
 Some of the common thermodynamic systems considered in engineering thermodynamics are
Steam and internal combustion engines, Refrigerator, Heat Pump, Power Plants, Jet Engines,
etc.

Working Substance is a fluid in which energy can be stored or from which energy can be removed.
Some of the common working substances dealt with in the study of engineering
thermodynamics are water in steam engines and steam power plants, Air-fuel mixture in
internal combustion engines, refrigerants used (ammonia, R-22, R-12, etc) in refrigerators
and air-conditioning units and many more.

Surroundings are everything external to the system

Boundary is a physical or imaginary surface, enveloping the system and separating it from the
surroundings

Universe combination of system and surroundings

Figure 1. Thermodynamic System (Source: Powers)

Types of Thermodynamic system based on the possible transfer of mass and energy across the system boundaries

Figure 2. Types of Thermodynamic Systems

1. Isolated - is one that is not influenced in any way by the surroundings

o no energy and mass transfer
ex. Hot water inside a vacuum flask (in an ideal situation, but in reality this does not
happen).

2. Closed (“Control Mass”)

o no mass transfer but energy can enter or leave the system
o Boundaries may be fixed or movable
ex. The gas inside a closed balloon; a gas trapped in a cylinder by a movable piston

3. Open (“Control Volume”)

o have both mass and energy transfer within its surroundings
o Boundaries are placed so that location does not change with time
ex. The balloon may have gas entering or leaving at the open lower end
The jet engine has air-fuel entering and exhausting gases leaving

3 MOServinas
Control Volume - a fixed region in space chosen for the thermodynamic study of mass and energy
balances for flowing systems. It refers to the fixed volume over which mass can pass in and
out of its boundary. Heat and work can cross the control surface and mass and properties
can change with time within the control volume. The mass within a control volume may or
may not be constant.
*Control Surface – the boundary of the control volume

Examples of control volume system: turbines, compressors, nozzle, diffuser, pumps, heat
exchanger, reactors, a thrust-producing device, and combinations of these

Thermodynamic Properties
- any measurable characteristic of a system

Classifications:
1. Intensive Property – independent of the amount of mass
Ex. Specific volume, temperature, pressure and density

2. Extensive Property – vary directly with the mass

Ex. Mass, Total Volume, Totral Energy
Mass and Weight
Mass of a body – the measure of the amount of material present in that body
Weight of a body – the force exerted by that body when its mass is accelerated in a
gravitational field
m1 m2
Fg = G (Newton’s Universal gravitational Law)
r2

where: Fg = Force of attraction between masses that are r distance apart

m1 = mass of first body
m2 = mass of second body
r = distance between the two bodies
G = 6.670 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2 =3.44 x 10-8 lbf-ft2/slug2 = 3.44 x 10-8 ft4/lbm-s4

F = ma (Newton’s Second Law of Motion)

W = mg

where: F = driving force

m = mass of the object
a = acceleration object
W = Weight of the body
g = gravitational acceleration
*at standard condition (45°N latitude, close to the sea level) local gravitational acceleration is 9.806 m/s2 or 32.174 ft/s2

Sample Problem
1. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30.5 ft/s 2 are as follows:
m1 is 500g of mass; m2 weighs 800gf; m3 weighs 15 poundals; m4 weighs 3 lbf; m5 is
0.10 slug of mass. What is the total mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in pounds, and (c)
in slugs.

