PHARMACEUTICS-I (General, Physical and Dispensing)

Contents

PHARMACEUTICS 8
PHARMACIST 8
PHARMACY TECHNICIAN 8
ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF PHARMACY TECHNICIAN 8
PHARMACY 9
TYPES OF PHARMACIES 9
HOSPITAL PHARMACY 9
AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF HOSPITAL PHARMACY 9
CLINICAL PHARMACY 10
COMMUNITY PHARMACY 10
RETAIL PHARMACY 11
WHOLE SALE PHARMACY 11
INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY 12
VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS IN PHARMACY INDUSTRY 12
PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT 12
WARE HOUSE 12
QUALITY CONTROL DEPARTMENT 13
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT 13
ADMINISTRATION 13
FORENSIC PHARMACY 13
DRUG 14
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUG (ON THE BASIS OF SALE) 14
OVER THE COUNTER DRUG (OTC) 14
PRESCRIPTION ONLY MEDICINES (POM) 14
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS (ON THE BASIS OF THEIR SOURCES) 14
NATURAL SOURCES 15
PLANT SOURCES 15
ANIMAL SOURCES 15
MICROBIAL SOURCES 15
SEMI SYNTHETIC DRUGS 15
SYNTHETIC DRUGS 15
GENERIC NAME 16
BRAND NAME 16
CHEMICAL NAME 16

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SURFACE TENSION 17
COHESIVE FORCES 17
ADHESIVE FORCES 17
DEFINITION OF SURFACE TENSION 17
APPLICATIONS OF SURFACE TENSION IN PHARMACY 17
VISCOSITY 17
VISCOMETER (OSTWALD VISCOMETER) 18
APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY 18
IONIZATION 18
APPLICATION OF IONIZATION IN PHARMACY 18
PH 18
APPLICATIONS OF PH IN PHARMACY 19
PH INDICATORS 19
TYPES OF PH INDICATORS 19
ACID BASE INDICATOR 19
REDOX INDICATOR (OXIDATION-REDUCTION INDICATOR) 20
PRECIPITATION INDICATOR 20
APPLICATIONS OF PH INDICATORS IN PHARMACY 20
BUFFER 20
APPLICATIONS OF BUFFER IN PHARMACY 20
ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS 21
SOLUTION 21
SOLVENT 21
SOLUTE 21
DEFINITION OF ISOTONIC SOLUTION 21
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION 21
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION 21
APPLICATIONS OF ISOTONIC SOLUTION IN PHARMACY 22
ADSORPTION 22
TYPES OF ADSORPTION 22
PHYSICAL ADSORPTION 22
CHEMICAL ADSORPTION 23
APPLICATION OF ADSORPTION IN PHARMACY 23
CALCINATIONS 23
APPLICATION OF CALCINATIONS IN PHARMACY 23
CENTRIFUGATION 24
APPLICATION OF CENTRIFUGATION IN PHARMACY 24
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CRYSTALLIZATION 24
METHOD OF CRYSTALLIZATION 24
EVAPORATION METHOD OF CRYSTALLIZATION 24
COOLING METHOD OF CRYSTALLIZATION 25
PRECIPITATION METHOD OF CRYSTALLIZATION 25
APPLICATION OF CRYSTALLIZATION IN PHARMACY 25
DECANTATION 25
APPLICATION OF DECANTATION IN PHARMACY 25
DELIQUESCENCE 26
APPLICATION OF DELIQUESCENCE IN PHARMACY 26
DESICCATION 26
DESICCATORS 26
APPLICATION OF DESICCATION IN PHARMACY 26
DISTILLATION 27
TYPES OF LABORATORIES BASED DISTILLATION 27
SIMPLE DISTILLATION 27
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION 28
STEAM DISTILLATION 28
VACUUM DISTILLATION 28
APPLICATIONS OF DISTILLATION IN PHARMACY 29
EFFLORESCENCE 29
ELUTRIATION 29
VAPORIZATION 29
EVAPORATION 30
BOILING 30
FUSION 30
APPLICATIONS OF FUSION IN PHARMACY 30
IGNITION 30
APPLICATIONS OF IGNITION IN PHARMACY 30
LEVIGATION 31
APPLICATIONS OF LEVIGATION IN PHARMACY 31
LYOPHILIZATION (FREEZE-DRYING) 31
APPLICATION OF LYOPHILIZATION (FREEZE-DRYING) IN PHARMACY 32
SUBLIMATION 32
TRITURATION 32
APPLICATIONS OF TRITURATION IN PHARMACY 32
HISTORY OF PHARMACY 33
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CONTRIBUTION OF MUSLIM SCIENTIST IN PHARMACY 33

AL-KINDI (801-873 A.D) 33
IBN-AL-NAFIS (1213-1288 A.D) 33
IBN-ZUHAR (1091-1161 A.D) 34
ABU ALI SINA (980-1037 A.D) 34
AL- BIRONI (973-1050) 34
JABER BIN HAYAN (721-815) 35
BOOK IN PHARMACY 35
OFFICIAL BOOK 35
NON OFFICIAL BOOK 36
SOME IMPORTANT OFFICIAL BOOKS 36
UNITED STATE PHARMACOPOEIA (USP) 36
UNITED STATE NATIONAL FORMULARY (UNF) 36
INTERNATIONAL PHARMACOPOEIA (IP) 36
BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA (BP) 37
BRITISH NATION FORMULARY (BNF) 37
SOME COMMON NON-OFFICIAL BOOKS 37
REMINGTON PHARMACEUTICALS SCIENCE 37
APPLIED AND CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY BY KATZUNG 37
TUTORIAL PHARMACY 38
DOSAGE FORMS 38
DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM 38
DOSAGE FORM 38
DOSAGE FORM ACCORDING TO THE ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION 38
ORAL 38
INHALATIONAL 39
PARENTERAL 39
TOPICAL 39
ENTERAL OR SUPPOSITORY 39
DOSAGE FORM ACCORDING TO THE PHYSICAL FORM 40
SOLID DOSAGE FORM 40
SEMISOLID DOSAGE FORM 40
LIQUID DOSAGE FORM 40
INTRODUCTION OF DIFFERENT TYPE OF DOSAGE FORM 41
TABLETS 41
ADVANTAGE OF TABLETS 41
DISADVANTAGE OF TABLETS 41
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DIFFERENT TYPES OF TABLETS 41

COMPRESSED TABLETS 41
MULTIPLE COMPRESSED TABLETS 41
FILM COATED TABLETS 41
SUGAR COATED TABLETS 41
SUBLINGUAL TABLETS 42
EFFERVESCENT TABLETS 42
ENTERIC COATED TABLETS 42
LOZENGES 42
IMPLANTS (PELLETS) 42
CHEWABLE TABLETS 42
CAPSULES 42
ADVANTAGE OF CAPSULES 42
DISADVANTAGE OF CAPSULE 43
TYPE OF CAPSULES 43
SOFT GELATIN CAPSULE 43
HARD GELATIN CAPSULES 43
SYRUPS 45
TYPES OF SYRUPS 45
SIMPLE SYRUP 45
FLAVORED SYRUPS 45
MEDICATED SYRUPS 45
ELIXIRS 46
TYPES OF ELIXIRS 46
MEDICATED ELIXIRS 46
NON-MEDICATED EELIXIRS 46
AEROSOLS 46
TYPES OF AEROSOLS 46
NEBULIZER 46
METER DOSE INHALERS (MDI) 46
DRY POWDER INHALERS (DPI) 47
DISPENSING & COMPOUNDING 48
COMPOUNDING 48
DISPENSING 48
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING 48
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING 48
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 50
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WEIGHT 50
MEASURES 50
SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT 50
IMPERIAL SYSTEM 50
METRIC SYSTEM 50
VALUES OF PREFIXES IN THE METRIC SYSTEM 51
PREFIX VALUES 51
STANDARD UNIT OF WEIGHT IN THE METRIC SYSTEM USED IN THE PHARMACY 51
STANDARD UNIT OF VOLUME IN THE METRIC SYSTEM 51
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE 52
CENTIGRADE OR CELSIUS TEMPERATURE SCALE 52
FAHRENHEIT TEMPERATURE SCALE 52
CONVERSIONS OF TEMPERATURE 52
CALCULATION 53
DENSITY 53
MASS 53
VOLUME 53
PERCENTAGE 53
PERCENTAGE PREPARATIONS 54
WEIGHT IN VOLUME (W/V) 54
WEIGHT IN WEIGHT (W/W) 54
VOLUME IN VOLUME (V/V) 54
PACKAGING OF PHARMACEUTICALS 55
COMPONENTS OF PACKAGE 55
CONTAINER 55
CLOSURE 55
CARTON OR OUTER 55
BOX 55
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTAINERS AND CLOSURES 55
PRESCRIPTION 57
PARTS OF A PRESCRIPTION 57
ABBREVIATIONS COMMONLY USED IN PRESCRIPTIONS 58
HANDLING AND FILLING OF PRESCRIPTION 60
HOW TO HANDLE AND FILL A PRESCRIPTION 60
LABELLING 62
EXTEMPORANEOUS DISPENSING 63
SOLUTIONS 63
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SUSPENSIONS 63
EMULSION (EMULSION CREAM) 64
CREAMS 64
OINTMENTS 64
PASTES 64
GELS 65
SUPPOSITORIES 65
PESSARIES 65
POWDERS 65
GRANULES 66
INTRODUCTION TO ASEPTIC DISPENSING AND TPN DISPENSING 67
STERILIZATION 67
BASIC APPROACHES FOR STERILE PREPARATION 67
TERMINAL STERILIZATION 67
ASEPTIC PROCESS 67
TOTAL PARENTERAL NUTRITION (TPN) DISPENSING 68
PHARMACEUTICAL INCOMPATIBILITY 69
TYPES OF INCOMPATIBILITY 69
THERAPEUTICAL INCOMPATIBILITY 69
OVERDOSE 69
WRONG DOSAGE FORM 69
CONTRAINDICATION 69
DRUG ANTAGONISM 70
EXAMPLES OF THERAPEUTICAL INCOMPATIBILITY 70
CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITY 70
TYPES OF CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITY 71
TOLERATED 71
ADJUSTED 71
EXAMPLE OF CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITY 71
PHYSICAL INCOMPATIBILITY 71
TYPES OF PHYSICAL INCOMPATIBILITY 71
EXAMPLE OF PHYSICAL INCOMPATIBILITIES 72

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PHARMACEUTICS
Pharmaceutics is the branch of pharmacy that deals with the conversion of new chemical entity
(NCE) to proper dosage form. Or

Pharmaceutics is the discipline of pharmacy that deals with the process of turning a new chemical
entity (NCE) into a medication to be used safely and effectively by patients.

