(Second Language Learning and Teaching) Katarzyna Budzińska, Olga Majchrzak - Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education (2021, Springer) - Libgen - Li
(Second Language Learning and Teaching) Katarzyna Budzińska, Olga Majchrzak - Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education (2021, Springer) - Libgen - Li
(Second Language Learning and Teaching) Katarzyna Budzińska, Olga Majchrzak - Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education (2021, Springer) - Libgen - Li
Teaching
Series Editor
Mirosław Pawlak
Faculty of Pedagogy and Fine Arts, Adam Mickiewicz
University, Kalisz, Poland
The series brings together volumes dealing with different
aspects of learning and teaching second and foreign
languages. The titles included are both monographs and
edited collections focusing on a variety of topics ranging
from the processes underlying second language
acquisition, through various aspects of language learning
in instructed and non-instructed settings, to different
facets of the teaching process, including syllabus choice,
materials design, classroom practices and evaluation. The
publications reflect state-of-the-art developments in those
areas, they adopt a wide range of theoretical perspectives
and follow diverse research paradigms. The intended
audience are all those who are interested in naturalistic
and classroom second language acquisition, including
researchers, methodologists, curriculum and materials
designers, teachers and undergraduate and graduate
students undertaking empirical investigations of how
second languages are learnt and taught.
More information about this series at http://www.
springer.com/series/10129
Editors
Katarzyna Budzińska and Olga Majchrzak
References
Lake, J. (2013). Positive L2 self: Linking positive
psychology with L2 motivation. In: M. Apple, D. Da Silva,
& T. Fellner (Eds.), Language learning motivation in
Japan (pp. 225–244). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
MacIntyre, P. D., Gregersen, T., & Mercer, S. (Eds.). (2016).
Positive psychology in SLA. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new
understanding of happiness and well-being. New York:
Atria.
Katarzyna Budzińska
Lodz, Poland
Contents
Theoretical
Exploring Applications of Positive Psychology in SLA
Peter D. MacIntyre
Understanding the Ecology of Foreign Language
Teacher Wellbeing
Jun Jin, Sarah Mercer, Sonja Babic and Astrid Mairitsch
From Culturally to Emotionally Responsive Teaching in
International Higher Education
Eva Seidl
Enjoyment in the Foreign Language Classroom: Does
Gender Matter? A Review of Selected Empirical Studies
Ewelina Mierzwa-Kamińska
Empirical
Positive Psychology, Positive L2 Self, and L2 Motivation:
A Longitudinal Investigation
Keita Kikuchi and J. Lake
The Link Between Different Facets of Willingness to
Communicate, Engagement and Communicative
Behaviour in Task Performance
Anna Mystkowska-Wiertelak
Positive Institutional Policies in Language Education
Contexts: A Case Study
Katarzyna Budzińska
“What Kind of Teachers We Are (Becoming) and What
Kind of Teachers We Might Be”—Making Sense of
Duoethnographic Positive Psychology-Related
Experience by Preservice English Teachers
Dorota Werbińska
Between Expectations and a Sustainable Teaching
Career: The Results of a Metaphor Study
Olga Majchrzak and Patrycja Ostrogska
Applied
(Positive) Affectivity in a Foreign Language Classroom:
Trainees’ Response to an Introductory Course in
Positive Psychology
Danuta Gabryś-Barker
Developing Learners’ Reflectiveness Through
Biographical Narrative and Metaphor
Kamila Lasocińska and Łukasz Zaorski-Sikora
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Katarzyna Budzińska has a Ph.D. in applied linguistics
from the University of Lodz and a Cambridge Diploma in
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. She
teaches at the Lodz University of Technology, where she is
involved in teacher training. She also works freelance at the
University of Humanities and Economics in Lodz, where
she teaches Positive Psychology and supervises MA
dissertations in Applied Linguistics. Katarzyna’s main
areas of interest are psychology in language learning and
positive psychology, whose third pillar, positive
institutions, she has been exploring recently.
Olga Majchrzak received her Ph.D. degree in Linguistics
from the University of Lodz, Poland. She works at the
University of Humanities and Economics in Lodz, Poland,
where she has been the Dean of Foreign Language Studies
since 2016. She is the author and supervisor of the Teacher
Training Programme for Foreign Language Teachers at
AHE. Her scientific interests include issues related to the
attitudes and identity of bilinguals, developing writing
skills in a foreign language, and recently emotions in the
writing process. She teaches courses in Creative writing,
Academic writing and Trends in Alternative Education.
