Industrial Training Report

Submitted to
Bhilai Institute of Technology Durg
For
Vocational Training
on
---Topic of Training
(Name of Training Organisation)

Of
Bachelor of Technology
in
Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
by
Name of Student
Semester:
University Roll Number:
Enrollment No:
Training Session:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BHILAI HOUSE, DURG (C.G.) -491001, INDIA

SESSION 2020-2021

1
 DECLARATION

I sincerely declare that :

1.I am the sole writer of this report

2.The detail of training and experience contained in this Industrial Training report
describe my involvement as a trainee in the field of ET &T engineering.
3.All the information contained in this report is based on my field experience during
training.

Signature of the Candidate

Name of Candidate
URN
Date
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to CSVTU Bhilai , BIT Durg and foremost thankful
to ET&T Deartment for providing this opportunity to me to pursuing the Industrial training as a
partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of technology/engineering. To
the best of my knowledge this Industrial Training
i. acquired the practical knowledge of different engineering fields which is helpful for
clearing different engineering concepts.
ii. Developed skills in the application of theory to practical work situations in real work
environments
iii. Fulfills the requirement of the ordinance relating to the B.E. Degree of the University
iv. Is up to the desired standard for the purpose of which is submitted.

Signature of the Candidate

Name of Candidate
URN
Date
Copy of Training CERTIFICAT
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapters Title Page No.

Declaration 2
Acknowledgement 3
Training Certificate 4
Acknowledgement 5
Table of contents 6
List of Figures 7
8

9
1. History of BSNL 10
2. TelecomSwitching Network 11

11

20
3. Access network 26

4. Transmission system 27
5. GSM 30
6. Broadband 29
7. Conclusion 43
8. Reference 43
 Fig. Name Page No.

Fig. No.
1 Telecom Switching Network 14

2 Overview of Telecom Network 16

3 Optical Fiber Communication 33
4 Splicing of Optical Fiber 34
5 Introduction to Mobile Communication and Antenna 40
6 Internet of Things 41

LIST OF FIGURES
 Abstract

I went through a practical Industrial training in BSNL, Sagar (M.P.) on

Telecommunications which included the study of Telecommunication
architecture, GSM technology and common telephone exchange
techniques. It was a great opportunity as well as a nice experience to get
to know about the real time working systems of the telecommunication. I
had visits to the Base station where I got to look and watch the real time
working of the
communications systems. Each aspect of the visit was very fascinating
and intriguing as I was allowed to interact with the every component of
the entire communication system. It was very good and very different
real time experience for me where we faced practical issues on call
drops, connection breakage and also had a privilege of watching the
solution to them.
 HISTORY OF BSNL
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. formed in October, 2000, is World's 7th largest
Telecommunications Company providing comprehensive range of telecom services
in India: Wireline, CDMA mobile, GSM Mobile, Internet, Broadband, Carrier
service, MPLS-VPN, VSAT, VoIP services, IN Services etc. Presently it is one of the
largest & leading public sector unit in India.
BSNL has installed Quality Telecom Network in the country and now focusing on
improving it, expanding the network, introducing new telecom services with ICT
applications in villages and wining customer's confidence. Today, it has about 46
million line basic telephone capacity, 8 million WLL capacity, 52 Million GSM
Capacity, more than 38302 fixed exchanges, 46565 BTS, 3895 Node B ( 3G BTS),
287 Satellite Stations, 614755 R km of OFC Cable, 50430 R km of Microwave
Network connecting 602 Districts, 7330 cities/towns and 5.6 Lakhs villages.

BSNL is the only service provider, making focused efforts and planned initiatives to
bridge the Rural-Urban Digital Divide ICT sector. In fact there is no telecom
operator in the country to beat its reach with its wide network giving services in
every nook & corner of country and operates across India except Delhi & Mumbai.
Whether it is inaccessible areas of Siachen glacier and North-eastern region of the
country. BSNL serves its customers with its wide bouquet of telecom services.

BSNL is numerouno operator of India in all services in its license area. The company
offers vide ranging & most transparent tariff schemes designed to suite every
customer.BSNL cellular service, CellOne, has 55,140,282 2G cellular customers and
88,493 3Gcustomers as on 30.11.2009. In basic services, BSNL is miles ahead of its
rivals, with 35.1 million Basic Phone subscribers i.e. 85 per cent share of the
subscriber base and 92 percent share in revenue terms. BSNL has more than 2.5
million WLL subscribers and 2.5 million Internet Customers who access Internet
through various modes viz. Dial-up, Leased Line, DIAS, Account Less Internet
(CLI). BSNL has been adjudged as the NUMBER ONE ISP in the country. BSNL
has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP infrastructure
that provides convergent services like voice, data and video through the same
Backbone and Broadband Access Network. At present there are 0.6 million DataOne
broadband customers. The company has vast experience in Planning, Installation,
network integration and Maintenance of Switching & Transmission Networks and
also has a world class ISO 9000 certified Telecom Training Institute. Scaling new
heights of success, the present turnover of BSNL is more than Rs.351, 820 million
(US $ 8 billion) with net profit to the tune of Rs.99,390 million (US $ 2.26 billion)
for last financial year. The infrastructure asset on telephone alone is worth about
Rs.630, 000 million (US $ 14.37 billion).

The turnover, nationwide coverage, reach, comprehensive range of telecom

services and the desire to excel has made BSNL the No. 1 Telecom Company of
India.
TELECOM SWITCHING NETWORK
BRIEF HISTORY : -

The Center for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) is the telecom

technology development center of the government , It was established in August
1984 as an autonomous body. It was vested with full authority and total flexibility to
develop state- of-the-art telecommunication technology to meet the needs of the
Indian telecommunication network. The key objective was to build a center for
excellence in the area of telecom technology .

ORGANIZATION : -

The management of C-DOT has a three-tier structure: -The governing

Council: provides policy guidelines and approves the annual budget of the center.
The Steering Committee: has the role of reviewing and monitoring the performance
of the center.

The Project Board: is responsible for the implementation of C-DOT’s project and
the day-to-day function of the center.
Architecture

C-D OT switches have distributed architecture .a base moduke (BM) has 512 port
which can provide non-blocking connectivity and can accept concentrated subscriber
lines. The BM, capable of serving upto 2000 lines or 512 trunks, is used as the basic
building block. Each BM is the housed in a single Cabinate. By interconnecting upto
35 such BMs through a central module (CM),the switch can support upto 40,000
lines. The system can support upto 4:1 concentration. Lines and trunks can be
intermixed in the same BM.
The front-end of the system consists of an input output processor(IOP) connected to
the administration processor(IOP) connected to the administration processor (AP).
Each System consist of two IOPs working in duplex mode .IOP, based on Motorola
68040 and supporting UNIX environment, provides interface for the main machine
communication, system initialization support ,operator features etc

OBJECTIVES: -

 Work on telecom technology products and services.