PHARMACIST
Any person who hold “B.Pharmacy” or “Pharm.D” (Doctor of
Pharmacy) degree fro m Pakistan Pharmacy Council recognized
university or college and further more he has a registration
certificate from Provincial Council is known as Pharmacist. The
Provincial Council enters the name of respective pharmacist in
register-A.

PHARMACY TECHNICIAN
Any person that hold “Diploma in Pharmacy” from Pakistan Pharmacy Council recognized university
or college and further more he has a registration certificate from Provincial Council is known as
Pharmacy Technician. The Provincial Council enters the name of respective pharmacist in register-
B.

According to Pharmacy Act 1967, “Pharmacist means a person who is registered under section 24
in Register-A or Register-B”.

ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF PHARMACY TECHNICIAN

A Pharmacy technician, also sometimes known as a pharmaceutical technician, is a health care
worker who performs pharmacy related functions, generally working under the direct supervision of
a licensed pharmacist or other health professional. Pharmacy technicians work in a variety of
locations like community pharmacy, retail pharmacy, hospital pharmacy, pharmaceutical
manufacturers or other health care units of government or NGOs.

Job duties include dispensing prescription drugs and other medical devices to patients and
instructing on their use. They may also perform administrative duties in pharmaceutical practice,
such as reviewing prescription requests with doctor's offices to ensure correct medications are
provided and payment is received. In recent times, they also speak directly with the patients on the
phone to aid in the awareness of taking medications on time.

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PHARMACY
Pharmacy is the branch of medical science that deals with the study of
discovery, development, synthesis, manufacturing action, quality
assurance, distributing, regulated affairs clinical uses and marketing
patterns of drugs is called pharmacy.

Pharmacy is a health profession that links “Health Sciences” with

“Chemical Sciences” and aims to ensure the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs.

TYPES OF PHARMACIES

There are different specialties of pharmacy as following

 Hospital Pharmacy
 Clinical Pharmacy
 Retail or community Pharmacy
 Industrial Pharmacy
 Forensic Pharmacy

HOSPITAL PHARMACY

Hospital pharmacy is a department or service in a hospital, responsible for the supply of medications
to hospital wards as well as ambulatory patients. The pharmacist working in hospital pharmacy is
known as hospital pharmacist.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF HOSPITAL PHARMACY

 To provide quality assurance for manufactured,
assembled and purchased pharmaceutical
 To purchase and supply drugs for inpatients
outpatients, hospital employees and for clinical drug
trails
 Maintain patient’s medication profiles
 Maintain prescription records
 Provide drug information on drugs and drug therapy to doctors, nurses, medical and nursing
students and the house staff
 Coordinate and control all drug delivery and distribution systems
 To supervise the activities of pharmacy technicians

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CLINICAL PHARMACY
According to European society of clinical pharmacy

“Clinical pharmacy is the study of drugs or medicines with respect to

specific diseases.” Or

Clinical Pharmacy includes all the services performed by

pharmacists practicing in hospitals, community pharmacies, nursing homes, home-based care
services, clinics and any other setting where medicines are prescribed and used.

The pharmacist working in the specialty of clinical pharmacy is known as clinical pharmacist and
the main responsibilities of any clinical pharmacist are

 Medication review in comparison with the diagnosis

 Study about drug interaction for specific prescription
 Drug adverse reaction profiling
 Pharmacoeconomics studies
 Drug formulary

Clinical pharmacists work directly with doctors, other health professionals, and patients to ensure
that the medications prescribed for patients are best for his/her treatment.

COMMUNITY PHARMACY
It is one of the pillars of pharmacy profession in this specialty we
provide the pharmaceutical services at community level in the
fundamental duties and goal of any community pharmacy are

 To provide quality medicine to general public

 Provide gardens and counseling regarding medication views
 Guide them regarding vaccination
 Organized health camps
 Organized health talks and seminars

Community pharmacy divided into following parts

 Retail Pharmacy
 Whole Sale Pharmacy

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RETAIL PHARMACY
It is the business oriented type of pharmacy where medicines are taken from distributors or whole
sellers and provided to general public on fixed percentage of profit.

WHOLE SALE PHARMACY

It is the business oriented type of pharmacy where the medicines are taken from manufacturer or
distributor and provided to the medical stores pharmacies and hospitals in bulk on fixed percentage
of profit.

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INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY
Industrial pharmacy is the fundamental backbone of pharmacy
profession it is an institution where medicines are manufactured
on industrial scale. Or

Industrial pharmacy is a discipline which includes

manufacturing, development, marketing and distribution of drug
products.

Firstly in Pakistan the medicines are prepared manually. Due to recent scientific advances semi
automatic machines replace the manual work.

VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS IN PHARMACY INDUSTRY

Pharmacy industry may have their own departments based on their requirement. A typical
pharmacy industry contains following departments…

 Production Department
 Ware House
 Quality Control Department
 Research & Development Department (R&D)
 Administration Department

PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT
It is the department of pharmaceutical industries where medicines are formulated and then
manufactured according to specification. Production section can be divided into following
departments.

 Tablet section
 Capsule section
 Injectable section
 Syrup section

WARE HOUSE
It is an important section of any industry where raw material and finished products are stored
according to their storage requirements.

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QUALITY CONTROL DEPARTMENT

It is the department of pharmaceutical industry where analysis of raw material to finished products
is performed to check their quality.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

The basic function of the research and development department involves synthesis of new
medicines or work on the improvement of existing medicines.

ADMINISTRATION
This section is responsible for managing all the matters of the industry e.g. administrative work,
managing all records etc.

FORENSIC PHARMACY
The branch of pharmacy that deals with the study of drug, medicines laws are known as forensic
pharmacy. The forensic pharmacy deals with the legal aspects of pharmacy practice the aspects
on which forensic stress down are following.

 Duties and responsibilities of all government authorities.

 How to register new drug industry or institute.
 How to obtain license to manufacturer purchase and sale drugs/medicines.

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DRUG
Drug is defined as, any chemical or natural substances used in
investigation, diagnosis, treatment, curement or management of
different diseases in humans and animals is called drug.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUG (ON THE BASIS OF SALE)

1. Over The Counter Drug (OTC)

2. Prescription Only Medicines (POM)

OVER THE COUNTER DRUG (OTC)

OTC is the group of drug that does not required any prescription for their dispensing. This group
contains the following drugs

 Multi vitamin
 NSAIDS (non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs)
 Laxatives
 Some Neutraceuticals and in some European counties
 Oral contraseptics

PRESCRIPTION ONLY MEDICINES (POM)

This group contains the medicine or drugs which must not dispense without prescription. This group
contain following drugs

 Antibiotics
 Steroids
 Benzodiazepines
 Barbiturates
 Anti diabetics
 Anti hypertension

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS (ON THE BASIS OF THEIR SOURCES)

The classification of drug on the basis of their source as following

1. Natural Sources
2. Semi Synthetic Sources
3. Synthetic Sources

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NATURAL SOURCES

PLANT SOURCES
This is the group of drug that obtained from plants e.g.
 Reserpine is obtained from Rauwolfia serpentina
 Cinnamon aldehydes obtained from cinn amon
 Digoxin is obtained from Digitalis lanata

ANIMAL SOURCES
Many animals are involved in the production of many important drugs
 Vaccines
 Insulin
 Sex hormones
 Thyroxin

MICROBIAL SOURCES
This is the group of medicines/drugs that are synthesized by using different
micro organisms; this group includes the following drugs

 Antibiotics
 Insulin
 Vaccines

SEMI SYNTHETIC DRUGS

Semi synthetic drugs are the group of drugs/medicines that are synthesized by using combined
sources of natural and synthetic world

Examples
 Amoxicillin
 Cefixium
 Ceftraizone

SYNTHETIC DRUGS
Synthetic drugs are the group of drugs/medicines that are totally synthesized in laboratory by using
chemicals or substances.

Examples

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 Paracetamol
 Aspirin
 Ciprofloxacin
 Sulphonamide group

GENERIC NAME
These are the names of drugs that are given to them on scientific basis

Examples
 Paracetamol
 Aspirin
 Ciprofloxacin
 Levofloxacin

BRAND NAME
These are the names of medicines that are given on the proprietorship basis

Examples
 Paracetamol
 Panadol
 Dicloran
 Disprin

CHEMICAL NAME
These are the names which are given to the drugs on the basis of presence of different atoms or
molecules and their inter-relationship

Examples
 Acetylsalicylic Acid (Aspirin)
 Acetyl Para Aminophenol (Paracetamol)

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SURFACE TENSION

COHESIVE FORCES
Cohesive force is the force of attraction between the molecu les of the
same substance.

ADHESIVE FORCES
Forces of attraction between a liquid and a solid surface are called adhesive forces

DEFINITION OF SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension is a contractive tendency of the surface of a liquid that
allows it to resist an external force. The cohesive forces among liquid
molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension.