Required: total mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in pounds, and (c) in slugs
Given:
m1 = 500g W2 = 800gf W3 = 15 poundals
W4 = 3 lbf m5 = 0.10 slug g = 30.5 ft/s2 = 9.299 m/s2

4 MOServinas
 Solution:
W = mg
m
W2 800gf 9806g 2
s
m2 = = m × = 843.618g
g 9.299 2 1000gf
s

ft
W3 15 poundals 1 slug 2 14594 g
s
m3 = = ft × 32.174 poundals × = 223.080 g
g 30.5 2 1slug
s

ft
W4 3lbf 1 slug 2 14594 g
s
m4 = = ft × × = 1435.475 g
g 30.5 2 1lbf 1slug
s

14594 g
m5 = 0.10 slug× = 1459.4 g
1slug

mtotal = Σm = 4461.573 g (Answer)

2.205lbm
mtotal = 4461.573g× = 9.838lbm (Answer)
1000g

1 slug
mtotal = 9.838lbm× 32.174lb = 0.306 slug (Answer)
m

2. How far from the earth must a body be along a line toward the sun so that the
gravitational pull of the sun balances that of the earth? Earth to sun distance is 9.3 x 107
mi; mass of the sun 3.24 x105 x mass of earth.

Required: re-b = distance from the earth so that the gravitational pull of the sun
balances that of the earth
Given:
re-s = 9.3 x 107 mi
ms = 3.24 x105 me ,
me = mass of earth
m1 = mass of the body
rb-s=distance from the body to the sun

Solution:
Fe-b = Fb-s
m1 m2
Fg = G 2
r
m1 me m1 ms
G 2 =G 2
re-b rb-s
where: rb-s = re-s – re-b
= 9.3 x 107 mi – re-b
m1 me m1 (3.24 x105 me )
=
r2e-b (9.3 x 107 mi –re-b)2
2
(9.3× 107 mi –re-b) = (3.24 ×105 )r2e-b

9.3× 107 mi –re-b = (569.210 )re-b

re-b = 1.643 ×105 mi
5
Thus, the body must be 1.643 ×10 mi from the earth to balance the gravitational pull of
the sun

5 MOServinas
Practice Problems:

1. What is the weight of a 66-kgm man at standard condition? Ans. 66kgf

2. The weight of an object is 50lb. What is its mass at standard conditions? Ans. 50lbm
3. What is the mass in kilogram and weight in newtons (g = 9.65m/s2) of (a) 4000-lbm
automobile? (b) a 235-lbm full-back?
4. Find the mass in grams and weight in dyne of (a) 77 grains of moisture. (b) 12 ounces
of salt.
5. Assume 50kg of mass are placed on a balance spring located on a freight elevator; local
gravity acceleration is 9.70m/s2. (a) When the elevator is moving with an upward
acceleration of of 2.5m/s2, what will the balance read? (b) if the elevator is stopped, what
will the balance read? (c) If the supporting cable breaks (elevator falls freely), what will
the balance read? (d) If the balance read 350N, what are the circumstances?

Density, ρ
- The mass of the substance per unit volume
m
ρ=
V

Specific volume, v
- Volume per unit mass; reciprocal of density
V 1
v= =
m ρ

Specific Weight, γ
- Weight of a substance per unit volume.

W
γ= =ρg
V

Specific gravity
- The ratio of the specific weight of a substance to the specific weight of water.
γ ρ
SG= =
γ H2 O ρH
2O

*Note: at 4°C and 101.325 kPa, ρH2O = 1.0 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3 and γH2O = 9.807 kN/m3

Sample Problem:
1. It is estimated that the mass of the earth is 5.98 x 1024 kg, its mean radius is 6.38 x 106m. Find
its density in g/cm3 and specific gravity.

Required: (a) ρe = density of earth; (b) SGe = specific gravity of earth

Given:
me = 5.98 x 1024 kg
re = 6.38 x 106m

Assumption: (a) earth is perfectly spherical

Solution:
24
m 5.98×10 kg 1000g 1m3 g
ρ= = × × = 5.497
V 4 6 3 kg 1000000cm 3 cm3
π(6.38×10 m)
3
g
ρ 5.497 3
SG = = cm = 5.497
ρH2O g
1 3
cm

6
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air.
Absolute Humidity is the mass of the water vapor divided by a unit volume of air.
Relative Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air divided by the maximum amount
that the air could contain at that temperature.