 Provide solutions for current and future requirements of telecommunication
and converged networks including those required for rural application
  Provide market orientation to R & D activities and sustain C-DOT as center of
excellence
 Build partnerships and joint alliances with industry , solution provides, telcos and
other development organizations to offer cost effective solution .
 Support telcos and service provides in the introduction of new technologies ,
features and services by optimal utilization of installed network.

MANPOWER : -

 Electronic Design automation (EDA) Tools for hardware and ASIC Design
 Case Tools for Development and testing of software
 Captive labs
 Computing center
 Pilot production plant
 Existing manpower –907
 Planned Manpower – 963

The Center has state-of-the-art development environment comprising client/ server

network of RISC workstation, latest software development tools and very mature and
effective development ad support methodologies, Extensive use is made of case
tools, object-oriented methodologies, software metric etc.The jobs have the latest test
and measurement instrument, microprocessor development system and prototyping
facilities.

ACHIEVEMENTS : -

 C-DOT Technology based system from 200 lines to 40,000 lines capacity in
operation.
 More than 30,000 C-DOT Exchange totaling approximately 25 million
telephone lines installed and operational in field.
 Deployed telecom equipment value of Rs.7500 crore.
 Significant technology transfer and royalty earnings.
 Technology development with low capital investment.
 Wide portfolio technologies, products and solution.
 Created large reservoir of technical manpower in telecom
  Established a technology transfer process for production by
multiple manufacturers.

The C-DOT DSS FAMILY

C-DOT DSS MAX is a universal digital switch can be configured for different
application as local, transit or integrated local and transit switch. High traffic or
capacity of 40000 lines as local exchange or 15000 trunks as Trunk automatic
exchange. The design of C-DOT DSS MAX has seen by a family concept because of
it’s advantages like standardized components, commonality in hardware, field
hardware that used minimum number of cards, standard cards, racks, frames,
cabinets and distribution frames are used which facilitated flexible system growth
that make C-DOR DSS MAX easy to maintain and highly reliable.

FLEXIBLE ARCHITECTUR

C-DOT DSS is a modular and flexible digital switching system which provides
economical means of serving metropolitan, urban and rural environments. It include
all important feature and compulsory services, required by the user with option of up
gradation to add new feature and services in future. The architecture for the C-DOT
DSS is such that it is possible to upgrade a working C-DOT Single Base Module.
(SBM) or Multi Base Module (MBM)exchange to provide Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) service by adding minimum addition hardware modules
while continue to having existing hardware units. Another factor of architecture
Remote Switching Unit(RSU). Is support ISDN. This RSU provides switching
facility locally even in case of failure of the communication path to the parent
exchange.The resources, which depend upon the number of terminal, are provided
within the basic growth unit the Base Module. Base Processors are provided for
handling call processing locally. In a small system application, these processors
independently support call processing, exchange operation and maintenance
function.

ARCHITECTURE OF C-DOT DSS MAX

C-D OT DSS MAX exchanges can be configured using four basic modules.
1. Base Module
 2. Central Module
3. Administrative Module
4. Input Output Module

HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE C –DOT DSS MAX

Fig 1: Hardware Architecture of C-Dot DSS MAX

C-DOT MAX exchange can be configured using four basic

modules:-

1. BASE MODULE (BM).

2. CENTRAL MODULE (CM) C.
3. ADMINISTRATION STRATIVE MODULE (AM).
4. INPUT OUTPUT MODULE (IOM&IOP).

(a) BASE MODULE (BM): -

The Base Module is the basic growth unit of the system . It interfaces the
external world to the switch. The interfaces may be subscriber lines, Along and
digital trunks. Each Base Module can interface up to 2024 terminations. The number
of Base Modules directly corresponds to the exchange size. It carries out majority of
call processing function and in a small exchange application, it also carries out
operation and maintenance function with the help of Input-Output Module.
The Basic functions of a base modules are:-

1. Analog to digital conversion of all signals on analog lines and trunks.

2. Interface to digital trunks and digital subscriber.
3. Switching the calls between terminals connected to the same Base Module.
4. Communication with the AM via the CM for administrative(i.e. Call
processing ) functions.
5. Provision of special circuits for call processing support e.g. Digital
6. Tones, announcement, MF/DTMF Senders/receivers.
7. 6. Provision for local switching Unit(RSU) as well as in case of Single Base
Module Exchange(SBM_RAX).

There are two types of Base Modules:-

1. Single Base Modules(SBM)

2. Multi Base Module (MBM)

Fig 2: Base Module Configuration

 In SBM exchange configuration, the Base Module acts as an independent
switching BM directly interface with the Input Output Module for bulk data storage,
operations and maintenance function. Clock and synchronization is provided by a
source within the BM. It is a very useful application for small urban and rural
environments. The Base cabinet houses total 6 frames:-

 Terminal Unit (TU, Top 4 Frames) system and provides

connection to 1500 lines and 128 trunks. In such a configuration ,the
 Base Processor Unit ( BPU,5th frame)
 Time switch unit (TSU)

There are following four terminals units:-

1. ANALOG TERMINAL UNIT (ATU):-

The Analog Terminals Unit (ATU) is used for interfacing 128 analog
termination which may be lines or trunks and providing special circuits as
conference announcements and terminal tester. It consists of terminal cards, which
may be a combination of Analog Subscriber Line Cards, Analog Trunk card & some
Special Service Cards.

(a) Analog Subscriber Ling Cards : -

Two variants of subscriber line cards as LCC(Line Circuit Card) or

CCM(Coin Collection Monitering) with interfaces upto 8 subscribers. Analog to
digital conversion is done by per channel CODEC according to A-Law of Pulse
Code Modulation so we can say that it for the subscriber connected for subscriber to
exchange. A unit has 16 line cards so 16*8=128 subscribers. There are 4 unit so
4*128= 512 subscribers.4 cards make 1 Terminal Group(TG) so TG = 4.

(b) Analog Trunks Cards :-

Analog trunk cards interface analog inter exchange trunks which may be of
three types as TWT,EMT & EMF. These interfaces are similar to subscriber Line
Cards, with only difference that the interfaces are designed to scan/drive events on
the trunks as predefined signaling requirement.
(c) Signaling Processor Cards : -

SP Processes the signaling information received from the terminals cards. SP

processes the signaling information consists of scan/drive function like original
detection, answer detection, digit reception, reversal detection etc. The validated
events are reported to Terminal interface controller for further processing.