Surface Tension is the reason why rain drops, drops of oil etc are
spherical in shape. Surface tension also allows plants to move water
(and dissolved nutrients) from their roots to their leaves,

APPLICATIONS OF SURFACE TENSION IN PHARMACY

The chemical activity, adsorption, dissolution, and bioavailability of a drug may depend on the
surface of the molecule. In order to meet manufacturing challenges and develop new and better
performing products with improved qualities, knowledge of surface tension is very much important.

VISCOSITY
Viscosity can be described as “it is the internal resistance of the
molecules of any liquid to flow called viscosity.” Or

Viscosity is the internal friction of a moving fluid. Or

Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid when it tries to flow.

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VISCOMETER (OSTWALD VISCOMETER)

Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and Rheometers. A viscometer is an
instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid.

APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY
Viscosity is mainly related to fluids, so in pharmacy it has many applications.
It is useful in formulations of ointments, syrups, suspensions and lotions.

Viscosity enhancers (e.g. Methylcellulose, Hydroxyethylcellulose) are used

in ophthalmic solutions to increase their viscosity. This enables the formulation to remain in the eye
longer and gives more time for the drug to exert its therapeutic activity or undergo absorption.

IONIZATION
Ionization is the process by which an atom or a
molecule acquires (obtain) a negative or positive
charge by gaining or losing electrons. Or

The formation or separation into ions by heat,

electrical discharge, radiation, or chemical reaction.

Atoms and molecules are electrically neutral in that the number of negatively charged electrons is
exactly equal to the number of positively charged protons. Much of the "normal matter" that we find
around us is in this form. However, particularly when there is energy sources available, atoms or
molecules can gain or lose electrons and acquire a net electrical charge. This process is called
ionization.

APPLICATION OF IONIZATION IN PHARMACY

Many drugs are either weak organic acids e.g. Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) or weak organic bases
e.g. procaine, or their salts. The degree of ionization of a drug has an important effect on its
absorption, distribution and elimination. So ionization is an important factor which is considered
during the manufacturing process of medicines.

PH

pH is a unit of measure which describes the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It is

measured on a scale of 0 to 14.

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The term pH is derived from "p", the mathematical symbol of the negative logarithm, and "H", the
chemical symbol of Hydrogen. The formal definition of pH is the negative logarithm (or negative
log) of the Hydrogen ion activity.

pH = -log[H+]

Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are
basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH very close to 7 and blood has a pH 7.35.

APPLICATIONS OF PH IN PHARMACY
It is most important to determine suitable pH for a drug. Different dosage forms e.g. eye drops,
nasal drops, ear drops, oral solutions; injectables should be of appropriate pH.

PH INDICATORS

A pH indicator is a chemical compound that is added in small amounts to a solution so that the pH
(acidity or alkalinity) of the solution can be determined easily.

The aims to use pH indicators are

 To determine the type of compound

 To determine the pH of different sample
 To verify the presence of any chemical substance

TYPES OF PH INDICATORS
There are three fundamental types of indicators

1. Acid Base Indicators

2. Redox Indicators
3. Ppt Indicators

ACID BASE INDICATOR

These are the indicators that change their color as we change the pH of the solution

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Example
 Methyl orange
 Phenolphthalein

REDOX INDICATOR (OXIDATION-REDUCTION INDICATOR)

These are the compounds that change their colors during oxidation and Reduction reaction.

Example
There are two common types of redox indicators
 Metal-organic complexes (Ex. phenanthroline)
 True organic redox systems (Ex. Methylene blue)

PRECIPITATION INDICATOR
Those indicators that change their color during precipitation reaction are called precipitation
indicators, e.g. Phenol Red. (Precipitation = the action or process of falling, collecting or condensing
of a substance on the ground from a solution).

APPLICATIONS OF PH INDICATORS IN PHARMACY

pH indicators are used in titrations in analytical chemistry and biology to determine the pH of
different substances.

(Titration = The process of determining the concentration of a unknown solution by adding it into
known concentration solution until a color change and then calculating the unknown concentration
of solution. Or

A titration is a technique in which a solution of known concentration is used to determine the

concentration of an unknown solution.)

BUFFER
Buffer is the compound or mixture of compounds that resist to
changing pH of any solution on slight addition of acidic or basics
solution or compound.

APPLICATIONS OF BUFFER IN PHARMACY

Buffers are most widely used in biological industry to preserve the
pH of biological compounds and fluids.
In manufacturing of injection and other dosage forms, buffer are used
to maintain their pH.
Buffers are used in fermentation process.
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ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS

SOLUTION
In pharmaceutical terms, solutions are “liquid preparations that contain one or more chemical
substances dissolved in a suitable solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents”.

Or, Solutions are homogeneous liquid preparations that contain one or more chemical
substances (solute) dissolved in a suitable solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents.

SOLVENT
Solvent is the liquid portion of a solution in which another substance (e.g. salt) is dissolved to form
a solution is called solvent.

SOLUTE
A substance that is dissolved in another substance (solvent) to form a solution is called solute. Or

A solute is a substance that creates a solution when dissolved by a solvent. Solute can change its
physical state, e.g. salt is solid before getting dissolved in water, and after dissolution it changes
from solid to liquid.

DEFINITION OF ISOTONIC SOLUTION

In medical sciences, isotonic solution is a solution that has the same salt concentration as to the
normal cells of the body and the blood.

In the general sense, two solutions are isotonic when they contain the same amount of solutes, or
dissolved substances.

Examples of isotonic solutions are dextrose 5% in water, Ringer's solution, and normal saline
solution (0.9% w/v sodium chloride solution)

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
Hypertonic solution is one with a higher concentration of solutes outside the cell than inside the cell.
When a cell is dip into a hypertonic solution, water will move outside from the cell in order to balance
the concentration of the solutes.

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
Hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes outside the cell than inside the cell.

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When a cell is dip into a hypotonic solution, water will move into the cell to balance the
concentrations of solutes inside and outside the cell, causing it to swell and possibly burst.

APPLICATIONS OF ISOTONIC SOLUTION IN PHARMACY

 Isotonic solutions are used in physiological experiments and tissue culture

 Isotonic solutions are used to balance the electrolytes
 Isotonic solutions are used to maintain the physiological conditions
 For medical purpose isotonic solution (normal saline) is used to flush wounds
 Normal saline is also used I.V for patients who cannot take fluids orally
 Saline is also used for nasal washes to relieve some of the symptoms of the common cold

ADSORPTION
Adsorption is a surface phenomenon in which molecules of a substance
such as gas or liquid collect on the surface of another substance such as
solid is called adsorption. Or

The condensation or adhesion of a gas, vapor, liquid or dissolved

substances on the surface of a solid or liquid is called adsorption.

TYPES OF ADSORPTION
Adsorption fundamentally divided into two main categories

1. Physical Adsorption
2. Chemical Adsorption

PHYSICAL ADSORPTION
It is the interaction of liquid or gas particles with solid particles surface and physical characteristics
are involved in it.

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Example
Many drugs are absorbed from GIT and skin through physical
adsorption mechanism

CHEMICAL ADSORPTION
It is the process in which liquid or gas particle binds to solid particle surface through chemical
reaction is known as chemical adsorption.

Example
Accumulation of O2 on the surface of iron (rust)

APPLICATION OF ADSORPTION IN PHARMACY

 Adsorption is the mechanism of absorption through skin and GIT

 Adsorption is the fundamental mechanism of antidotes
 In the preparation of gas masks using activated charcoal to avoid poisonous gases
 Silica gel can be used to remove moisture and to control humidity
 Adsorption chromatography is used to purify and separate pigments, hormones etc
 It is the main mechanism to compact with intestinal toxin

CALCINATIONS
Calcinations is the process in which the inorganic matters are strongly heated they will loose their
volatile component and fixed component are preserved. Or

To heat a substance to a high temperature but below the melting or fusing point, until they loss their
moisture or volatile components is called calcinations process.

APPLICATION OF CALCINATIONS IN PHARMACY

 A lot of chemicals are obtained by calcinations, such as pigments
 Calcinations process is used to get the fixed components of a substance
 Calcinations is used in the separation and purification of Calcium Oxide, Zine oxide

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CENTRIFUGATION
Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the centrifugal
force for the sedimentation of mixtures with a centrifuge (A centrifuge
is electrical equipment that rotates an object in a fixed axis results in
sedimentation of mixtures). Or

The process in which Solids are separated from liquids by the

centrifugal force or rotation is called centrifugation.

(An object traveling in a circle behaves as if it is experiencing an outward force. This force, known
as the centrifugal force)

APPLICATION OF CENTRIFUGATION IN PHARMACY

 A centrifuge is also used to separate the components of blood in blood banks

 Removing fat from milk to produce skimmed milk
 The clarification and stabilization of wine
 Separation of urine components and blood components in forensic and research labs

CRYSTALLIZATION
A method which is used to convert liquid into solids by using
evaporation, cooling or precipitation is known as
crystallization. Or

Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process of formation

of solid crystals

METHOD OF CRYSTALLIZATION
There are three methods of crystallization

1. Evaporation Method of Crystallization

2. Cooling Method of Crystallization
3. Precipitation Method of Crystallization

EVAPORATION METHOD OF CRYSTALLIZATION

In this method the temperature of the liquid raised and the liquid evaporate, so finally we get a solid
crystals of compounds.

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COOLING METHOD OF CRYSTALLIZATION

In this method we use cooling procedure to form solid crystals. It is a very selective method used
only for heat sensitive materials.

PRECIPITATION METHOD OF CRYSTALLIZATION

In this method the liquid is converted into precipitates and then separate out the solid material. it is
very rarely used method of crystallization.