Contributors
Sonja Babic
Department of English Studies, University of Graz, Graz,
Austria
Katarzyna Budzińska
Language Centre, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz,
Poland
Danuta Gabryś-Barker
University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
Jun Jin
Department of English Studies, University of Graz, Graz,
Austria
Keita Kikuchi
Department of Cross-Cultural Studies, Kanagawa
University, Yokohama, Kanagawa-ku, Japan
J. Lake
Department of International Liberal Arts, Fukuoka
Women’s University, Fukuoka, Higashi-ku, Japan
Kamila Lasocińska
University of Humanities and Economics, Lodz, Poland
Peter D. MacIntyre
Department of Psychology, Cape Breton University, Sydney,
NS, Canada
Astrid Mairitsch
Department of English Studies, University of Graz, Graz,
Austria
Olga Majchrzak
University of Humanities and Economics, Lodz, Poland
Sarah Mercer
Department of English Studies, University of Graz, Graz,
Austria
Ewelina Mierzwa-Kamińska
University of Opole, Opole, Poland
Anna Mystkowska-Wiertelak
Institute of English Studies, University of Wrocław,
Wrocław, Poland
Patrycja Ostrogska
University of Humanities and Economics, Lodz, Poland
Eva Seidl
University of Graz, Graz, Austria
Dorota Werbińska
Pomeranian University in Slupsk, Slupsk, Poland
Łukasz Zaorski-Sikora
University of Humanities and Economics, Lodz, Poland
Theoretical
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_1
Peter D. MacIntyre
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
This chapter examines positive psychology and its potential application in second language
acquisition (SLA). The chapter first reviews the origins of positive psychology as a sub-field
and the reasons why it was developed. In defining what positive psychology is, the chapter
also addresses what positive psychology is not and explicates the risk of applying positive
psychology principles in an oversimplified manner, a so called ‘tyranny of positive thinking.’
There are strong inroads already being made for applying positive psychology in SLA. The
chapter concludes with a brief examination of the notion of positive language education which
would combine language and personal development (wellbeing).
Keywords Positive emotions – Character strengths – Positive language education – Individual
turn – Criticism of positive psychology
Peter D. MacIntyre is Professor of psychology at Cape Breton University. His research
focusses on the psychology of language and communication. He has published over 100
articles and chapters on language anxiety, willingness to communicate, motivation and other
topics. He has co-authored or co-edited books on topics including positive psychology in SLA,
motivational dynamics. nonverbal communication, teaching innovations, and capitalizing on
language learner individuality.
1 Introduction
The arrival of positive psychology in the study of second-language acquisition (SLA) signals a
growing of interest in the psychology of language learners and teachers (MacIntyre,
Gregersen, & Mercer, 2019), a potentially valuable addition to SLA for at least three reasons.
First, positive psychology casts light on new dimensions of the learners and their experience,
focusing on topics that have not yet been widely studied (MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014). Second,
we are seeing the development of somewhat novel approaches to research and its methods
that will broaden current theoretical perspectives and advance the field in new directions.
Third, there are new applications for language-teaching practice including exercises, activities,
and lessons that have been shown to be effective in positive psychology and are being adapted
to second-language teaching and learning.