(d) Terminal interface controller (TIC) Cards : -

TIC controls the four terminals group ( TG) of 32 channels and multiplex
them to form a duplicated 128 channels, 8 mbps link towards the Time Switch. For
Signaling information of 128 channels it communicates with signaling processor to
receive/send the signaling event on analog terminations. It also uses to communicate
with BPU.

(e) Special Service Cards : -

A Terminal unit has some special service cards such as Conference (CNF) cards
to provide six party conference. Speech Samles from five parties are Terminal Test
Controller (TTC) card is used to test analog terminal interfaces via the test access
relays on the terminal cards. Announcement controller card provides 15
announcement on board cast basis.

(2) DIGITAL TERMINAL UNIT( DTU ) : -

Digital terminal unit is used to interface digital trunks, i.e. used between the
exchanges. one set of Digital Trunks Synchronization (DTS) Card along with the
Digital Trunk Controller(DTC) card is used to provide one E-1 interface of
2mbps.Each interface occupies one TG of 32 channels and four such interfaces share
4 TGs in a DTU. Here Terminal Unit Controller (TUC) is used of TIC and DSP
cards. Out of 32 channels, 30 for voice communication and remaining two for
Signaling and Synchronization. In DTU 4 TGs are there so total number of unit are
4*30 = 120 units in DTU.

(3) # 7 or Signaling Unit Module(SUM) : -

It is used to support SS7 protocol handlers and some call processing function
for CCS7 calls.SS7 capability in C_DOT DSS MAX exchanges is implemented in
the form of a SS& Signaling Unit Module (SUM) The sum hardware is packaged
into a standard
equipment frame, similar to that of terminal unit. It is a module by itself and contains
global resources. It interfaces with the Time Switch via Terminal Unit Controller
(TUC) on a 128 channel PCM link operating at 8mbps.

CALL PROCESSING

GENERAL CONCEPT

There are five function steps of call processing including the location of the
originating and terminating equipment. These steps are : -

 Origination : - Origination begins when the subscriber line goes off

hookor incoming trunks seized. It receives the incoming digits, selects the
digit analysis tables, and determines the screening information for this
call.
 Digit Analysis: - It interprets the digits it receives from origination ,select
a destination for each call, and passes the dialed digits to routing.
 Routing/Screening:- Routing uses the destination information from digit
analysis and screening information origination to select the terminating
trunk group or line.
 Charging : - It uses the charging information from routing to expand the
charging data into a formats usable by call accounting process.
 Termination : - The last step in call processing is termination. Termination
Processor is different for calls destined for lines and call destined for trunks.

Trunk termination : - A trunk member of the trunks group is selected based on a

predetermined pattern. After selection the digits are out pulsed to the distant office.

Line termination : - The line identified in routing is checked to determine the line
has any special features. Ringing is applied to the line if applicable or the special
feature is activated.

ROLE OF SOFTWARE IN C-DOT

DSS INTRODUCTION

The main feature of the software architecture of DSS-MAX are as:

1) Distributed architecture to ma the distributed control architecture
2) Layered architecture with loosely coupled modules & well defined message
interfaces.
3) Use of high level language
4) Modular design with each layer providing higher of abstraction
5) Time critical processes in assembly language

These feature help in to achieve the following objectives:

 Simplicity in design
 Increased reliability due to fault tolerant software
 Flexibility with option of up gradation to add feature & service
 Efficiency and strict time check
 Ease of Maintainability

E-10B TANDOM EXCHANGE

ESTABLISHMENT OF E10B

The first E-l0-B system (a training model) was commissioned at ALTCC, Ghaziabad
in July 84. The first commercial E-I0-B system was setup at Bombay in April 85
supporting 10,000 lines. Also 22,000 lines of digital TAX (E-I0-B type) have been
installed at 16 stations all over the country.(The first at Agra in Feb. 87) Palaghat
(Kera1a) unit of ITI manufactures E-I0-B TAX equipments. Another ITI factory at
MANKAPUR in GONDA (UP) produces annually 500,000 E-l 0B local lines

EVOLUTION OF E-10B SYSTEM

The predecessor of E-10B is the E-10A system developed in France in early

Seventies. Based on the structure of E-10A, a more powerful\system with a
significantly higher call handling / traffic capacity was developed in early 80's. The
first E-10system was commissioned at BREST in FRANCE. The system has many
versions. Tile INDIAN version is the 384 PCM versions and can handle max traffic
capacity of 4000 erlangs.
The BHCA is 1,90,000.

APPLICATIONS OF THE E-10-B SYSTEM

(a) LOCAL EXCHANGES

These exchanges terminate local subscriber lines and are connected to other
exchanges in the local network. The limit of max traffic handling capacity is 4000
erlangs. Within this, any proportion of subscribers and junctions is possible.

(b) LOCAL, TRANSIT, TANDEM EXCHANGES

E-10B system can be used to carry pure transit traffic. Here, subscribers line
providing terminating equipments will not be provided. Only equipments needed for
connecting junctions will be provided.

(c) TAX

Here, the system provides for termination of long distances circuits. Digital Tax’s
has a max capacity of 11,000 lines (o/g and I/g) in 384 versions.

(d) LOCAL CUM TRANSIT OR TAX

The facilities of local and transit can be combined.

FACILITIES AND SERVICES TO THE SUBSCRIBER

1. Call forwarding
2. Short code Dialing
3. Malicious call tracing
4. Conference calls
5. Call waiting
6. Detailed billing
7. Automatic alarm call
8. Barred access
9. Hotline facility
10. Pushbutton telephone
 11. Last number redial

Because of its modular structure, E-10-B can be expanded to meet its demands and
new services can be introduced with modification of software.

Features of E10-B system

The system is based on these features.

(I) Stored program control

(2) TDM digital switching

(3) PCM principals and techniques

(4) Segregation of switching and management facilities.

(5) Distributed control using dedicated microprocessors,

e.g. 8085, ELS-48

(6) Centralized management for a group or E-1 0-B exchanges.

Stored Program Control

Control functions relating to call processing are carried out by execution of
program instructions stored in the memory of computers. In electromechanical
systems, these functions are hardware based. In E-l0B, these arc software based.

TDM Digital Switching

The system switches signals to digital form. Analog signals are converted to
TDM multiplexed digital signals, prior to switching.