APPLICATION OF CRYSTALLIZATION IN PHARMACY

 It is important purification mechanism used in pharmaceutical industries to get pure solid

drugs
 Penicillin-G is solidify by this process
 Crystallization process is used to get proteinaceous drugs in solid form
 Due to crystallization the stability of product Is enhance
 Crystallization is used for purification purpose

DECANTATION
Probably the simplest method of separating solids from liquids is the
process of decantation, which simply means letting the solids settle
to the bottom of the container and pouring off the liquid. Or

It is a process used in pharmacy to separate out the impurities from

the soluble portion of the solution. Or

Decanting is the careful process of pouring (flow) liquid from one container to another, usually
leaving behind sediment.

APPLICATION OF DECANTATION IN PHARMACY

 A mixture of two immiscible liquids can also be separated by decantation

 This method is used to purify the solids
 This process is also used to separate the solids from liquids
 It is also used in the separation of gels and magmas

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DELIQUESCENCE
The process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the
atmosphere until it dissolves in the absorbed water and forms a
solution. Or

It is chemical process in which any anhydrous compound

(compound containing no water) catches up the water from its
surrounding environment and converts itself into hydrated (containing water) form.

Note: (difference between deliquescent material and hygroscopic material)

Deliquescent material absorbs water from air enough to form solutions e.g. calcium chloride,
magnesium chloride, zinc chloride

Hygroscopic material absorbs water from air but not enough to form solutions e.g. Sugar, Sodium
chloride, Silica gel
APPLICATION OF DELIQUESCENCE IN PHARMACY

 Deliquescence compounds are used to remove the water produced by chemical reactions.
 These substances are used to preserve different pharmaceuticals.

DESICCATION
It is drying procedure which is widely used in pharmacy to remove the water from the product. Or

Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying.

DESICCATORS
A desiccator is a heavy glass or plastic container used in practical
chemistry for keeping small amounts of materials to dry. The material is
placed on a shelf, and a drying agent or desiccant, such as dry silica gel
is placed below the shelf.

APPLICATION OF DESICCATION IN PHARMACY

 By using Desiccation the stability of pharmaceutical product enhances

 Desiccation is a famous process of drying
 All the hygroscopic drugs are dried through Desiccation process
 For Desiccation dried silica gel is used in the bottles of hygroscopic medicine
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DISTILLATION
It is the method which is used to separate different chemical substances on the basis of their
volatilities. Or

It is a purification as well as separation process in which a chemical substance is boiled up to their

boiling point until it converts into vapors then the condenser is attached the distillation flask which
condensed back these vapors into liquid again. Or

Distillation is a commonly used method for purifying liquids and separating mixtures of liquids into
their individual components.

TYPES OF LABORATORIES BASED DISTILLATION

 Simple Distillation
 Fractional Distillation
 Steam Distillation
 Vacuum Distillation

SIMPLE DISTILLATION
Simple distillation is a process used to eliminate solid impurities from a liquid. Or

Simple distillation is the process used to purify liquids by bringing them to their boiling point, and
then collecting and condensing back their vapors into liquid.

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FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Fractional Distillation is a process by which components in a chemical mixture are separated

according to their different boiling points.

In fractional distillation the compound is heated and, as each of its constituent components comes
to a boil, its vapors are separated and cooled, so it can be removed in its pure form.

STEAM DISTILLATION
Steam distillation is purification and separation process which is used for water immiscible
compounds and water should be present in the system. It is used for temperature sensitive
materials.

Steam distillation is used for the distillation of two immiscible liquids one of which is water. An
immiscible liquid and water independently boils at high temperature but when steam is passed
through a mixture of these liquids, they boil at a much lower temperature than the boiling point of
pure water.

VACUUM DISTILLATION
Vacuum distillation is used for compounds that have high boiling points. The vacuum is provided
either by a water aspirator (A device for removing liquids or gases by suction) or by a mechanical
pump.

Vacuum distillation works on the principle that a liquid boils when its vapor pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure or external pressure. From this it is clear that the liquids which are

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decomposed at their boiling point under atmospheric pressure can be distilled at a much lower
temperature than its boiling point if the pressure is reduced on the surface of the liquid.

APPLICATIONS OF DISTILLATION IN PHARMACY

 Distillation process is used to purify liquids

 Water can be purified by distillation process
 Distillation process is used for purification of volatile substances
 It is also used for the extraction of volatile oils from their crude drugs
 Distillation is used to extract perfume or aromatic liquids from plants
 Simple distillation is used in the preparation of sprit, alcohol, ether etc
 Steam distillation is used for the distillation of water immiscible liquids of high boiling points

EFFLORESCENCE
Spontaneous (sudden) loss of water by a hydrated salt is called Efflorescence. Or

Efflorescence is the loss of “water of crystallization” (water that present inside crystals) from a
hydrated salt to the atmosphere on exposure to air.

ELUTRIATION
Elutriation is a process of separating particles, based on their size, shape and density, using a
stream of gas or liquid flowing in a direction usually opposite to the direction of sedimentation. It is
used in mineral processing for size classification. Or

Elutriation is a materials separation method in which smaller and larger materials are separated by
using the liquid or gas.

VAPORIZATION
Conversion of a substance from the liquid phase into the gaseous (vapor)
phase is called vaporization. Or

Vaporization is the process by which a liquid is turned into a gas.

(Direct conversion from solid to vapor is called sublimation)

There are two types of vaporization

1. Evaporation
2. Boiling

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EVAPORATION
Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs only on the surface of a liquid. During
Evaporation, liquids changes to gas on the surface of the liquid at below
the boiling temperature.

BOILING
Boiling refers to heating up a liquid until it releases vapor. During
Boiling, the liquid changes to gas form above the boiling temperature
and occurs below the surface of the liquid.

Exsiccations
The process of removing water of crystallization from crystalline salt or rendering crystalline salts
anhydrous is called exsiccation.

FUSION
Fusion is the process of heating the solid until it melts.

APPLICATIONS OF FUSION IN PHARMACY

 Fusion is used in making ointments, creams, lotions, and suppositories

 It is used in pharmacy for mixing procedure

IGNITION
Ignition is a process used in pharmacy in which the chemical substances are strongly heated until
its carboneous part burn and its inorganic residues left in the form of ash.

APPLICATIONS OF IGNITION IN PHARMACY

 Ignition process is used as a standardization test to evaluate the quality and purity of organic
compounds
 Ignition is also used as sterilization process
 It can be used in separate inorganic substances

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LEVIGATION
Levigation is the process of grinding or mixing an insoluble substance to a fine powder while wet.

APPLICATIONS OF LEVIGATION IN PHARMACY

 It is the leading method that is used in dispensing pharmacy to mix up the medicaments
with the fat or water soluble base.
 Levigation process can be used in the formulation of ointments, creams, paste and gels.
 Levigation can also be used to form granules of different mixture of API.

LYOPHILIZATION (FREEZE-DRYING)
Lyophilization is a process which extracts the water from foods and other products so that the foods
or products remain stable and are easier to store at room temperature. Or

Lyophilization is a dehydration process typically used to preserve a material.

Lyophilization is carried out using a simple principle of physics called sublimation. Sublimation is
the process in which solid converts directly into vapor state without first passing through an
intermediate liquid phase.

To extract water, the process of lyophilization consists of

 Freezing the food so that the water in the food becomes ice
 Under a vacuum, sublimating the ice directly into water vapors
 Drawing off the water vapors
 Once the ice is sublimated, the foods are freeze-dried

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APPLICATION OF LYOPHILIZATION (FREEZE-DRYING) IN PHARMACY

Pharmaceutical companies often use freeze-drying to increase the shelf life of the products, such
as vaccines and other injectables. By removing the water from the material and sealing the material
in a vial, the material can be easily preserved, stored and shipped.
SUBLIMATION
The process of changing from a solid to a gas without passing through an intermediate liquid phase.
Sublimation is a technique used by chemists to purify compounds. Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide.
At room temperature and pressure, it sublimates into carbon dioxide vapor. Sublimation is used to

create freeze-dried substances.

TRITURATION
It is a process of comunication in which we use pestle and mortar to reduce the particle size of

given substances.

(Comminution is the reduction of solid materials by crushing, grinding, and other processes)
APPLICATIONS OF TRITURATION IN PHARMACY

 Trituration is used to reduce the size of different substances

 Trituration is used for the mixing of different pharmaceutical components
 Trituration is used in the formation of creams, lotion and ointments
 Trituration is used in the dispensing of different drugs

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HISTORY OF PHARMACY
Pharmacy is a word derived from a Greek word “Pharmakon” which means drug or medicine.

Interest in medicines has been almost universal and constant since the beginning of man. The
Muslim scientists play a significant role in the discovery, development, formulation, manufacturing
and the use of drugs in according with the specific diseases.

CONTRIBUTION OF MUSLIM SCIENTIST IN PHARMACY

AL-KINDI (801-873 A.D)

Al-Kindi was a great Muslim philosopher; scientist, physician and
psychologist. He played a significant role in the development of many
branches of science e.g. Pharmaceutical chemistry, medicine, psychology
and cosmetics.

His notable work include

 Al kindi was first person who used music for the treatment of
Psychological problems
 He describes the isolation (separation) process of alcohol to form pure wine
 He describes in detail regarding cosmetics formulation
 He describes the epilepsy
 He described how to make perfumes

IBN-AL-NAFIS (1213-1288 A.D)

Ibn-al-Nafis was the one of the greatest physician Anatomist, Physiologist,
Sociologist, Pharmacologist and Islamic scholar of his time. He was
renowned for the following work.

 He was first person who described the pulmonary circulation,

capillary and coronary circulation.
 He described in detail the anatomy and physiology of respiratory
system, genitourinary system and GIT.
 He was the first person who writes about pulse rate.
 He has worked in the development of over 100 drugs.