Psychology is not just a branch of medicine concerned with illness or health; it is much
larger. It is about work, education, insight, love, growth, and play. And in this quest for
what is best, positive psychology does not rely on wishful thinking, faith, self-deception,
fads, or hand-waving; it tries to adapt what is best in the scientific method to the
unique problems that human behavior presents to those who wish to understand it in
all its complexity. (p. 7)
1 Attachment security
2 Benefit-finding
3 Character strengths
4 Compassion
5 Courage
8 Emotional intelligence
9 Flow
10 Forgiveness
11 Gratitude
12 Happiness
13 Hope
14 Humility
15 Life longings
16 Love
17 Meaning in life
18 Mindfulness
19 Optimism
21 Personal control
22 Positive emotions
23 Positive ethics
24 Positive growth
25 Reality negotiation
26 Relationship connections
27 Resilience
28 Self-determination
29 Self-efficacy
30 Self-esteem
31 Self-verification
32 Social support
33 Subjective well-being
34 Sustainable happiness
35 Toughness
36 Wisdomn
7 Conclusion
In summary, we can trace the origins of positive psychology as a sub-discipline to the turn of
the millennium, when Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) published their work in
American Psychologist. Research in the social science side of positive psychology has made
significant progress since then (Snyder & Lopez, 2009). Positive psychology has had a fast
start, partly because of its deep roots in humanistic traditions. The scientific study of what
goes right in life is not brand new, but there is a new emphasis on balancing research concern
for positive and negative experiences, a commitment to having a strong empirical base about
what makes life good, what makes people flourish, and how to do their best. Recent
developments under the banner of PP2.0 are leading to a more socially contextualized and
dialectic description of positive psychology, one that can better consider the reciprocal effects
of individuality within context. It can be suggested that the SLA’s social turn in one direction
should also be accompanied by an individual turn in the other (Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2015),
taking the individual as a unit of analysis more seriously (Lazarus, 2003a; MacIntyre & Mercer,
2014; Molenaar & Campbell, 2009; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
Positive psychology in SLA is making rapid progress in each of the original three pillars of
positive psychology—character strengths, emotions, and institutions. New programs of
empirical research are examining areas of experience that have not been widely studied,
helping to better balance the scales of positive and negative language experiences. The
empirical research foundation dedicated to positive psychology in SLA is tied to innovation in
theory, methods, and teaching/learning. More importantly, developments in each are
influencing the others in productive ways. Considering the scope of possible future work on
topics such as those in Table 1, there is a bright future for studies exploring applications of
positive psychology in SLA.
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Footnotes
1 Smile or Die is the book title in the UK, elsewhere the book is called Brightsided.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_2
Jun Jin (Corresponding author)
Email: [email protected]
Sarah Mercer
Email: [email protected]
Sonja Babic
Email: [email protected]
Astrid Mairitsch
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper presents a conceptual framework for understanding language teacher wellbeing
from an ecological perspective. Such a perspective captures the holistic interconnections
between a teacher’s professional and personal lives and recognizes the critical role played by
contexts of foreign language education. In particular, we argue for research which considers
the unique stressors and strains faced by educators at different stages of their careers from
pre-service through mid-career and up to late career stage. We propose a useful construct to
help understand teacher wellbeing is ‘social-psychological capital,’ which refers to the social
and psychological resources which teachers can draw upon to manage their wellbeing. We
consider the implications for research of an ecological perspective on teacher wellbeing across
the career span through the lens of social-psychological capital.
Keywords Wellbeing – Language teacher – Social-psychological capital – Positive psychology
– Ecology
Jun Jin is currently a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Graz, Austria. Her research
focuses on the issue of teaching and learning in different contexts. The ultimate goal of her
research is to improve and enrich teaching and learning experience in the process of
curriculum and professional developments.
Sarah Mercer is Professor of foreign language teaching at the University of Graz, Austria,
where she is Head of ELT methodology. Her research interests include all aspects of the
psychology surrounding the foreign language learning experience. She is the author, co-author
and co-editor of several books in this area.
Sonja Babic is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Graz and is looking into positive
psychological resources (psychological capital) that support third-age language teachers’ and
teacher educators’ well-being. She is working as a research assistant at the University of Graz
and is a certified TESOL teacher.
Astrid Mairitsch is a research assistant on the FWF-funded project “Psychological Capital of
Foreign Language Teachers” at the University of Graz, Austria. She is also a lecturer at the
Department of English and Psychology and a trained teacher for secondary education.
Alongside her work as a researcher, Astrid is pursuing her Ph.D.
1 Introduction
Robinson (2006) described teachers as “the lifeblood of any school.” Hattie’s (2009) meta-
study reinforced this by showing empirically that the most influential factor in education after
the learner themselves is in fact the teacher. Yet, in comparison to the volume and scope of
research on learners, relatively little time has been spent reflecting on or researching the lives,
needs, and psychologies of teachers themselves. Although some work has been done, typically,
the focus of empirical work is on what the teachers can do for learners, their teaching
methods, and their role in the classroom as opposed to them as unique complex human beings
(cf. Mercer & Kostoulas, 2018). Given the fact that teachers represent such a central
stakeholder in the learning-teaching processes, it is vital that we understand what helps them
to flourish as individuals and thus to teach to the best of their abilities.