PCM Principles

Systems have been developed for 30 channels PCM corresponding to

Relevant CCITT recommendations.
Segregation b/w switching and management functions

Switching functions like reception of dialed digits, the storage, the analysis, routing
of the call etc. arc performed by the control unit in the exchange, which has a
decentralized architecture, employing dedicated processors. Functions like subscribe
lines and circuit group management, faults and alarm management etc. are done by a
separate mini computer, located at a centralized operation and maintenance center
(OMC), which is common for a number of E-10-B exchanges. OMC and switching
centers are interconnected by PCM links. They could be in the same- premises or far
apart.

Distributed control
Call handling and call processing functions like scanning of subscriber lines,
detection of loop status, reception and storage of digits etc. are distributed over
functional units. Dedicated processors like Intel 8085 and dedicated mini computers
like ELS-48 handle them.
Centralized management for a group of E – 10 B exchanges

The O&M functions for a group of E-I 0-8 exchanges (upto a maximum of 6
exchanges or '80,000 lines) are carried out by single OMC, which is connected to
various exchanges by PCM links.

The E-IO-8 exchange consists of three blocks:

a. Connection units

b. Switching networks

c. Control units

Connection Units

They act as an interface between external environment (i.e. subscribers and

trunks) and central units. Units, which manage the generation and transmission of,
digitalized tones and frequencies and dissemination of recorded announcements to
subscribers are also called connection units.
Switching networks (CX)
 This is a TDM switching network having a three stage time-space-time
architecture. It uses four wires switching (4W) for connecting time slots of calling
and called parties.

Control Units

The control unit handles telephone call setup, supervision, clear down and
charging functions.
Specifications of E-10B:-
I. Number of switchable PCM links: 384

2. Processing capacity: 1,90,000 BHCA

3. Traffic handling capacity: 4000 erlangs

4. Subscriber exchange: 45,000 lines & 5000 circuits

SYSTEM FEATURES:-
I. Time division multiplexing

2. PCM to CCITT standards

3. 2 Mbit/s PCM link

4. 30 telephone channels per PCM link

5. 8 bits per telephone channel

6. Stored program control

7. Dedicated processors for program control

8. Non dedicated processor for operation functions

SUBSCRIBER LINE

1. Dial or pushbutton VF telephone

2. Maximum loop resistance inclusive of telephone set 2400 ohms

3. Ringing current: 80 V, 25 and 50 Hz

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Exchange:

1. Ambient temp of air drawn into racks: 18 - 20 deg C

2. Relative humidity: 30 - 70 %

Satellite exchange:

1. Ambient temp: 5 -35 deg C

2. Relative humidity: 20 - 80 %

DIMENSIONS OF E-10B:-

1. Rack dimension: height: 2 mt, width 0.75 mt, depth 0.5 mt, Distributive floor
loading, less than 500 kg/sq. mt

2. Floor area: 45,000 lines subscriber exchange = 154 sq. mt

11,000 lines subscriber exchange = 90 sq. mt

POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS:-

1. Exchange and satellite exchange = -
48 V 2. OMC: 220 V, 50 Hz

3. Power supply current online: 23 - 60 mA

4. Loop resistance: 1500 to 2400 ohms

CALL PROCESSING IN E-IO B EXCHANGE

The following types of call processing has been described:

1) Local call

2) I/C call

3) O/g call

A call is processed in the following four stages:

1) Pre-selection

2) Selection

3) Connection and charging

4) Release

PURPOSE OF MDF AND DDF IN E-10B EXCHANGE

E-10B switching system is a digital switching system and accepts both analog and
digital signals. The signals from subscriber are analog whereas the trunk signals are
digital (if coming from analog source, these are converted into digital 30 channel
PCM signals and then fed to switch room).

The analog signals are received by CSE and digital signals by URM in E-10B
system. For these two types of signals we use two types distribution frames in E-
10B. One is called Main Distribution Frame (MDF) and the other one is called
Digital Distribution Frame (DDF).

Access network
An access network is that part of a communications network which connects
subscribers to their immediate service provider. It is contrasted with the core
network, for example the Network Switching Subsystem in GSM. The access
network may be further divided between feeder plant or distribution network, and
drop plant or edge network.

Fixed Line Access Network - Telephone

An access network or outside plant refers to the series of wires, cables and
equipment lying between a consumer/business telephone termination point (the point
at which a telephone connection reaches the customer) and the local telephone
exchange. The local exchange contains banks of automated switching equipment to
direct a call or
connection to the consumer. The access network is perhaps one of the oldest assets a
telecoms operator owns, and is constantly evolving, growing as new customers are
connected, and as new services are offered. This makes the access network one of the
most complex networks in the world to maintain and keep track of.In 2007-2008
many telecommunication operators experienced increasing problems maintaining the
quality of the records which describe the network. In 2006, according to an
independent Yankee Group report, globally operators experience profit leakage in
excess of €15 Billion each year.The access network is also perhaps the most valuable
asset an operator owns, since this is what physically allows them to offer a service.

Access networks consist largely of pairs of copper wires, each traveling in a direct
path between the exchange and the customer. In some instances, these wires may
even be aluminum, the use of which was common in the 1960s and 1970s following
a massive increase in the cost of copper. As it happened, the price increase was
temporary, but the effect of this decision is still felt today because the aluminum
wires oxidize and lose their ability to carry large quantities of data.Access is essential
to the future profitability of operators who are experiencing massive reductions in
revenue from POTS (plain old telephone services), due in part to the opening of
historically nationalized companies to competition, and in part to increased use of
mobile phones and VOIP (voice over IP) services. Operators now look toward
additional services such as xDSL based broadband and IPTV (Internet Protocol
Television) to guarantee future profit. The access network is again the main barrier to
achieving these profits since operators world wide have accurate records of only
40% to 60% of the network. Without understanding or even knowing the
characteristics of these enormous copper spider webs, it is very difficult, and
expensive to 'provision' (connect) new customers and assure the data rates required
to receive next generation services.Over time, we will see the access networks
around the world evolve to include more and more optical fiber technology. Optical
fibre already makes up the majority of core networks and will start to creep closer
and closer to the customer, until a full transition to 21st Century Networks is
achieved, delivering value added services over fiber to the home (FTTH).