Practice Problems.
1. Two cubic meters of air at 25°C and 1 bar has a mass of 2.34 kg.
a. List the values of three intensive properties and two extensive properties for this
system.
b. If the local gravity (g) is 9.65 m/s2, evaluate the specific weight of the system.
2. Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 15000 kg/m3, ρ2 = 500 kg/m3) are poured together
into a 100-L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/m 3, find the
respective quantities liquids used. Also, find the weight of the mixture; local g = 9.675 mps 2.
Ans. m1 = 45 kg

Temperature (T)
- a measure of the molecular activity of a substance.
- the thermal state of the body that is considered with reference to its ability to communicate
heat to other bodies.
- a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and can be used to predict the
direction of heat transfer.

°F = 32.0 + (9/5) °C
°C = (°F – 32.0) (5/9)

Absolute Temperature is the temperature measured from absolute zero. The triple point of water at
1 atm which is 273.16 K is used as the basic point of the absolute scale. While both
Fahrenheit and Celsius are based on ice point and steam point.

°R = °F + 459.67
K = °C + 273.15

Absolute Zero Temperature is the temperature at which all molecular motion of individual atoms
ceases.

Practice Problems:
1. What is the Rankine equivalent of 80°C?
2. What is the Kelvin equivalent of 80°F?

Most Common approaches in Measuring Temperature

1. Change in Volume
2. Change in pressure
3. Change in electrical resistivity
4. Change in electrical potential
5. Optical Changes

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

“When two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with the third body, they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other”

“When heat tends to flow from a body A to a body B, the body A is said to have a higher
temperature than B. When no transference of heat tends to take place, even under
conditions which render such transference possible, A and B are said to have the same
temperature”

7
Pressure (P)
- a measure of the force exerted per unit area on the boundaries of a substance.

The pressure of a gas (if gravitation and other body forces are negligible) is caused by the
pounding of a large number of gas molecules on the surface.

Absolute Pressure is the pressure measured relative to a perfect vacuum

Gage Pressure is the pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure
Vacuum pressure is the negative pressure gage reading.

Atmospheric Pressure (or Barometric Pressure)

*at standard reference Patm = 760 mm-Hg = 29.92 in-Hg = 14.696 psia = 1 atm = 101.325 kPaa

Pabs = Patm + Pgauge

Pabs = Patm - Pvac

For Fluid Pressure: Pg = ρgh, where h is the height of the fluid

Sample Problem:
1. A manometer is attached to a pressurized container. One end of the manometer is open to
the atmosphere and the local atmospheric pressure is 760 mm-Hg. The height of the
manometer fluid is 42 cm and the fluid has a specific gravity of 1.6. Calculate the absolute
pressure on the inside surface of the container.

Required: Pabs
Given:
Patm = 760 mm-Hg = 101.325 kPa
h = 42 cm
S.G = 1.6

Assumption: Pressure inside the container is uniform

Solution:
Pabs = Patm + Pg
Pg = ρgh = S.G γH2Oh
Pg = 1.6 (9.807 kN/m3) (0.42m)
Pg = 6.590 KPa
Pabs = 101.325 kPa + 6.590 KPa
Pabs = 107.915 kPaa (Answer)

The pressure on the inside surface of the container is 107.915 KPaa.

Practice Problems:
1. How deep can a diver descend in ocean water (ρ = 64 lbm/ft3) without damaging his watch,
which will withstand an absolute pressure of 80psia?
2. A pressure gauge registers 40 psig in a region where the barometer is 14.5 psia. Find the
absolute pressure in psia, and in kPa.

8
 3. The pressure in a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm2. The barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 768
mm-Hg. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler.

Internal Energy (U) is the property of a system covering all forms of energy arising from the internal
structure of the substance.
Specific Internal Energy (u) is the Internal energy of the system per unit mass

Enthalpy (H) is the property of the system conveniently defined as H = U + PV

Specific Enthalpy (h) is the enthalpy of the system per unit mass

Entropy (S) is the property that described the microscopic disorder of the system.
Specific Entropy (s) is the enthalpy of the system per unit mass

Work (W) is an energy in transit. (For Mechanical System) It is the action of a force on an object
through a distance.