One factor that stands out as being critically important for teacher efficacy is their sense of
professional wellbeing (Day & Gu, 2009). Research has shown that teachers who have high
levels of job satisfaction and wellbeing not only teach more effectively and have better rapport
and lower levels of discipline problems, but their learners also achieve higher and are more
academically successful (Dewaele, Chen, Padilla, & Lake, 2019; McCallum & Price, 2010; Roffey,
2012). It is thus important to understand what enables teachers to flourish in their
professional roles and what challenges can hinder their professional wellbeing. The
implications need to create guidelines for institutions and policy makers to ensure that
teachers are in the best position to be the best educators they can be.
It is important to begin by explaining how we understand wellbeing in this chapter.
Wellbeing has been defined in a variety of ways leading La Placa, McNaught, and Knight (2013,
p. 116) to conclude that the term, “has defied simple definition, because of its inherent
complexity.” The most common way to conceptualise the different approaches is to consider
whether they take a more hedonic or eudemonic approach to defining wellbeing (Ryan & Deci,
2001). In terms of a more hedonic perspective, a large number of studies have used the term
Subjective Wellbeing (SWB) which is defined as comprising the presence of pleasant/positive
affect, relative lack of unpleasant/negative affect, and life satisfaction (e.g., Diener, Suh, Lucas,
& Smith, 1999; Lucas, Diener, & Suh, 1996). However, this approach focuses largely on the
individual affective dimension of wellbeing without duly considering the social character of
wellbeing. In contrast, more eudemonic perspectives tend to concentrate more on individual’s
sense of meaning and self-actualisation, which inevitably involves social perspectives and
social relationships. One example of a eudemonic approach is the PERMA model of flourishing
(see Budzińska, Gabryś-Barker, Kikuchi & Lake, Mystkowska-Wiertelak, & Werbińska, this
volume) proposed by Seligman (2011), which has been empirically validated using the PERMA
profiler (Butler & Kern, 2016). PERMA stands for: Positive emotions, Engagement,
Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment (Seligman, 2011). A definition that we have
found useful in practical terms is proposed by Dodge, Daly, Huyton, and Sanders (2012) who
suggest that wellbeing emerges, “when individuals have the psychological, social and physical
resources they need to meet a particular psychological, social and/or physical challenge. When
individuals have more challenges than resources, the see-saw dips, along with their wellbeing,
and vice-versa” (p. 230).
In this paper, we make the case for the importance of research into teacher wellbeing from
an ecological perspective. We discuss the importance of understanding the interconnections
for educators between personal and professional contexts as well as the particularities of the
language learning domain and the need to take a holistic perspective of wellbeing. We also
argue for the importance of research not only investigating the typical population of pre-
service or early- career stage teachers, but also examining the situation of mid-career and late-
career stage teachers, who remain woefully under-researched as a population. Especially in
respect to wellbeing, each life stage is characterized by diverse tensions and demands which
can affect how teachers approach and experience their professional lives (Day & Gu, 2010;
Goodson, 2008; Gu & Day, 2013; Rauch, 2018). To help us understand how teachers manage
their professional lives and wellbeing, we propose the construct of ‘social-psychological
capital’ (cf. Ju, Lan, Li, Feng, & You, 2015; Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007; Luthans,
Youssef-Morgan, & Avolio, 2015; Roffey, 2012). This refers to the social and psychological
resources that a teacher can draw upon to help them manage their wellbeing. In this chapter,
we will present a conceptual framework for understanding language teacher wellbeing from
an ecological perspective and consider the implications for research.
[the] outward, more easily measurable signs of attrition and stress among teachers in
their early years may mask a considerably more important problem among teachers in
the middle and later years of their careers who stay in the profession but whose
capacity for resilience may become eroded to the extent that survival in the classroom
rather than the continuing pursuit of quality becomes the main concern. (p. 24)
The body of research on mid-career or late-career stage teachers is more limited and there
is growing recognition of the importance of paying special attention to this population of
teachers, who face their own challenges different to those of early career stage educators (e.g.,
Day, 2017; Kane, Rockoff, & Staiger, 2008; Kirkpatrick & Johnson, 2014). Van der Want,
Schellings, and Mommers (2018) noted that those studies on mid-late career stages tend to
focus on attrition (Rolls & Plauborg, 2009), job satisfaction and work stress (Veldman, Van
Tartwijk, Brekelmans, & Wubbels, 2013), as well as feelings of disillusionment and frustration
(Day & Gu, 2009; Huberman, 1993). Relatively less attention has been given to examining how
and why late-career stage teachers have managed tensions and chosen to remain within the
teaching profession and reasons for their retention (Day, 2017). If these experienced teachers
remain in teaching profession, it avoids the potential loss of accumulated teaching expertise
and improves the return on investments in the initial teacher development programmes
(Acton & Glasgow, 2015; Roffey, 2012).