(Access process)Access Network Authentication High-Level Example

The process of communicating with a network begins with an access attempt, in

which one or more users interact with a communications system to enable initiation
of user information transfer. An access attempt itself begins with an issuance of an
access request by an access originator. An access attempt ends either in successful
access or in access failure - an unsuccessful access that results in termination of the
attempt in any manner other than initiation of user information transfer between the
intended source and destination (sink) within the specified maximum access time.
Access failure can be the result of access outage, user blocking, incorrect access, or
access denial. Access denial (system blocking) can include: Access failure caused
by the issuing of a system
blocking signal by a communications system that does not have a call-originator
camp- on feature. Access failure caused by exceeding the maximum access time and
nominal system access time fraction during an access attempt. Without an access
network, a fixed line telco can not exist, yet this network has been undervalued and
under invested for decades. Telcos today need to massively improve their
understanding of these networks to remain profitable in the short term and remain in
existence in the longer term. British Telecom has produced an interactive
presentation introducing the technology and design of access networks

Charging for access

An access charge is a charge made by a local exchange carrier for use of its local
exchange facilities for a purpose such as the origination or termination of traffic that
is carried to or from a distant exchange by an interexchange carrier

Transmission system

In telecommunications a transmission system is a system that transmits a signal from

one place to another. The signal can be an electrical, optical or radio signal.
Some transmission systems contain multipliers, which amplify a signal prior to re-
transmission, or regenerators, which attempt to reconstruct and re-shape the coded
message before re-transmission.

Pulse-code modulation

Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a digital representation of an analog signal where

the magnitude of the signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, then quantized
to a series of symbols in a digital (usually binary) code. PCM has been used in digital
telephone systems and is also the standard form for digital audio in computers and
the compact disc red book format. It is also standard in digital video, for example,
using ITU-R BT.601. However, straight PCM is not typically used for video in
consumer applications such as DVD or DVR because it requires too high a bit rate
(PCM audio is supported by the DVD standard but rarely used). Instead, compressed
variants of PCM are normally employed. However, many Blu-ray Disc movies use
uncompressed PCM for audio. Very frequently, PCM encoding facilitates digital
transmission from one point to another (within a given system, or geographically) in
serial form.

History of PCM
In retrospect, PCM, like many other great inventions, appears to be simple and
obvious. In the history of electrical communications, the earliest reason for sampling
a signal was to interlace samples from different telegraphy sources, and convey them
over a single
telegraph cable. Telegraph time-division multiplexing (TDM) was conveyed as early
as 1853, by the American inventor M.B. Farmer. The electrical engineer W.M.
Miner, in 1903, used an electro-mechanical commutator for time-division multiplex
of multiple telegraph signals, and also applied this technology to telephony. He
obtained intelligible speech from channels sampled at a rate above 3500–4300 Hz:
below this was unsatisfactory. This was TDM, but pulse-amplitude modulation
(PAM) rather than PCM. Paul M. Rainey of Western Electric in 1926 patented a
facsimile machine using an optical mechanical analog to digital converter. The
machine did not go into production. British engineer Alec Reeves, unaware of
previous work, conceived the use of PCM for voice communication in 1937 while
working for International Telephone and Telegraph in France. He described the
theory and advantages, but no practical use resulted. Reeves filed for a French patent
in 1938, and his U.S. patent was granted in 1943.

The first transmission of speech by digital techniques was the SIGSALY vocoder
encryption equipment used for high-level Allied communications during World War
II from 1943.It was not until about the middle of 1943 that the Bell Labs people who
designed the SIGSALY system, became aware of the use of PCM binary coding as
already proposed by Alec Reeves.PCM in the 1950s used a cathode-ray coding tube
with a grid having encoding perforations. As in an oscilloscope, the beam was swept
horizontally at the sample rate while the vertical deflection was controlled by the
input analog signal, causing the beam to pass through higher or lower portions of the
perforated grid. The grid interrupted the beam, producing current variations in binary
code. Rather than natural binary, the grid was perforated to produce Gray code lest a
sweep along a transition zone produce glitches

Managed Leased Line Network (MLLN)

Leased Line services with flexible access bandwidth. The MLLN is a Managed
Leased Line Network system which is proposed to provide Leased line connectivity.
With the State-of-the-art technology equipment, MLLN is designed mainly for
having effective control and monitor on the leased line so that the down time is very
much minimised and the circuit efficiency is increased thus achieving more
customer satisfaction. This mainly deals with data circuits ranging from 64 KBPs to
2048 KBPs.

In MLLN network conventional PCM primary MUX and subscriber Modems

are replaced by versatile MUX and network terminating units respectively. MLLN
mainly consists of Digital Cross Connect (DXC), versatile MUX (V MUX), Network
Terminating Units (NTU) and Network Management System(NMS). DXC's and
VMUX's are inter connected via optical fibre links with alternate routing facility in
case of any route failure. VMUX is in turn connected to NTU's placed at customer
premises through 2 wire copper pair. At the top of it NMS is suitably placed at the
Central location for effective control & monitor. NTUs are fully managed from
NMS. They are
programmable for different data speeds ranging from 64 KBPs (n x64 KBPs: nx1 to
32) depending upon the customer demand, thus having bandwidth control without
changing Modem at his premises. NTUs operate on 230 V AC.

Features of MLLN
 Control, Manage the leased line network.
 Bandwidth management as per the customer demand.
 Pro-active maintenance, without waiting for customer to book a complaint.
 Self Diagnostic/software loops to check E1 connectivity to DXC,
VMUX/software loops for checking copper pair at NTU point for
immediately identifying the faulty section for trouble shooting .
 Alternate routing in case of any route failure.
 Generation of the periodic performance reports for self-analysis/customer.

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a standard technology for synchronous
data transmission on optical media. It is the international equivalent of
Synchronous Optical Network. Both technologies provide faster and less
expensive network interconnection than traditional PDH (Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy) equipment. In digital telephone transmission, "synchronous" means
the bits from one call are carried within one transmission frame.
"Plesiochronous" means "almost (but not) synchronous," or a call that must be
extracted from more than one transmission frame.SDH uses the following
Synchronous Transport Modules (STM) and rates: STM-1 (155 megabits per
second), STM-4 (622 Mbps), STM-16 (2.5 gigabits per second), and STM-64 (10
Gbps).

GSM(Global System for Mobile Communications)

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Spécial
Mobile), is a standard set developed by the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe technologies for second generation (or
"2G") digital cellular networks. Developed as a replacement for first generation
analogue cellular networks, the GSM standard originally described a digital,
circuit switched network optimized for full duplex voice telephony. The standard
was expanded over time to include first circuit switched data transport, then
packet data transport via GPRS. Packet data transmission speeds were later
increased via EDGE. The GSM standard is succeeded by the third generation (or
"3G") UMTS standard developed by the 3GPP. GSM networks will evolve
further as they begin to incorporate fourth
 generation (or "4G") LTE Advanced standards. "GSM" is a trademark owned by
the GSM Association.

The GSM Association estimates that technologies defined in the GSM standard
serve 80% of the global mobile market, encompassing more than 1.5 billion
people across more than 212 countries and territories, making GSM the most
ubiquitous of the many standards for cellular networks.