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IBN-ZUHAR (1091-1161 A.D)

Ibn-Zuhar was the great Muslim scholar, physician, pharmacist and
surgeon. His scientific work includes…

 He was the first pe rson who describes experimental surgery

so he was considering being the father of experimental
surgery.
 He firstly describes the procedure for dissection.
 He done remarkable work and contribution to subject neuropharmacology.
 Ibn-Zuhar was that first person who describe the use of inhaled anesthetics so he was
consider to be the pioneer of modern anesthesiology.

ABU ALI SINA (980-1037 A.D)

Abu Ali Sina was a great physician, chemist and astronomer of his time.
His book “The cannon of medicine” was used a text book of medicine for
many years. His most famous scientific work includes.

 He was the person who firstly describes steam distillation.

 He firstly describes the procedure of diagnosis.
 He was the person who describe the different psychiatric diseases
e.g. Depression, Mania, Insomnia, etc. in detail.
 He was the first person who describe the paralysis in detail

AL- BIRONI (973-1050)

Al –Bironi was a great pharmacist, physician and Geologist. His famous scientific
works includes.

 He works in the development and progress of pharmacy field.

 He wrote a book “Al-Saddana fil tibb” which has description of more 720
herbal drugs and these are arranged alphabetically.
 He also describe regarding the active constituents of drugs.

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JABER BIN HAYAN (721-815)

Jaber Bin Hayan was one of the greatest scientist chemist and Geologist of
his time. He was born in Iran. He was the first scientist who introduced
experimentation in chemistry. His greatest scientific work includes…

 He was the person who first time introduce the practical importance
of chemistry which than lead to the era of industrialization.
 He invented more than 20 laboratory equipments.
 He firstly describes distillation and crystallization.
 He discover many chemical substance e.g. Nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, Acetic acid
 He describes the purification process of gold.

BOOK IN PHARMACY
There are fundamentally two types of books in pharmacy

1. Official Books
2. Non Official Books

OFFICIAL BOOK
These are the books that are written, compiled and published under the strict supervision of
Government agency is known as official book

Important Official Books are

 United State Pharmacopoeia (USP)
 British Pharmacopoeia (BP)
 International Pharmacopoeia (IP)
 United States National Formulary
 British National Formulary (BNF)

(Pharmacopoeia = an official publication containing a list of medicinal drugs with their effects and
directions for their use)

(Formulary = 'formulary' is a list of medicines. Formulary contained a collection of formulas for the
compounding and testing of medication)

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NON OFFICIAL BOOK

These are the books that are written, compiled and published locally and there is no role of any
Government Agency in there publication known as non-official books.

Example
Remington Pharmaceutical sciences

SOME IMPORTANT OFFICIAL BOOKS

UNITED STATE PHARMACOPOEIA (USP)

This is an official book of pharmacy. It is one of the leading and important pharmacopoeia of the
world that is in used. USP firstly written compiled and published under the supervision of a
government agency of United States named “United State Pharmaceuticals Convention”.

Mainly USP is used to determine the strength, quality, quantity, purity and labeling of drug.

UNITED STATE NATIONAL FORMULARY (UNF)

In 1888 the first National Formulary of united state was published under the supervision of American
Pharmaceutical Association But in 1974 the right of UNF was given to “United State Pharmaceutical
Convention” so from 1980 the UNF is published with USP-NF is used.

Mainly UNF contain following information

 Standards for medicines
 Dosage forms
 Drug substances
 Excipients
 Medical devices
 Dietary supplements

INTERNATIONAL PHARMACOPOEIA (IP)

International pharmacopoeia is the official book that has been written, published and compiled by
the WHO (World Health Organization).

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that is
concerned with international public health.

Mainly IP contain following information

 Pharmaceutical technological techniques for the development of drugs.
 Drug formulation and manufacturing processes
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 PHARMACEUTICS-I (General, Physical and Dispensing)

 Controlling the quality of medicines

BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA (BP)

British Pharmacopoeia is the most abundantly used pharmacopoeia in the world today. It is mostly
used because of their up to date monograph (monograph = a specialist work of writing on a single
subject usually by a single author) regarding the drug.

This book contain the following data

 Monograph of drugs.
 Quality control and quality assurance of pharmaceutical production sections of
pharmaceutical industries.
 Quality control test of dosage forms
 Identification and analytical test of drugs

BRITISH NATION FORMULARY (BNF)

It is the national formulary of medicines that are being used in United Kingdom. This book is largely
used as a text book for registration examination in UAE and in UK.

This book contain following information

 Detail knowledge regarding the clinical and pharmacological aspects of drugs/ medicines
 Detail note on prescription policy
 Knowledge regarding the refilling and patient handling

SOME COMMON NON-OFFICIAL BOOKS

These are the books that are written, compiled and published locally and there is no role of any
Government Agency in there publication known as non-official books.

Common non-official books

1. Remington Pharmaceuticals Sciences
2. Applied and Clinical pharmacology by Katzung
3. Tutorial Pharmacy

REMINGTON PHARMACEUTICALS SCIENCE

This book contains a detail knowledge regarding all the aspects of pharmacy.

APPLIED AND CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY BY KATZUNG

This book contain a detail knowledge regarding drug and their actions on humans

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TUTORIAL PHARMACY
This book contains a detail knowledge regarding the physical pharmacy.

DOSAGE FORMS

DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM

It is administration of drug or medicine to the living system for treatment, curement, management
or prophylaxis of disease (treatment given or action taken to prevent disease e.g. before the
disease). Or

Drug delivery systems can be defined as mechanisms to introduce therapeutic agents into the living
system (human or animal body).

DOSAGE FORM
Any Pharmaceutical product which is ready for the use of patient is known as dosage form. Or

Any pharmaceutical product which has defined shape and have prescribed amount of APIs (active
pharmaceutical ingredient) is called a dosage form.

Dosage forms are classified according to

 Route of Administration
 Physical Form

DOSAGE FORM ACCORDING TO THE ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION

Depending on the method/route of administration, dosage forms come in several types.

For example
 Oral
 Inhalational
 Parenteral
 Topical
 Suppository

ORAL
Medications that are taken by mouth are called oral dosage
form

 Tablet or capsule
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 Liquid solution or suspension (e.g., drink or syrup)

 Powder or liquid or solid crystals

INHALATIONAL
Medications that are delivered through the nose or inhaled and are absorbed through the nasal
mucosa or bronchioles respectively are called inhalational dosage form.

 Aerosol
 Inhaler
 Nebulizer
 Smoking
 Vaporizer

PARENTERAL
Medications that are administered by injecting a drug directly into a vein (intravenous), muscle
(intramuscular), or fatty tissue beneath the skin (subcutaneous) etc. are called parenteral dosage
form.

 Intradermal (ID)
 Intramuscular (IM)
 Intravenous (IV)
 Subcutaneous (SC)

TOPICAL
Medications that are applied on the surfaces of the body, especially the skin or mucous membranes
are called topical dosage form, ophthalmic and otic preparations are also topical medications.

 Cream, gel, liniment or balm, lotion, or ointment

 Ear drops (otic = relating to the ear)
 Eye drops (ophthalmic = relating to eye)
 Skin patch (transdermal = relating to skin)

ENTERAL OR SUPPOSITORY
Medications that are administered into the rectum or virginal and absorbed by the lower digestive
tract are called Enteral dosage form.

 Vaginal
 Rectal

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DOSAGE FORM ACCORDING TO THE PHYSICAL FORM

1. Solid Dosage Form

2. Semisolid Dosage Form
3. Liquid Dosage Form

SOLID DOSAGE FORM

 Tablet
 Capsule
 Granules
 Powder

SEMISOLID DOSAGE FORM

 Ointment
 Creams
 Paste
 Lotion
 Gel

LIQUID DOSAGE FORM

 Syrup
 Tincture
 Suspension
 Emulsion
 Injectables
 Drops (eye & ear)
 Oral solution
 Elixir
 Oral drops
 Mouthwashes

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INTRODUCTION OF DIFFERENT TYPE OF DOSAGE FORM

TABLETS
Tablets are compressed unit solid dosage form made up of medicinal
agent (active substances) with the aid of suitable pharmaceutical
excipients (inactive substances) for oral, buccal (relating to the cheeks
or mouth) vaginal or rectal route of administration.

ADVANTAGE OF TABLETS
 Ease of administration
 Surety of accurate dose
 In tablet manufacturing we have the ability of mask the taste of tablets
 Different colors of tablets are more attractive to patient and easy to identification.

DISADVANTAGE OF TABLETS
 Tablets manufacturing is very expensive method
 Not suitable for children and unconscious patients

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TABLETS

COMPRESSED TABLETS
These are the tablets that are made up of single compression and medicinal agent in addition with
lubricant binder, distintegrent, diluents, colorant and flavoring agent are used, e.g. Paracetamol,
Aspirin Tablets.

MULTIPLE COMPRESSED TABLETS

These are the tablets that are manufactured by multiple compressions.
 By joining two or more tablets
 Tablet with in a tablet

FILM COATED TABLETS

These are the tablets which are coated by film coating materials e.g. Augmentin.

SUGAR COATED TABLETS

These are the tablets that are coated by the sugar syrup intended to mask the bitter taste of tablets
e.g. Brufen.

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SUBLINGUAL TABLETS
These are the tablets that are used sublingually (under the tongue) e.g. Angised (nitroglycin)

EFFERVESCENT TABLETS
These are the tablets that on dissolving in water produce effervescence (bubbles in a liquid, escape
of gas) e.g. Disprin, Cac 1000. Or

Effervescent or carbon tablets are tablets which are designed to break in contact with water or
another liquid, releasing carbon dioxide in the process.

ENTERIC COATED TABLETS

These are the tablets that are coated by such kind of materials that resist the action of acids in
stomach e.g. Loprin, Voltaren, Ascard

LOZENGES
Lozenges are the tables intended to be dissolved slowly in the mouth e.g. Strepsils, Difflam

IMPLANTS (PELLETS)
A small tablet that is prepared for insertion under the skin by giving a small surgical cut into the skin
which is stitched after the insertion of tablets.