There have been a number of studies, which have raised awareness of the different
character of different career phases as well as dynamic nature of each phase (e.g., Day, 2012,
2017; Day & Gu, 2010; Huberman, 1989, 1993; Steffy & Wolfe, 2001). For example, drawing on
interview data, Huberman (1988) categorized five professional life phases or stages: 1.
Launching a career: initial commitment; 2. Stabilization: find commitment; 3. New challenges,
new concerns; 4. Reaching a professional plateau; and 5. The final phase. He further explained
teacher life cycles through three major divisions: novice teacher (student teaching; middle
novice stage; late novice stage); mid-career (stabilization; experimentation; taking stock); and
late-career (serenity; disengagement) (Huberman, 1989). Expanding on Huberman’s work,
Day et al. (2007) conducted a four-year mixed-method study with 300 teachers from 100
schools in England, in order to explore teacher effectiveness across their professional lives
(Day et al., 2007). They identified six professional life phases (PLP): early-career teachers (0–
3: Commitment: support and challenge and 4–7: Identity and efficacy in classroom); mid-
career teachers (8–15: Managing changes in role and identity: Growing tensions and
transitions; 16–23: Work-life tensions: Challenges to motivation and commitment); late-career
teachers (24–30: Challenges to sustaining motivation and 31+: Sustaining/Declining
motivation, ability to cope with change, looking to retire) (Day, 2017; Day & Gu, 2010). They
found that teachers’ wellbeing, job commitment, and passion related to PLP and these varied
within and between these PLP (Day, 2012). It is noted that teachers’ career paths are not
linear processes in which teachers move gradually from one ‘stage’ to another (Huberman,
1989). Describing teacher professional life cycles as ‘phases’ in which teachers move back and
forth between the phases allows for broader, blurry boundaries when a phase ends/starts for
an individual (Day, 2012).
In life cycles or at different career phases, teachers face different types of stressors and
conditions of work and lives (Day & Gu, 2010; Gu & Day, 2013). However, there has been little
research “which has investigated the ways in which teachers’ capacity to be resilient may be
nurtured, sustained or eroded over time” (Gu & Day, 2013, p. 22). For example, teachers with
over 20 years of teaching experience, even if working in highly stressful environments, are
perhaps less likely to feel able to change teaching profession for financial and domestic
reasons (Gu & Day, 2013). As mentioned earlier, Goodson (2008) proposes that teachers have
different, so-called, “centres of gravity” in their lives at different periods of time. This means
that in some periods of life and work, teachers predominantly place their focus and energy on
the school and their professional life, while at other points and periods, it may be their home
life. Since teachers’ challenges, opportunities, and stressors vary at different stages in their
professional cycle, it would seem critically important from an ecological perspective to
investigate teacher wellbeing across the career trajectory and identify the specific conditions
of their wellbeing during particular phases (Huberman, 1995).
6 Socio-Psychological Capital
Taking an ecological perspective on teacher wellbeing, we have concluded that wellbeing is
likely to be emergent in quality. By this, we mean it emerges from the interaction of multiple
intrapersonal, and contextual factors and is constantly shifting and changing as it adapts to
changes in the broader ecology. We propose the construct of social-psychological capital in
ecological systems as a useful notion to reflect on language teacher wellbeing and how to
promote it in practical terms. We will outline each aspect of this and present our theoretical
model.
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© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_3
Eva Seidl
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Positive psychology, with its focus on strengths rather than deficits and on individuals’ well-
being and flourishing lends itself particularly well as an empowerment perspective on
international higher education. Too often, in the scholarly discourse the emphasis lies on
foreign students’ difficulties, weaknesses and problems. In addition to this deficit perspective,
the role of educators in international education has been controversially discussed. Scholars
differ on whether university teachers are responsible for the creation of an emotionally
literate learning environment in the so-called international classroom. Here, it is understood
to be a place for developing intercultural competence, for a variety of peer relationships and of
socioemotional caregiving relationships between teachers and students. As such, it offers
numerous opportunities for personal and intellectual growth, for well-being and flourishing.