Introduction to GSM Networks

The various interface labels are the formal names given to these interfaces. More
details about these interfaces are found in GSM TS 03.02 [26].

The GSM network consists mainly of the following functional parts:

i. MSC – the mobile service switching centre (MSC) is the core switching
entity in the network. The MSC is connected to the radio access network
(RAN); the RAN is formed by the BSCs and BTSs within the Public
Land Mobile Network (PLMN). Users of the GSM network are registered
with an MSC; all calls to and from the user are controlled by the MSC. A
GSM network has one or more MSCs, geographically distributed.
ii. VLR – the visitor location register (VLR) contains subscriber data for
subscribers registered in an MSC. Every MSC contains a VLR. Although
MSC and VLR are individually addressable, they are always contained in
one integrated node.
iii. GMSC – the gateway MSC (GMSC) is the switching entity that controls
mobile terminating calls. When a call is established towards a GSM
subscriber, a GMSC contacts the HLR of that subscriber, to obtain the
address of the MSC where that subscriber is currently registered. That
MSC address is used to route the call to that subscriber.
iv. HLR – the home location register (HLR) is the database that contains a
subscription record for each subscriber of the network. A GSM subscriber
is normally associated with one particular HLR. The HLR is responsible
for the sending of subscription data to the VLR (during registration) or
GMSC (during mobile terminating call handling).
v. CN – the core network (CN) consists of, amongst other things, MSC(s),
GMSC(s) and HLR(s). These entities are the main components for call
handling and subscriber management. Other main entities in the CN are
the equipment identification register (EIR) and authentication
centre(AUC). CAMEL has no interaction with the EIR and AUC; hence
EIR and AUC are not further discussed.
 vi. BSS – the base station system (BSS) is composed of one or more base
station controllers (BSC) and one or more base transceiver stations
(BTS). The BTS contains one or more transceivers
vii. (TRX)- The TRX is responsible for radio signal transmission and reception.
BTS and BSC are connected through the Abis interface. The BSS is
connected to the MSC through the A interface.
viii. MS – the mobile station (MS) is the GSM handset. The structure of the MS
will be described in more detail in a next section. A GSM network is a
public land mobile network (PLMN). Other types of PLMN are the time
division multiple access (TDMA) network or code division multiple
access (CDMA) network. GSM uses the following sub-division of the
PLMN:
ix. Home PLMN (HPLMN) – the HPLMN is the GSM network that a GSM
user is a subscriber of. That implies that GSM user’s subscription data
resides in the HLR in that PLMN. The HLR may transfer the subscription
data to a VLR (during registration in a PLMN) or a GMSC (during
mobile terminating call handling). The HPLMN may also contain various
service nodes, such as a short message service centre (SMSC), service
control point (SCP), etc.
x. Visited PLMN (VPLMN) – the VPLMN is the GSM network where a
subscriber is currently registered. The subscriber may be registered in her
HPLMN or in another PLMN. In the latter case, the subscriber is
outbound roaming (from HPLMN’s perspective) and inbound roaming
(from VPLMN’s perspective). When the subscriber is currently registered
in her HPLMN, then the HPLMN is at the same time VPLMN.
xi. Interrogating PLMN (IPLMN) – the IPLMN is the PLMN containing the
GMSC that handles mobile terminating (MT) calls. MT calls are always
handled by a GMSC in the PLMN, regardless of the origin of the call. For
most operators, MT call handling is done by a GMSC in the HPLMN; in
that case, the HPLMN is at the same time IPLMN. This implies that calls
destined for a GSM subscriber are always routed to the HPLMN of that
GSM subscriber. Once the call has arrived in the HPLMN, the HPLMN
acts as IPLMN. MT call handling will be described in more detail in
subsequent sections. When basic optimal routing (BOR) is applied, the
IPLMN is not the same PLMN as the HPLMN.The user of a GSM
network is referred to as the served subscriber ; the MSC that is serving
that subscriber is known as the serving MSC.
xii. Mobile originated call – the MSC that is handling the call is the serving
MSC for this call; the calling subscriber is the served subscriber.
xiii. Mobile terminated call – the GMSC that is handling the call is the
serving GMSC for this call; the called subscriber is the served subscriber.
Signalling in GSM
The various entities in the GSM network are connected to one another through
signalling networks.Signalling is used for example, for subscriber mobility,
subscriber registration, call establishment,etc. The connections to the various entities
are known as ‘reference points’. Examples include:

a. A interface – the connection between MSC and BSC;

b. Abis interface – the connection between BSC and BTS;
c. D interface – the connection between MSC and HLR;
d. Um interface – the radio connection between MS and BTS.

Various signaling protocols are used over the reference points. Some of these
protocols for GSM are the following:

a. mobile application part (MAP) – MAP is used for call control, subscriber
registration, short message service, etc.; MAP is used over many of the GSM
network interfaces;
b. base station system application part (BSSAP) – BSSAP is used over the A
interface;
c. direct transfer application part (DTAP) – DTAP is used between MS and
MSC; DTAP is carried over the Abis and the A interface. DTAP is specified
in GSM TS 04.08 [49];
d. ISDN user part (ISUP) – ISUP is the protocol for establishing and releasing
circuit switched calls. ISUP is also used in landline Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN). A circuit is the data channel that is established
between two users in the network. Within ISDN, the data channel is generally
a 64 kbit/s channel. The circuit is used for the transfer of the encoded speech
or other data. ISUP is specified in ITU-T Q.763 [137].
e. When it comes to call establishment, GSM makes a distinction between signaling
and payload. Signaling refers to the exchange of information for call set up;
payload refers to the data that is transferred within a call, i.e. voice, video, fax
etc. For a mobile terminated GSM call, the signaling consists of exchange of
MAP messages between GMSC, HLR and visited MSC (VMSC). The
payload is transferred by the ISUP connection between GMSC and VMSC. It
is a continual aim to optimize the payload transfer through the network, as
payload transfer has a direct cost aspect Associated with it. Some network
services are designed to optimize the payload transfer. One Example is
optimal routing.

The network is structured into a number of discrete sections:

 The Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).
 The Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most
similar to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core
 network.

GSM as a network of cells

The GSM or any other wireless technology is been divided into cells in order to
increase the system capacity and coverage range.