CHEWABLE TABLETS
The tablets are placed in the mouth, chewed and swallowed.

CAPSULES
Capsules are unit solid dosage form in which the medicaments are
enclosed in a soluble shell of gelatin, starch or similar material and
intended to be swallowed whole orally. Or

Capsules are gelatin shells used to fill a unit dose of powdered

and mixed ingredients of a prescription.

Composition of Gelatin
Gelatin USP is a product obtained by the partial hydrolysis of collagen (protein of fibrous connective
tissue), obtained from skin, white connective tissue and bones of animals.

ADVANTAGE OF CAPSULES

 Capsules may be used for dispensing solid, semisolid drugs.

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 Easy to swallow.
 It is very attractive dosage form.
 The efficacy of many drugs increases in the form of capsules
 Capsules mask the unpleasant taste of its contents.
 Disintegration is very reliable in capsule formation.
 Capsules can be colored to avoid from direct sun rays.

DISADVANTAGE OF CAPSULE
 Capsules are expensive than tablets.
 Capsules cannot be used in aqueous or alcoholic preparation.
 Hygroscopic (any substance that can absorb moisture from the air) substances cannot be
capsulate

TYPE OF CAPSULES
There are two fundamental types of capsules

1. Soft Gelatin Capsules

2. Hard Gelatin Capsules

SOFT GELATIN CAPSULE

Soft gelatin capsules primarily used for oils and for active
ingredients that are dissolved or suspended in oil.

Soft Gelatin Capsule have the soft gelatin shall around its
medicaments. Soft gelatin can be made up by gelatin in which,
Glycerin or Sorbitol has been added to make it elastic or plastic
like.

Soft gelatin capsules are fond in different shapes e.g.

 Oval
 Tube shape
 Round

HARD GELATIN CAPSULES

Hard gelatin capsules are normally used for dry powdered ingredients. These are the capsules that
have hard shall of gelatin around its medicaments.
Hard gelatin can be prepared by gelatin, containing sugar and water in appropriate quantity.

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There are two parts of hard Gelatin Capsules

1. Cap
2. Body

Human medicines are manufactured in eight size of capsule.

As a guide, the relative sizes and fill capacities of capsules with Aspirin are given below.

Capsule Size Aspirin (Mg)

000 1000
00 600
0 500
1 300
2 250
3 200
4 125
5 60

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SYRUPS
Syrups are concentrated aqueous preparation of sugar or sugar
substitute with or without flavoring and medicinal agent.

TYPES OF SYRUPS

 Simple Syrup
 Flavored Syrup
 Medicated Syrup

SIMPLE SYRUP
Simple syrups are concentrated solutions of sugar such as sucrose in water. Or

When purified water alone is used in making the solution of sucrose, the preparation is known as
simple syrup.

According to B.P specifications, simple syrup contains 66.7% w/w of sucrose as the solute in 33.3%
w/w of water as the solvent.

Sugar is mainly used to:

 Preserve the finished product
 Aid in masking the unpleasant taste of the active ingredient(s)
 Enhance the flavor

FLAVORED SYRUPS
Flavored syrups are made by adding flavoring matter to simple syrup,
e.g. orange flavor or cinnamon water into simple syrup.

MEDICATED SYRUPS
Medicated syrups are aqueous solutions containing sugar and at least one water soluble active
ingredient.

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ELIXIRS
Elixirs are clear sweetened hydro alcoholic solution intended for oral use.
Usually they are flavored to enhance taste.

Elixirs often require dilution before use or administration. These are

stable as compare to mixtures.

TYPES OF ELIXIRS
 Medicated elixirs
 Non-medicated elixirs

MEDICATED ELIXIRS
Medicated elixirs contain at least one active ingredient

NON-MEDICATED EELIXIRS
Non-medicated elixirs do not contain any drug. They are used as solvents or vehicles for the
preparation of medicated elixirs. They also used as flavoring agents.

AEROSOLS
Aerosols are not a dosage form but dosage system. Pharmaceutical
aerosols are dosage systems containing one or more active ingredient
which upon activation, emit a fine dispersion of fine solid particles or liquid
droplets in a gaseous medium.

TYPES OF AEROSOLS
 Nebulizer
 Meter dose Inhalers (HFA)
 Dry powder Inhalers

NEBULIZER
A nebulizer is a drug delivery device used to administer medication in the form of a mist (a cloud of
tiny water droplets) inhaled into the lungs.

METER DOSE INHALERS (MDI)

A metered-dose inhaler (MDI) is a device that delivers a specific amount of medication to the lungs.
it is usually self-administered by the patient via inhalation. It is the most commonly used delivery
system for treating asthma.

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DRY POWDER INHALERS (DPI)

A dry powder inhaler (DPI) is a device that delivers medication to the lungs in the form of a dry
powder. DPIs are commonly used to treat respiratory diseases such as asthma.

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DISPENSING & COMPOUNDING

COMPOUNDING
It is specialized process to change dosage form (e.g. solid to liquid) and includes the preparation,
mixing, packaging or labeling of a drug in response to a prescription written by a licensed

practitioner according to the need of a patient.

DISPENSING
Dispensing is a pharmacy act and consists of the removal of two or more doses from a bulk drug
container and placing them in another container/ envelop for later use by a patient. Or

Dispensing is concerned with the preparation and supply of medicines.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING

Today, most dosage forms of medications are already pre-packaged by the manufacturer and thus
the Pharmacist role is more in the redistribution of medications and the clinical aspect of
Pharmaceutical Care.
However the basic principles of compounding and dispensing are very much important for them…

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING

 Wear a freshly laundered overall coat

 Dispensing bench, equipments and containers must be clean
 Read the prescription carefully make sure you understand it and that it is legally correct
 Ensure that the prescription has the name and signature of the prescriber and the stamp of
the health centre
 Ensure that the prescription is dated and has the name of the patient
 Confirm that there are no pharmaceutical or therapeutic incompatibilities in the preparation
 If necessary find the formula of the preparation
 If you are not sure about correct method of preparation refer to your practical notebook
 Select and weight the correct ingredients
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 Always return the ingredients back to their place

 Balance must be tarred before use, (Re-zeroing balance by hitting Tare button on it)
 Balance must be placed in a air free place
 Never weigh less than minimum or more than maximum weight declared on the balance.
 Collect the correct container and closure
 Look up the storage conditions for the preparation
 Write the main label and collect any special labels that are required
 Check the labels and fix them to the container
 Pack the preparation in a suitable container
 Check the finished preparation
 Pack the container in a suitable box and write the patients name and address
 Make the appropriate records in your register
 Record must be kept for a minimum of 2 years or according to the law

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WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

WEIGHT
It is a measure of the gravitational force acting on a body and is directly proportional to its mass. Or

The weight of an object is usually taken to be the force on the object due to gravity

MEASURES
Finding out the size, amount, or degree of (something) by using an instrument or device marked in
standard units is called measures. Or

A standard unit used to express the size, amount, or degree of something.

SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT
A system of measurement is a set of units of measurement
which can be used to specify anything which can be measured

There are two Systems of weights and measures

1. The Iimperial System
2. The Metric System

IMPERIAL SYSTEM
A system of weights and measures originally developed in England.

Example of Imperial measures

Length: inches, feet, yards

Area: square feet, acres
Weight: pounds, ounces,
Volume: fluid ounces, gallons

The Imperial System has been replaced by the Metric System in most countries (including
England). We will discuss only metric system in detail

METRIC SYSTEM
The most commonly used system of weights and measures in pharmacy is the metric system.
Understanding of the metric system is important to perform calculations in the pharmacy.
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VALUES OF PREFIXES IN THE METRIC SYSTEM

The three basic units of the metric system are the meter, the gram, and the liter. The names of
the other units are formed by adding a prefix to one of the basic units. Each prefix has a
numerical value as indicated below:

PREFIX VALUES
Micro - (mc) = 1/1,000,000
Milli - (m) = 1/1,000
Centi - (c) = 1/100 times the basic unit.
Deci - (d) = 1/10
Deka - (dk) = 10
Hecto - (h) = 100 times the basic unit.
Kilo - (k) = 1000

STANDARD UNIT OF WEIGHT IN THE METRIC SYSTEM USED IN THE PHARMACY

Common measures of weight in metric system
(a) 1 kg = 1000 g
(b) 1 g = 1000 mg
(c) 1 mg = 1000 mcg

Whereas
Kg = kilogram
g = gram
mg = milligrams
mcg = microgram

The gram (g or gm) is the basic unit of weight used to weigh solids in the pharmacy.

1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 gm

1 hectogram (hg) = 100gm
1 decagram (dag) = 10gm
1 gram (gm) = 1000 milligrams (mg)
1 decigram (dg) = 0.1gm or 100mg
1 centigram (cg) = 0.01gm or 10mg
1 milligram (mg) = 0.001gm or 1mg

STANDARD UNIT OF VOLUME IN THE METRIC SYSTEM

1 kiloliter (kl) = 1000 liters
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1 hectoliter (hl) = 100 liters

1 decaliter (dal) = 10 liters
1 liter (l) = 1,000 milliliters (ml)
1 milliliter = 1 ml
1 deciliter (dl) = 0.10 L or 100ml
1 centiliter (cl) = 0.01 L or 10ml

20 drops of water droplets makes about 1 milliliter

1 teaspoon of liquid Teaspoonful is about 5 milliliters

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

CENTIGRADE OR CELSIUS TEMPERATURE SCALE

Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade
temperature scale, is the scale based on 0 for the freezing
point of water and 100 for the boiling point of water.

FAHRENHEIT TEMPERATURE SCALE

Fahrenheit temperature scale is a scale based on 32 for the
freezing point of water and 212 for the boiling point of water.