Heat (Q) is an energy in transit; It is the energy transferred by virtue of temperature difference that
exists across the boundaries

Thermodynamic Processes

The state of a substance at any instant is the condition of existence at that instant
*Described by specifying certain properties of a substance

State Postulate specifies the number of properties required to fix the state of a system: The state of
a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.

Figure 3. Processes and Cycle

Process is a path in which the state of the system change and some properties vary from their original
values. It is used to describe how changes in state occur. It is used to describe what happens
to the fluid as it moves through the system.

Cycle is a series of processes involved when a system undergoes a series of processes and
ultimately returns to its original state

Steady State
- is that circumstances in which there is no accumulation of mass or energy within the control
volume, and the properties at any point within the system are independent of time

Point Function – quantity whose value at any state is independent of the path or process used to
reach that state. ex. pressure, temperature, specific volume, entropy, enthalpy
Figure 3 shows that the value of the pressure (P) and specific volume (v) of the system
depends on its state (or point).

9
Path or Process function – quantity whose value depends on the path followed during a particular
change in state. ex. work, heat
The 2nd and 3rd graph in Figure 3 shows the area below the P-v curve which is equal to the
nonflow work. Though the two processes (A and C) creates the same change from point 1
to 2, the amount of work varies as to which path (process) it takes.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• When a system is in equilibrium with regard to all possible changes in state, the system is
in Thermodynamic Equilibrium.

o Mechanical Equilibrium - equal pressure, (there is no unbalanced force within the

system or between the system and the surrounding)
o Thermal Equilibrium - equal temperature, (there is no transfer of heat to and from
the system)
o Chemical Equilibrium - equal chemical potential, (there is no chemical reaction
taking place)

Thermodynamic Processes:
Reversible Process: a process that, once having taken place, can be reversed, and in so
doing leaves no change in either the system or surroundings

Irreversible Process: a process that cannot return both the system and the surroundings to
their original conditions
Common causes of irreversibility
1. friction
2. unrestrained expansion of fluid
3. heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
4. mixing of two different substances

• Polytropic:
o When a gas undergoes a reversible process in which there is a heat transfer, the
process frequently takes place in such a manner that a plot of the Log P vs Log v
is a straight line.
o Pvn = Constant
• Isobaric: no change in pressure of the fluid (P1 = P2)
• Isochoric/ Isometric: no change in volume of the fluid (v1 = v2)
• Isothermal: no change in temperature of the system (T1 = T2)
• Adiabatic: no heat transfer from or to the fluid (Q = 0)
• Isenthalpic: no change of enthalpy (h1 = h2)
• Isentropic: no change of entropy of the fluid ((s1 = s2). Polytropic Adiabatic process (n=k)
• Throttling Process:
- an irreversible process which there is no change in enthalpy from state 1 to state 2, h1 =h2;
no work done, W=0; and the process is adiabatic, Q = 0
ex. The pressure reduction process in an expansion valve of a refrigerator.

Application
Worksheet Number 2 (to be uploaded separately in msugensanVLE)

Assessment
Self-check Quiz and Worksheet

10
Unit I
Introduction to Thermodynamics
Content
Lesson 1. Dimensions, Units and Conversion
Lesson 2. Thermodynamic Properties, Systems, and Processes

Topic 1
Dimensions and Units in Fluid Mechanics retrieved last September 4, 2020 from
https://www.me.psu.edu/cimbala/Learning/Fluid/Introductory/dimensions_and_units.htm
Dimensional Analysis retrieved last September 4, 2020 from https://byjus.com/physics/dimensional-
analysis/
Thermodynamics 6th edition by Virgil Moring Faires and Clifford Max Simmang
 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
Lesson 1

Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson the students are expected to:
1. Apply the concept of dimensional homogeneity in performing dimensional analysis.
2. Perform unit conversion for primary and secondary dimension with different system of
units.