Fig 3: Cellular Structure of GSM Architechure

GSM Network Architecture

Fig 4: GSM Network Architechture

I). Base station subsystem

The base station subsystem (BSS) is the section of a traditional cellular
telephone network which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a
mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding
of speech channels, allocation of radio channels to mobile phones, paging,
transmission and reception over the air interface and many other tasks related to the
radio network.
Base transceiver station

The base transceiver station, or BTS, contains the equipment for transmitting and
receiving radio signals (transceivers), antennas, and equipment for encrypting and
decrypting communications with the base station controller (BSC). Typically a BTS
for anything other than a picocell will have several transceivers (TRXs) which allow
it to serve several different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case of
sectorised base stations).

A BTS is controlled by a parent BSC via the "base station control function" (BCF).
The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact
base stations. The BCF provides an operations and maintenance (O&M) connection
to the network management system (NMS), and manages operational states of each
TRX, as well as software handling and alarm collection. The functions of a BTS vary
depending on the cellular technology used and the cellular telephone provider. There
are vendors in which the BTS is a plain transceiver which receives information from
the MS (mobile station) through the Um (air interface) and then converts it to a TDM
(PCM) based interface, the Abis interface, and sends it towards the BSC. There are
vendors which build their BTSs so the information is preprocessed, target cell lists
are generated and even intracell handover (HO) can be fully handled. The advantage
in this case is less load on the expensive Abis interface.

The BTSs are equipped with radios that are able to modulate layer 1 of interface Um;
for GSM 2G+ the modulation type is GMSK, while for EDGE-enabled networks it is
GMSK and 8-PSK. Antenna combiners are implemented to use the same antenna for
several TRXs (carriers), the more TRXs are combined the greater the combiner loss
will be. Up to 8:1 combiners are found in micro and pico cells only. Frequency
hopping is often used to increase overall BTS performance; this involves the rapid
switching of voice traffic between TRXs in a sector. A hopping sequence is followed
by the TRXs and handsets using the sector. Several hopping sequences are available,
and the sequence in use for a particular cell is continually broadcast by that cell so
that it is known to the handsets.

A TRX transmits and receives according to the GSM standards, which specify eight
TDMA timeslots per radio frequency. A TRX may lose some of this capacity as
some information is required to be broadcast to handsets in the area that the BTS
serves. This information allows the handsets to identify the network and gain access
to it. This signalling makes use of a channel known as the Broadcast Control
Channel (BCCH).
Alarms in BTS

There are two classes of alarms in BTS:

External Alarms: These alarms are external in nature and are caused due to
environmental conditions or infrastructural failure

Internal Alarms: They are internal to the BTS system

External Alarm

• Power plant & Battery:- Generally BTS are inside over exchanges so they
take power from existing power plant if not at least 25-50 A module power
plant with 200 AH battery set must be provided. The health of the battery is
very crucial as at most of the site it is seen that BTS is off due to no battery
backup and DG.

• Engine Alternator: Ensure the working of engine alternator make sure that
battery of DG set is working properly and ensure the starting of DG when
mains fails. Timely check the DG (periodically test).

Internal Alarm

• BTS fail.
• TRX card faulty
• Coupler/Combiner faulty
• High coupler/combiner loss
• Swapping of feeder cable with adjacent sector.
• BCCH TRX failure
• High BER in PCM
• Power failure
• Media failure
• Fan failure Alarm

Base station controller

The base station controller (BSC) provides, classically, the intelligence behind the
BTSs. Typically a BSC has tens or even hundreds of BTSs under its control. The
BSC handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile
phones, and controls handovers from BTS to BTS (except in the case of an inter-
BSC handover in which case control is in part the responsibility of the anchor MSC).
A key function of the BSC is to act as a concentrator where many different low
capacity connections to BTSs (with relatively low utilisation) become reduced to a
smaller number of connections
towards the mobile switching center (MSC) (with a high level of utilisation).
Overall, this means that networks are often structured to have many BSCs distributed
into regions near their BTSs which are then connected to large centralised MSC sites.

The BSC is undoubtedly the most robust element in the BSS as it is not only a BTS
controller but, for some vendors, a full switching center, as well as an SS7 node with
connections to the MSC and serving GPRS support node (SGSN) (when using
GPRS). It also provides all the required data to the operation support subsystem
(OSS) as well as to the performance measuring centers.

A BSC is often based on a distributed computing architecture, with redundancy

applied to critical functional units to ensure availability in the event of fault
conditions. Redundancy often extends beyond the BSC equipment itself and is
commonly used in the power supplies and in the transmission equipment providing
the A-ter interface to PCU.

The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier frequencies,
frequency hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for cell border
calculation, are stored in the BSC. This data is obtained directly from radio planning
engineering which involves modelling of the signal propagation as well as traffic
projections.

Transcoder
The transcoder is responsible for transcoding the voice channel coding between the
coding used in the mobile network, and the coding used by the world's terrestrial
circuit- switched network, the Public Switched Telephone Network. Specifically,
GSM uses a regular pulse excited-long term prediction (RPE-LTP) coder for voice
data between the mobile device and the BSS, but pulse code modulation (A-law or μ-
law standardized in ITU G.711) upstream of the BSS. RPE-LPC coding results in a
data rate for voice of 13 kbit/s where standard PCM coding results in 64 kbit/s.
Because of this change in data rate for the same voice call, the transcoder also has a
buffering function so that PCM 8- bit words can be recoded to construct GSM 20 ms
traffic blocks.

Although transcoding (compressing/decompressing) functionality is defined as a

base station function by the relevant standards, there are several vendors which have
implemented the solution outside of the BSC. Some vendors have implemented it in
a stand-alone rack using a proprietary interface. In Siemens' and Nokia's architecture,
the transcoder is an identifiable separate sub-system which will normally be co-
located with the MSC. In some of Ericsson's systems it is integrated to the MSC
rather than the BSC. The reason for these designs is that if the compression of voice
channels is done at the site of the MSC, the number of fixed transmission links
between the BSS and MSC can
be reduced, decreasing network infrastructure costs. This subsystem is also referred
to as the transcoder and rate adaptation unit (TRAU). Some networks use 32 kbit/s
ADPCM on the terrestrial side of the network instead of 64 kbit/s PCM and the
TRAU converts accordingly. When the traffic is not voice but data such as fax or
email, the TRAU enables its rate adaptation unit function to give compatibility
between the BSS and MSC data rates.

II). Network switching subsystem

Network switching subsystem (NSS) (or GSM core network) is the component of a
GSM system that carries out call switching and mobility management functions for
mobile phones roaming on the network of base stations. It is owned and deployed by
mobile phone operators and allows mobile devices to communicate with each other
and telephones in the wider Public Switched Telephone Network or (PSTN). The
architecture contains specific features and functions which are needed because the
phones are not fixed in one location.