Teaching and learning at the university level will be discussed through two lenses: one being
international education and the other being positive psychology. Focusing on the educator’s
role, the aim of the chapter is to advocate for empathic teachers who are willing to question
their own assumptions and to assume their roles and responsibilities for nurturing and
nourishing teacher-student and student-student relationships.
Keywords Positive psychology – Emotional intelligence – International education –
International classroom
Eva Seidl is a language teacher educator and a teacher of German language and culture at
the Department of Translation Studies and the Centre for Language, Plurilingualism and
Didactics at the University of Graz, Austria. Her research interests include the transition from
secondary school to university, study abroad, and language teaching in Interpreting and
Translation Studies.
1 Introduction
In the last decades, teaching and learning at university level have been subject to profound
changes due to processes of globalisation, internationalisation and thus increased mobility of
students and academic staff. In the so-called international classroom, different academic
cultures with particular attitudes, values and ways of behaving come together in the
microcosmos of a lecture hall or seminar room. Throughout this chapter, the international
classroom is understood in line with Teekens (2000) as a teaching setting for both foreign and
local students. More often than not, the international classroom is also one where second
language acquisition (SLA) takes place. For Kreber (2009), an internationalised higher
education serves “a more profound educational purpose,” such as “fostering intercultural
understanding, greater empathy and action towards those most in need” as well as
“international cooperation on climate change” (p. 5). The latter is a phenomenon which affects
us all, thus demonstrating our interconnectedness as vulnerable human beings.
Against the backdrop of the notion of a basic connection between individuals and a sense
of mutual responsibility, this chapter seeks to combine perspectives from research on
international education and positive psychology in SLA. Unfortunately, sometimes
international education is understood to be simply the provision of education in the English
language. Contrary to this too simplistic view, in this chapter international education is
conceptualised as the promotion of international-mindedness, global awareness, respect for
difference, and commitment to peace with a focus on world citizenhip (see, e.g., Cambridge &
Thompson, 2004; Tate, 2013). In their seminal article, introducing positive psychology in the
year 2000, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) call for a deeper understanding of what
helps “individuals and communities, not just to endure and survive, but also to flourish” (p.
13). As a consequence of the desire to better understand–but in a scientific way–“what goes
right in life” (Peterson, 2006, p. 4), the concept of flourishing is key in this relatively new
approach to psychology. Hence, the notion of flourishing is also a recurring theme throughout
this chapter.
The first section deals with teachers’ roles and required skills in international higher
education through the lens of positive psychology. As the title suggests, the chapter is then
divided into one part on culturally responsive teaching, followed by another part on
emotionally responsive teaching. It ends with a call for teachers to be authentic, to connect to
their students through empathy and to embrace suggestions from positive psychology by
adopting them in the international classroom.
5 Caring Relationships
Emotionally responsive teaching means building strong relationships with, and also among
students. The former are enhanced by rapport-building behaviours, such as active listening,
expressing genuine respect and interest, encouraging participation or offering help (Barr,
2016). The latter, i.e., student connectedness, depend on the co-construction of a comfortable,
supportive learning environment that encourages active student participation and their
willingness to take responsibility for a connected classroom climate. The more connected
learners feel with each other, the more willingness to talk in class and to actively participate in
classroom activities they demonstrate (Sidelinger & Booth-Butterfield, 2010). In order for
student engagement to take place, particularly in the international classroom, the teaching and
learning environment should be inviting, offering a climate of mutual support, but also
strengthening the importance of reciprocal responsibility, not only for one’s own academic
achievements (Crose, 2011). Gay (2018) describes the importance of psychoemotional factors
in the classroom as follows.
I think interpersonal relations have a tremendous impact on the quality of teaching and
learning. Students perform much better in environments where they feel comfortable
and valued. Therefore, I work hard at creating a classroom climate and ambiance of
warmth, support, caring, dignity, informality, and enjoyment. Yet these
psychoemotional factors do not distract from the fact that my classes are very
demanding intellectually. (p. 269)
Goldstein (2004) claims that for a long time the role of caring relationships within
institutions of higher education has received little scholarly attention, although “teacherly
love” (p. 39) does not depend on students’ age, since supportive, caring classroom
atmospheres, “are conducive to learning and growth regardless of the age of the learners
involved” (ibid., p. 41). She describes caring as being neither a feeling nor a personality trait,
that one does or does not have, but as a relation that we choose to enter into nor not. In other
words, every interaction can be interpreted as an opportunity to enter in a caring relationship.