Introduction
In learning Thermodynamics and Heat transfer, it will be inevitable to encounter simple to
complex equations, hence knowledge in checking the correctness of the equation is vital in solving
problems. Moreover, values of different thermodynamics properties can be presented using different
systems of units thus unit conversion will be a necessity to attain unit consistency in problem-solving.
This lesson is provided to review the students on the basic concepts of dimensional homogeneity
and unit consistency.

Activity. Power_Rating (This activity will be posted in MSU-GenSan VLE in Moodle.)

List down the power ratings of at least five appliances/gadgets you have at home.

Analysis
Guide Questions:
1. Which appliance has the highest power rating? What is its rating?
2. Are the units for the appliance/gadget with the lowest and highest power rating the
same?
3. Why do you think it is necessary to express the power rating in different units?

Abstraction

Dimension
- Coordinates of physical perception.

Primary Dimension
Primary (sometimes called basic) dimensions are defined as independent or fundamental
dimensions, from which other dimensions can be obtained.
ex. Mass, length, time, temperature

Secondary Dimension
Secondary Dimensions are constructed from combinations of these four primary dimensions
ex. Force, Pressure, Energy, Power

2
Dimensionless quantities
• Ratio - The ratio has to carry its title with it. ex. Reynold’s Number, Specific Heat Ratio
• Angles
▪ Radians for the mathematical definition
▪ Degrees for the customary
• Numbers - Specify what you are counting

Customary Units that have wrong dimensions for the quantity they purport to measure
• Mass-energy ( ex. MeV)
• Pressure (ex. mmHg)

The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity and Consistency

The Principle of Homogeneity states that dimensions of each of the terms of a dimensional
equation on both sides should be the same.

Dimensional Analysis (Factor Label Method or Unit Factor Method)

The study of the relationship between physical quantities with the help of dimensions and
units of measurement

Purpose of Dimensional Analysis

1. to check whether an equation has been correctly formed
2. to establish the required form of an equation relating a number of variables
3. to analyze experimental results

Notes:
1. Terms are equated, added, or subtracted must have the same dimensions
2. For Multiplication and division, dimensions of each quantity must combine and/ or cancel
out to yield dimensions that are consistent with all other terms.
3. Exponents and arguments of transcendental functions must be dimensionless.
4. Quantities that are raised to a power that is not a whole number must be dimensionless.

Some limitations of dimensional analysis are:

• It doesn’t give information about the dimensional constant.
• The formula containing trigonometric function, exponential functions, logarithmic function,
etc. cannot be derived.
• It gives no information about whether a physical quantity is a scalar or vector

Sample Problem
1. Perform a dimensional Analysis of the Bernoulli’s Equation. Determine the dimension of the
constant.
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
where: P = pressure
ρ = density
v = velocity
g = gravitational acceleration
z = elevation

Required: (a) Checking of the Left Hand Side (b)Dimension of constant

Given:
1 2
𝑃+ 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2

3
 Solution:
1 2
𝑃+ 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2

𝐹 𝑚 𝐿 2 𝑚𝑣
+ 𝑉 (𝑡 ) + 𝑉 𝑡 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, ½ is dimensionless
𝐴
𝐿 𝐿
𝑚 2 𝑚 𝐿 2 𝑚
𝑡 + ( ) + 3 𝑡 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐿2 𝐿3 𝑡 𝐿 𝑡
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
2
+ 2 + 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑡

Answer:
(a) All terms on the left-hand side have the same dimension. Therefore, the equation is
dimensionally consistent.
(b) Since all terms that are equated must have the same dimension, the dimension of the
𝑚
constant is 𝐿𝑡 2.