The NSS originally consisted of the circuit-switched core network, used for
traditional GSM services such as voice calls, SMS, and circuit switched data calls. It
was extended with an overlay architecture to provide packet-switched data services
known as the GPRS core network. This allows mobile phones to have access to
services such as WAP, MMS, and the Internet.

All mobile phones manufactured today have both circuit and packet based services,
so most operators have a GPRS network in addition to the standard GSM core
network.

Mobile switching center (MSC)

The mobile switching center (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for
GSM/CDMA, responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as well as other services
(such as conference calls, FAX and circuit switched data). The MSC sets up and
releases the end-to-end connection, handles mobility and hand-over requirements
during the call and takes care of charging and real time pre-paid account monitoring.
In the GSM mobile phone system, in contrast with earlier analogue services, fax and
data information is sent directly digitally encoded to the MSC. Only at the MSC is
this re- coded into an "analogue" signal (although actually this will almost certainly
mean sound encoded digitally as PCM signal in a 64-kbit/s timeslot, known as a DS0
in America). There are various different names for MSCs in different contexts which
reflects their complex role in the network, all of these terms though could refer to the
same MSC, but doing different things at different times.

The Gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the
subscriber who is being called is currently located at. It also interfaces with the
PSTN.
All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a G-MSC.
The term is only valid in the context of one call since any MSC may provide both the
gateway function and the Visited MSC function, however, some manufacturers
design dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any BSSs connected to
them. These MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the calls they handle.

The visited MSC (V-MSC) is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The
VLR associated with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it. The anchor MSC
is the MSC from which a handover has been initiated.

Mobile switching centre server (MSCS)

The mobile switching centre server is a soft-switch variant of the mobile switching
centre, which provides circuit-switched calling, mobility management, and GSM
services to the mobile phones roaming within the area that it serves. MSS
functionality enables split between control (signalling) and user plane (bearer in
network element called as media gateway/MG), which guarantees better placement
of network elements within the network. MSS and MGW media gateway makes it
possible to cross-connect circuit switched calls switched by using IP, ATM AAL2 as
well as TDM. More information is available in 3GPP TS 2205.

The MSC connects to the following elements:

 The home location register (HLR) for obtaining data about the SIM and
mobile services ISDN number (MSISDN; i.e., the telephone number).
 The base station subsystem which handles the radio
communication with 2G and 2.5G mobile phones.

 The UMTS terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN) which handles the
radio communication with 3G mobile phones.

 The visitor location register (VLR) for determining where other

mobile subscribers are located.

 Other MSCs for procedures such as handover.

Broadband
The term broadband refers to a telecommunications signal or device of
greater bandwidth, in some sense, than another standard or usual signal or device
(and the broader the band, the greater the capacity for traffic).
Prior to the invention of home broadband, dial-up internet was the only means by
which one could download songs, movies, e-mails, etc. Unfortunately, it would take
up to 10- 30 minutes to download one song (5MB) and over 28 hours to download a
movie (700MB). Dial-up internet was also extremely inconvenient since it took up
the use of the home telephone line, and homes would have to decide if paying for a
second telephone line was worth its cost.

The cable modem was the first broadband option available, but due to the small
amount of cable Internet subscribers for the first year in 1997, broadband didn’t take
off until 2001. Having home broadband made downloading times 10X faster than
dial-up. Unfortunately, like many new technologies, most consumers were unable to
afford such a luxury of fast internet. Price barriers weren’t a factor for long, and by
2004 the average American households considered home broadband to be affordable.
Since its creation, broadband has continually strengthened and available speeds have
become faster and faster.

Different criteria for "broad" have been applied in different contexts and at different
times. Its origin is in physics, acoustics and radio systems engineering, where it had
been used with a meaning similar to wideband. However, the term became
popularized through the 1990s as a vague marketing term for Internet access.

INTRODUCTION TO NATIONAL INTERNET BACKBONE-II (NIB-II)

1. SCOPE
This Engineering Instruction presents an introduction to National Internet Backbone-
II (NIB-II)conceived by BSNL to provide infrastructure for providing number of
value added services to broadband customers countywide with guaranteed quality of
service (QoS).
2. GENERAL
BSNL has planned to setup NIB-II to provide world class infrastructure to offer
various value added services to a broader customer base county-wide that will help
to accelerate the Internet revolution in India. Moreover the NIB-II will create a
platform, which enables e-governance, e-banking, e-learning, etc. with the key point
of Service Level Agreements & Guarantee in tune with Global standards and
customer expectations.NIB- II has been grouped into following three major projects.
 Fig. 5: Core Network Architecture for
NIB-II Fig 6: Broadband Connectivity
in City
Modem
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier
signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to
decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be
transmitted easily
40
and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any
means of transmitting analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. The most
familiar example is avoice band modem that turns the digital data of a personal
computer into modulated electrical signals in the voice frequency range of a
telephonechannel. These signals can be transmitted over telephone lines and
demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.
Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit
of time, usually expressed in bits per second (bit/s, or bps). Modems can
alternatively be classified by their symbol rate, measured in baud. The baud unit
denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a
new signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency-shift keying,
that is to say, tones of different frequencies, with two possible frequencies
corresponding to two distinct symbols (or one bit per symbol), to carry 300 bits per
second using 300 baud. By contrast, the original ITU V.22 standard, which was able
to transmit and receive four distinct symbols (two bits per symbol), handled 1,200
bit/s by sending 600 symbols per second (600 baud) using phase shift keying.
DSLAM
A digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM, often pronounced dee-slam)
is a network device, often located in the telephone exchanges of the
telecommunications operators. It connects multiple customer digital subscriber line
(DSL) interfaces to a high-speed digital communications channel using
multiplexing techniques.[1]
By placing additional DSLAMs at locations remote from the telephone
exchange, telephone companies provide DSL service to locations previously beyond
effective range.

Broadband Network Gateway(BNG)

A network gateway is an internetworking system capable of joining together two

networks that use different base protocols. A network gateway can be implemented
completely in software, completely in hardware, or as a combination of both.
Depending on the types of protocols they support, network gateways can operate at
any level of
the OSI model.

CONCLUSION

41
 The final conclusion is the study of basics of TELECOMMUNICATION
system installed and operated in BSNL will help us understand the practical
variations in the theoretical concepts studied in our course plan. The study also helps
us to have a better understanding of the current technology being implemented and
also the scope of further research in the field of communication. As we are moving
more towards the software and IT sector, even communication sector is evolving
itself into a software based hardware sector. So the further scope for research and
development is vast.

REFERENCES

1. https://www.google.com
2. https://en.wikipedia.org
3. www.radio-electronics.com
4. Hand written notes

42