Consequently, teachers can make a professional decision to approach their interactions with
students as “opportunities to engage in caring encounters” (ibid., p. 38).
In this respect, two different manners of caring can be distinguished, i.e., natural caring (I
want) and ethical caring (I ought), without implying that the latter is a diminished form of
caring or a less authentic one (ibid., p. 40). Goldstein (2004) concludes that both entail
commitment and a sense of responsibility, and that both are sources of satisfaction and great
joy (ibid.). In cases in which teachers find it difficult to encounter challenging students in a
caring way, the distinction between natural and ethical caring can ease the feeling of pressure.
It is obvious that teachers do not always like all their students as well as not all students like
all their teachers. Thus, making the professional decision to encounter also difficult students
in a caring manner, i.e., approaching them in an ethical caring relationship in the sense of ‘I
ought,’ teachers are capable of maintaining a relationship with their students, instead of losing
students’ affective involvement along the way.
The influence of class size and assessment are two further aspects that should also be
taken into account when it comes to caring relationships. For university classes to facilitate
personally and academically rewarding educational experiences that enable growth and
flourishing, learners and teachers need to put a great amount of physical and psychological
energy into coursework and relationship management. Sidelinger and Booth-Butterfield
(2010) found out that a supportive and connected learning environment in the sense of a
positive classroom climate that nurtures a range of positive interpersonal relationships,
promotes student involvement, regardless of class size (p. 180). Similarly, O’Brien (2010)
stresses the fact that caring relationships are definitely possible, even when teaching large
classes. She acknowledges, however, that it can be challenging, if not impossible, “to keep a
caring relationship intact when one person has the power to assess (read: judge) another” (p.
113, parenthesis in the original).
5.1 Dynamics of Power and Status
Kreber (2013) argues that the power differential between teachers and students is a given,
since teachers typically know more about the subject they teach and assess students in this
area (p. 50). Nevertheless, with increasing global competition between universities for
students, rising tuition fees in many countries or end-of-course evaluations, more power than
in the past has been bestowed on students (ibid.). Yet, if teachers wish to reduce this factual
power differential, they can simply actively listen to students, by showing them that their
contributions and ideas–as legitimate members of the learning and knowledge community–
matter (ibid., p. 52). Kreber (2013) further argues that:
[T]eachers who genuinely care about fostering the development of students will seek to
minimise their control over students, (…) to enhance the students’ expertise power by
sharing their knowledge and (…) to create an environment in which students feel
validated and ready to take risks as they engage in knowledge construction (…). Taking
risks will involve the students in trying to find their own meaning and voice in relation
to the subjects they are studying. (p. 52)
Giving voice and power to students is Kreber’s (2013) approach to caring relationships.
Värlander (2008) approaches the dual role of higher education teachers as being both a tutor
and assessor of achievement by underlining the value of feedback situations. Through such
one-on-one reflections, positive relationships can be maintained, if power and status are
addressed as dimensions, that are necessarily involved in student-teacher relationships.
This statement finds support in the work of Kreber (2013, 2016) and Cranton (2001). They
see the “transformative potential of the scholarship of teaching” (Kreber, 2013, p. 173)
expressed through “critically reflective teachers (…) [who] do not only question their own
practices but the larger contexts in which they work, including the policies that influence and
partially define that context” (ibid.).
It is to be hoped that universities as institutions that have the potential to enable teachers
and students to flourish are not only tolerating, but rather welcoming such critical reflection.
After all, teachers should be role models for students as authentic, inspiring, passionate and
caring individuals and through teachers’ daily practices the institutions could also be
perceived as culturally and emotionally responsive.
However, a culture of caring and responsiveness is by no means the sole responsibility of
educators but equally one of educational institutions, i.e., through their daily practices and
routines (Gay, 2001, 2018). Thus, an ideal spiral of positivity could imply, in the words of
Peterson (2006), that “[p]ositive institutions facilitate the development and display of positive
traits, which in turn facilitate positive subjective experiences” (p. 20).