2. The trigonometric functions are ratios of lengths. These functions and their arguments are
dimensionless. In the equation, X = A sin ( CY/Z), the known dimensions are X = L, Y = t, and Z
= L. What are the dimensions of A and C?

Required: Dimensions of A and C

Given:
X = A sin ( CY/Z)
X=L
Y=t
Z=L
Solution:
(a) Dimension of C
𝐶𝑌
𝑋 = 𝐴 sin ( ), since arguments of transcendental functions must be dimensionless so,
𝑍

𝐶𝑌 𝐶𝑡
= = 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑍 𝐿

therefore, the dimension of C = L/t (Answer)

(b) Dimension of A
𝐶𝑌 𝐶𝑌
𝑋 = 𝐴 sin ( ), sin ( ) is dimensionless so,
𝑍 𝑍

𝑋=𝐴

therefore, the dimension of A is L (Answer)

Practice Problem
1. The equation 𝑣12 − 𝑣02 = 2𝑎𝑠 as gives the final velocity v1 of a body which started with an
initial velocity vo and received an acceleration a for a distance s. Show that all three terms in
the equation have the same dimension and the equation is dimensionally correct.
2. Prove that E = mc2 is dimensionally homogenous.
3. In the expression Nu = C(Re)0.3(Pr)0.8, if C is a dimensionless constant what must be the
dimension of Nu, Re, Pr, 0.3 and 0.8?
4. A radar gun is used to obtain the speed of a car as it accelerates from a stop sign. A graph of
speed (y-axis) vs time (x-axis) is a straight line, so the student computes a slope expecting to

4
 find the constant acceleration. By dimensional analysis, check if the slope of the line is really
the acceleration.

Units
- Specified magnitudes of dimensions that are used in the measurement

Three Primary Unit Systems

▪ the International System of Units (SI units, from Le Systeme International d’Unites, more
commonly simply called metric units)
▪ the English Engineering System of Units (commonly called English units)
▪ the British Gravitational System of Units (BG)

Table 1. Primary Dimension and Units

Primary Dimension Symbol SI unit BG unit English unit
mass m kg slug lbm (pound-
(kilogram) mass)
length L m (meter) ft (foot) ft (foot)
time t s (second) s (second) s (second)
temperature T K (Kelvin) °R (degree R (Rankine)
Rankine)
electric current I A (ampere) A (ampere) A (ampere)
amount of light C c (candela) c (candela) c (candela)
(luminous intensity)
amount of matter n or N mol (mole) mol (mole) mol (mole)
(sometimes µ)

Table 2. Unit Prefixes

Prefix Factor Symbol Prefix Factor Symbol
deci 10-1 d deca 10 da
centi 10-2 c hecto 102 h
milli 10-3 m kilo 103 k
micro 10-6 μ mega 106 M
nano 10-9 n giga 109 G
pico 10-12 p tera 1012 T
femto 10-15 f peta 1015 P
atto 10-18 a exa 1018 E

Units Consistency and Conversion

Unit Conversion
• Conversion is accomplished through multiplication or division by the conversion factor to
effect a desired cancellation of units

The common secondary dimensions encountered in the study of thermodynamics are force,
pressure, energy, and power.

5
Figure 1. Conversion Constant (Source: Thermodynamics by Faires and Simmang)

6
Figure 2. Conversion Constant continuation (Source: Thermodynamics by Faires and Simmang)

Practice Problems:
1. The inflation pressure specified on the side of a bicycle tire is 3.8 atm. What is the
equivalent pressure in dyne/cm2?
2. Convert:
a. 3 lbm to kg f. 560 kg to lbm
b. 25 lbf to N g. 850 mm-Hg to Pa
c. 1 kW to hp h. 495 Btu to J
d. 50,000 Pa to psi i. 750 J to ft-lb
e. 45in-Hg to psi

7
Application

Worksheet Number 1 (to be uploaded separately in msugensanVLE)

Assessment
Self-check Quiz and Worksheet

8
9