CONVERSIONS OF TEMPERATURE

The following formula works for converting both ways; that is, conversions can be made from
Fahrenheit to Centigrade or from Centigrade to Fahrenheit using this formula:
5F = 9C + 160

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CALCULATION

DENSITY
Density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume. Or

Density is defined as mass divided by volume

Density = mass/volume
Or
Density = mass divided by volume
or

The unit of density is kg/m3 (kg per cubic meter)

MASS
A measure of how much matter is in an object is called mass

Mass = density x volume

The unit of mass is kg (kilogram)

VOLUME
Volume is the measure of space occupied by an object.

Volume = weight /density

In metric system unit of volume is liter (L), on the other hand, one liter is the volume of a 10-
centimetre cube, 1 liter = (10 cm)3

PERCENTAGE
Percent means "parts per hundred" and is expressed in the following manner. Or

Percentage is the rate, number, or amount in each hundred.

Percentage = number of parts/ 100 parts

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PERCENTAGE PREPARATIONS

There are three types of percentage preparation

1. Weight in volume (W/V)
2. Weight in weight (W/W)
3. Volume in volume (V/V)

WEIGHT IN VOLUME (W/V)

W/V of Weight/Volume percent is defined as the number of grams in 100 milliliters of solution.

Example
(10% w/v solution of NaCl)
A 10 percent (w/v) sodium chloride (NaCl) solution would contain 10 grams of sodium chloride in
every 100 milliliters of water.

WEIGHT IN WEIGHT (W/W)

W/W percent or Weight/Weight percent is defined as the number of grams in 100 grams of a solid
preparation.

Example
(5% w/w boric acid ointment)
A 5 percent (w/w) boric acid ointment would contain 5 grams of boric acid in each 100 grams of
boric acid ointment.

VOLUME IN VOLUME (V/V)

V/V percent or Volume/Volume percent is defined as the number of milliliters of a liquid in every
100 ml of solution.

Example
(70% v/v solution of alcohol)
A 70% (v/v) alcoholic solution would contain 70 milliliters of alcohol in every 100 ml of solution.

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PACKAGING OF PHARMACEUTICALS
Packaging is an art as well as science in preparing a product
for transport, storage, display and use.
Suitable packaging is important for suitable purity, potency,
and stability of a product.

COMPONENTS OF PACKAGE
A package consist of
 Container
 Closure
 Carton or outer
 Box

CONTAINER
In which product is placed is called container.

CLOSURE
Closure, which seals the container to exclude oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture, bacterial etc. and
to prevent the loss of water and volatile substances from product.

CARTON OR OUTER
Carton or outer are used for secondary protection against mechanical and environmental hazards
and also serves for display of written information.

BOX
Multiples of the products are packed in box. It also defense against external hazards.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTAINERS AND CLOSURES

 The container and closure must be sufficiently strong to withstand (remain undamaged or
unaffected) handling while emptying, filling, closing, sterilizing, labeling, transporting, storing
and use by the consumer.
 The container and closure should not allow any loss of product due to leakage.
 The container and closure must not react with the contents.
 The container and closure must be heat stable if process includes sterilization by heat.
 The surface of the container must be clear for easy labeling.
 The container and closure must not absorb substances from the preparation.

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 The container and closure must not impart its own color, taste or odor to the preparation.
 The container and closure must not react either with each other or with the preparation.
 The container should be able to protect light sensitive preparations for which amber colored
glass containers may be used.
 The size of the container must be selected according to the size of the preparation.
 The closure must be easy to remove and replace.
 The cost of container and closure should not be high.
 The container and closure should be attractive in appearance.

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PRESCRIPTION
Prescription is an order written by a physician dentist or any other
registered medical practitioner to a pharmacist to compound and
dispense a specific medication for the patient. Or

A prescription is a set of instructions written by a qualified prescriber to a

pharmacist for supply of drugs.

PARTS OF A PRESCRIPTION
A complete prescription should have the following parts:

 Date
 Name, age, sex and address of the patient
 Superscription
 Inscription
 Subscription
 Signatura
 Prescriber’s Name, Address, registration number and signature

Date
Date must be written on the prescription by the prescriber at the same time when it is written.

Name, Age, Sex, and Address of the Patient

Name, age, sex, and address of the patient must be written on the prescription. If it is not written,
then the pharmacist himself should ask the patient about these particulars and write down at the
top of the prescription.

Superscription
The superscription is represented by a symbol Rx which is always written at the beginning of the
prescription, (Rx = you take).

Inscription
This is the main part of the prescription. It contains the names and quantities of the prescribed
medicine or ingredients. The names of the medicine or ingredients are written each on a separate
line.
Subscription
This part of the prescription contains prescriber’s directions to the pharmacist regarding the dosage
form to be prepared and number of doses to be dispensed. It may also include instruction regarding
the flavor of the product, label etc.
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Signatura
It is usually abbreviated as (sig) on the prescriptions and consists of the directions to be given to
the patient.

These may include

 The method of administration and application
 The dose if the preparation is for internal dose
 The time of administration or application
 The part of body where the preparation is to be applied, in case of external use

The Prescriber’s Name, Address, Registration Number and Signature

The Address and registration number may be printed but the prescriber’s name must be hand-
written and should be signed with ink.

Prescriptions were written in Latin; partly because this is the language could be understood by
pharmacist all over the world and to hide the nature of treatment from the patient partly. In recent
years the use of Latin has rapidly declined.

ABBREVIATIONS COMMONLY USED IN PRESCRIPTIONS

Rx = take
sig = signature

tab = tablet
cap = capsule
inj = injection
syr = syrup
supp = suppository

od = once a day
bid = twice daily
tid/tds = thrice daily
qid (qds) = four times daily

im = intramuscular
iv - intravenous
sc = subcutaneous

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wt = weight
mg = milligram
g = gram
kg = kilogram
mg/kg = milligram per kilogram
ml = millilitre
tbsp = tablespoonful (=10 ml)
tsp = teaspoonful (= 5 ml)
oz = ounce (1 oz is equal to approximately 28 grams)
lb = pound (1 lb is equal to approximately 453 grams)

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HANDLING AND FILLING OF PRESCRIPTION

HOW TO HANDLE AND FILL A PRESCRIPTION

Being a pharmacy technician is a very important job. A pharmacy technician answers phone calls,
takes prescriptions from patients, and dispenses it according to the instructions. The most important
duty of a pharmacy technician is handling and filling prescriptions. Here are a few simple steps on
how to handle a prescription in a pharmacy.

1. Receiving and entering prescription into the register or computer

2. Reading and checking
3. Collecting the materials
4. Weighing
5. Compounding
6. Labeling
7. Final checking of preparation
8. Giving to the patient

Step 1: Receiving and entering prescription into the register or computer

The prescription should be received from the patient by the pharmacist himself. After receiving the
prescription, enter it into the register or computer system.

Step 2: Reading and checking

Carefully read and check the prescription for any type of incompatibility.

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Step 3: Collecting the material

Collect the correct material according to the prescription.

Step 4: Weighing
Carefully weigh the ingredients.

Step 5: Compounding
Perform the compounding according to the instruction of the prescription

Step 6: Labeling
Once the drug is prepared place label around it.

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Step 7: Final Checking of Preparation

Give the drug that has been prepared to the pharmacist to be checked for correctness.

Step 8: Giving to the patient

If the prescription is correct, then give it to the patient and ask the question if they have any.

LABELLING
A label is written, printed or graphic matter attached on a container to identify its contents and inform
the consumer about its qualities, uses and hazards. Labels must be attached to the outside of the
immediate container.

Label must include the following

 The name and address of the dispenser or pharmacy
 The serial number of the prescription
 The current date of its filling or refilling
 The name of the prescriber
 The name of the patient
 The directions for use, including precautions, if any, as indicated on the prescription
 The initials or name of the dispensing pharmacist
 The telephone number of the pharmacy
 The drug name and strength and quantity

(Some labels may have the above mentioned information in different order)

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EXTEMPORANEOUS DISPENSING
The WHO defines extemporaneous dispensing or preparation as the
technique used by pharmacists to produce medicines, within their
pharmacy, from ingredients when no commercially available, authorized,
age‐ appropriate dosage form exists. Or

Simply we can say extemporaneous dispensing is preparation of any dosage form at the time of
dispensing. This is done when there is no appropriate commercially medicinal products are
available for the treatment of a patient.

SOLUTIONS
According to the British Pharmacopoeia (BP)
Oral solutions are oral liquids containing one or more active ingredients
dissolved in a suitable vehicle. Or

Solution is a homogeneous liquid preparation that contains one or more

dissolved medicaments.
(A solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.)

Solutions are used for many purposes. Sterility is necessary for some solutions, e.g. parenteral
peritoneal dialysis and anticoagulant solutions. Unsterile solutions are used orally. Generally, water
is chosen as the vehicle in which medicaments are dissolved, since it is non-toxic, non-irritant,
tasteless, relatively cheap and many drugs are water soluble.

SUSPENSIONS
According to the British Pharmacopoeia (BP)
Oral suspensions are oral liquids containing one or more active ingredients
suspended in a suitable vehicle. Or

A pharmaceutical suspension is a preparation in which at least one of the

active ingredients is suspended throughout the vehicle. (In contrast to
solutions, in a suspension at least one of the ingredients is not dissolved
in the vehicle and so the preparation will require shaking before a dose is administered).

Suspensions are important pharmaceutical dosage forms that are still widely in use today.

Common pharmaceutical products that are suspensions include:

 Ear drops
 Inhalations
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 Lotions
 Mixtures for oral use

EMULSION (EMULSION CREAM)

Emulsion may be defined as a thermodynamically unstable system of at
least two immiscible liquid phases, one of which is dispersed as globules
in other liquid phase, stabilized by presence of emulsifying agent. Or

Emulsion is liquid dosage form of medicament, in which, two immiscible

liquids are mixed with the help of emulsifying agent. (Emulsifying agent
is called emulgent)

CREAMS
Creams are semi-solid emulsions usually for application to the skin. They may be medicated or
non-medicated. Creams or emulsions are divided into two types

Oil-in-Water (O/W) creams which are composed of small droplets of oil dispersed in a continuous
water phase.

Water-in-Oil (W/O) creams which are composed of small droplets of water dispersed in a
continuous oily phase.

(Aqueous cream = in it, emulsion is oil in water)

(Oily cream = in it, emulsion is water in oil)

OINTMENTS
Ointments are greasy-semisolid preparation for application to the
skin. An ointment is a fatty preparation as to be easily applied to the
skin. They may be medicated or non-medicated.

Medicated ointments contain the medicament either dissolved or dispersed in the vehicle, and non-
medicated ointments are used as vehicles for preparation of medicated ointments or can be used
for their physical effects e.g. softening the skin.

PASTES
Pastes are dispersion of high concentration of insoluble powdered
substances (20-50%) in a fatty or aqueous base.

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Pastes are semi-solid preparation for external application. Pastes are less greasy and stiffer than
ointment due to high solid concentration.

GELS
Gels are semi-solid colloidal (jelly-like) suspension of a solid, dispersed in a liquid
e.g. aluminum hydroxide gel used as an antacid. Or

Jelly like preparation containing cosmetic, medicinal or other agents.

SUPPOSITORIES
Suppositories are solid dosage form intended for insertion into body
cavities such as rectum, vagina, where they soften, melt or dissolve
in the cavity, fluid releasing active ingredient.
Suppositories melt at body temperature which releases the
medicine and ultimately show localized and systemic effects.

PESSARIES
Pessaries are solid medicated preparations for introduction into the vagina where they melt or
dissolve and exert a local action.

There are two types of Pessaries

1. Molded Pessaries, which are cone shaped and prepared in a similar way to suppositories.
2. Compressed Pessaries, which are made in varieties of shape, like tablet, and prepared by
compression.

POWDERS
Powders are homogenous solid dosage form of medicament for internal or external use. These are
fine and dry particles of one or more substances produced by grinding or crushing of a solid
substance.

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GRANULES
Granules are solid dosage form used for my purposes.
Granules are prepared from powdered substances. The
particles of powder are aggregated (combine) by additions
of solvents or binding agents.

Granules are generally irregular shaped and behave as

single large particles. Granules are used in the manufacturing of tablets and pellets. Granules
typically have a size range from 0.2-4.0mm.

(Granulation is the act or process in which primary powder

particles are made to adhere (stick) to form large).

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INTRODUCTION TO ASEPTIC DISPENSING AND TPN DISPENSING

Aseptic dispensing is the preparation and supply of sterile medical products, which require some
dilution or other handling before administration. The preparation is carried out in the pharmacy by
trained pharmacy technicians, assistants and pharmacists.

The preparations are aseptically dispensed in response to a prescription/ order for a patient, under
the supervision of a pharmacist.

STERILIZATION
Sterilization is a process that eliminates (removes) or kills all forms of microbial life such as fungi,
bacteria, viruses, spore forms, etc.

BASIC APPROACHES FOR STERILE PREPARATION

1. Terminal Sterilization
2. Aseptic Process

(Aseptic: the complete absence of living microorganisms)

TERMINAL STERILIZATION
Terminal sterilization is a more traditional method of sterilizing products. In terminal sterilization, we
fill a container, seal it and then sterilize it.

Whenever possible, products intended to be sterile should preferably be terminally sterilized by

heat in their final container.

ASEPTIC PROCESS
Aseptic processing is the process by which a sterile product is packaged in a sterile container in a
way that maintains sterility. Aseptic processing is a simple idea. Sterilize a container, sterilize its
cap, sterilize its contents and put them together.

Where it is not possible to carry out terminal sterilization by heating due to the instability of a
formulation, a decision should be taken to use filtration and/or aseptic processing.

In order to maintain the sterility of the components and the product during aseptic processing,
careful attention needs to be given to the environment, personnel, container & closure sterilization
and transfer procedures.

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TOTAL PARENTERAL NUTRITION (TPN) DISPENSING

All people need food to live. Sometimes a person cannot eat any or
enough food because of an illness. The stomach or bowel may not
be working normally. When this occurs, and you are unable to eat,
nutrition must be supplied in a different way. One method is
“parenteral nutrition” (intravenous nutrition).

The person receiving parenteral nutrition that contains glucose,

amino acids, lipids and added vitamins and minerals etc then it is called total parenteral nutrition
(TPN). Solutions for total parenteral nutrition may be customized to individual patient requirements,
or standardized solutions may be used.

Before dispensing TPN, look at the solution closely. It should be clear and free of floating material.
Gently press the bag or observe the solution container to make sure there are no leaks. Do not use
the solution if it is discolored, contains particles or it is leaks. Before using TPN place it in a clean,
dry area to allow it to warm to room temperature.

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PHARMACEUTICAL INCOMPATIBILITY

A pharmaceutical incompatibility may be defined as the result of

prescribing or mixing the substances which are antagonistic in nature
and an undesirable product is formed which may harmful for health.

TYPES OF INCOMPATIBILITY
There are three types of incompatibility

1. Therapeutical incompatibility
2. Chemical incompatibility
3. Physical incapability

THERAPEUTICAL INCOMPATIBILITY
This incompatibility is resulted due to the combination of drugs having antagonistic or opposing
properties.

Types of therapeutic incompatibilities

1. Overdose
2. Wrong dosage form
3. Contraindication
4. Drug synergy
5. Drug antagonism

OVERDOSE
Too large or too many doses are called overdose.

WRONG DOSAGE FORM

The administration of a medication in a dosage form different from the one that was ordered by the
prescriber is called wrong dosage form.

CONTRAINDICATION
A reason that makes it inadvisable to prescribe a particular drug or employ a particular procedure
or treatment.

Drug synergy
Drugs that taken together produce a greater effect than the sum of their individual effects.

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DRUG ANTAGONISM
An interaction between two or more drugs in which one drug blocks or reverses the effect of another
drug.

EXAMPLES OF THERAPEUTICAL INCOMPATIBILITY

Rx
Codeine phosphate 0.6 gm
Type: Therapeutic incompatibility
In the present prescription an overdose of codeine phosphate has been prescribed. Therefore the
prescription must be referred back to the prescriber.

Rx
Tetracycline hydrochloride 250 mg
Label: take one capsule every six hours with milk
Type: therapeutic incompatibility
In this prescription the direction is wrong. Tetracycline is inactivated by calcium which is present in
milk. Therefore tetracycline capsules should not be taken with milk. Therefore the prescription must
be referred back to the prescriber.

CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITY
Chemical incompatibilities are those in which a chemical reaction takes place between the
ingredients and a new undesirable compound is formed.

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TYPES OF CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITY

TOLERATED
In this type of incompatibility, chemical reaction can be reduced by mixing the solution in dilute
forms or by changing the order of mixing.

ADJUSTED
In this type of incompatibility, change in the formulation is needed with a compound of equal
therapeutic value e.g. in the mixture of caffeine citrate and sodium salicylate, caffeine citrate is
replaced with caffeine.

EXAMPLE OF CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITY

Rx
Quinine Sulfate 2 g
Dilute Sulfuric Acid 2ml
Sodium acetate 4g
Water 120ml
Make suspension
Type: Chemical incompatibility
If the quinine sulfate is dissolved by the use of sulfuric acid and mixed with the solution of sodium
acetate, a bulky white precipitate of quinine acetate will be formed. However, if the acid is omitted
a fine suspension of quinine sulfate is produced.

PHYSICAL INCOMPATIBILITY
Physical incompatibilities are those when two or more than two substances are combined together
a physical change takes place and an unacceptable product is formed since these changes which
take place are usually visible therefore they can be easily corrected by applying the pharmaceutical
skill to obtain an acceptable preparation.

TYPES OF PHYSICAL INCOMPATIBILITY

Immiscibility, insolubility, precipitate formation and liquefaction of solid materials are common types
of physical incompatibility

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EXAMPLE OF PHYSICAL INCOMPATIBILITIES

Rx
Olive oil water
Water 15ml
Olive oil 60ml
Make an emulsion
Type: physical incompatibility
In this prescription olive oil is immiscible with water. To make them miscible an emulsifying agent
must be used.

Course Outlines
PHARMACEUTICS-1 (General, Physical and Dispensing) (WRITTEN)

Paper 4 Part-1 100 (50+50) Marks

1. Introduction of pharmacy in relation of Hospital Pharmacy, Clinical Pharmacy, Retail
pharmacy, industrial pharmacy and Forensic pharmacy.
2. History of pharmacy with special reference to contribution of Muslim scientists in pharmacy
3. An introduction of various official books used in pharmacy.
4. Surface tension, Viscosity, Ionization, pH, pH indicators, buffers, isotonic solutions and their
application in pharmacy.
5. Introduction and application to the following processes in Pharmacy adsorption,
calcinations, centrifugation, crystallization, Decantation, Deliquescence, Desiccation,
Distillation, Efflorescence, Elutriation, Evaporation, Exsiccations, Fusion, Ignitions,
Levigation, Lyophilizaition, Sublimation, Trituration, vaporization.
6. Introduction to various Dosage forms.
7. Basic Principles of compounding and dispensing including, Weights and measures,
calculation for compounding and dispending containers and closures. Prescription handling
Filling interpretation, labeling.
8. Extemporaneous, Dispensing of solutions, suspensions, emulsions creams and ointments,
pastes and gels, suppositories and passaries, powder and granules, oral unit dosage form.
9. Introduction to aseptic dispensing and TPN Dispensing
10. Introduction to incompatibility.

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