6 Concluding Remarks
In this chapter, some of the main ideas of positive psychology were discussed in relation to the
international classroom, e.g., positive relationships with oneself and others or the concept of
positive institutions. In the learning and teaching setting of the international classroom,
students from abroad attend classes together with local students. This can entail a variety of
social, cultural and academic traditions, or differing role expectations and behaviour in and
outside of the classroom. The developments over the last decades have shown, that in an
increasingly internationalised academia, university teachers have to deal with greater
diversity and variety. Therefore, teachers need to recognise that they are also shaped by their
academic and cultural traditions which are by no means universal. As regards cultural
responsiveness, Tisdell (2003) maintains that, “when educators attend to cultural issues, are
more their own authentic selves (including more aware of their cultural selves), and invite
others into their own authenticity by attending to cultural issues, they are engaging in
culturally relevant education” (p. 42).
This invitation also to others for becoming more authentic can also be found in Kreber’s
work on the reciprocal nature of authenticity (2013). By stressing the role of authenticity in
and through teaching in higher education, she states that “we work towards our own
flourishing, or authenticity, by helping others with their flourishing” (p. 48). That means that if
“teachers provide opportunities for students to become authentic, they, in turn, will benefit
from the opportunity to further grow into their own authenticity” (ibid., p. 52). Section three,
therefore, discussed the roles of culturally responsive, authentic teachers. These kind of
teachers demonstrate meta-cultural sensitivity, are willing to question their own assumptions
and help individual students as well as entire groups to establish positive interpersonal
relationships. What is asked of them is to etablish and maintain caring and nurturing student-
teacher and peer relationships, while at the same time demanding the best academic work
students can accomplish. Obviously, such a teaching approach can be very
demanding−primarily for the teachers−and their emotional investment can be very high.
Accordingly, sections four and five of this chapter, addressed the topic of emotional
responsiveness in relation to authenticity, and the institutions’ role in culturally and
emotionally responsive teaching in higher education. Mortiboys (2012) analysed five
strategies for emotionally intelligent teaching in the international classroom: (1) develop self-
awareness of your own culture, (2) explain the conventions of your academic culture, (3)
develop and demonstrate empathy, (4) be respectful and valuing of what students bring with
them, and (5) reflect students’ possible needs (ibid., p. 146). Since empathy was a concept that
proved relevant in various aspects throughout this chapter, Värlander’s (2008) reminder on
this matter should not be forgotten. She calls our attention to the fact that after becoming an
expert in a certain field, teachers need to deliberately think back to their beginnings to be
capable of empathy for the difficulties students may experience with the subject they teach (p.
152).
To conclude, the primary objective of this chapter was to combine the internationalised
university classroom with core concepts of positive psychology and international education.
Teaching and learning at university has the potential to be an inspiring and transformative
experience that allows for personal and intellectual growth. If the relationships between
teachers and students and students and their peers are even built within the context of an
international classroom–full of linguistic, social and cultural diversity–the opportunities for
intercultural and socio-emotional learning and for the development of critically thinking,
flourishing individuals are that much greater.
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© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_4
Ewelina Mierzwa-Kamińska
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The present contribution offers an overview of a new research avenue in the field of second
language acquisition (SLA) which began to flourish with the advent of Positive Psychology
(PP). The study presents the findings of selected empirical studies on foreign language
enjoyment (FLE) conducted in various countries, among foreign language (FL) learners at
different ages, and at different proficiency levels. As there is a relatively small body of
literature that directly concerns gender differences in FLE, the main aim of the present study is
to fill the existing research gap in the field. One of the most significant findings to emerge from
this study is that the relationship between FLE and gender is not entirely clear but a complex
and intricate one. Statistically significant gender differences in FLE have been found only in a
few studies thus far (female learners experience a higher level of FLE than their male peers).
In all the remaining studies reviewed, gender did not have any significant effect on FLE, or the
researchers did not refer to gender differences while reporting their results. It is therefore
advised not to treat gender as a determinant of either high or low FLE but to focus on other
factors that may boost FLE in all FL learners, regardless of gender.
Keywords Foreign language enjoyment – Foreign language classroom anxiety – SLA – Positive
psychology
Ewelina Mierzwa-Kamińska is a doctorate student in English Language and Literature at
the University of Opole, Poland. Her specialization is applied linguistics. However, her main
research interests concern psychology, psycholinguistics, and the role of affective factors in
SLA. She has been running two elective courses at the university (“Positive Psychology” and
“Gender differences in FL classroom”). Since 2018, she has actively participated in a number of
international conferences and published articles in the field of SLA (mainly on enjoyment and
anxiety in the FL classroom). Apart from studying, she teaches English as a FL to teenagers and
adults (e.g., psychologists and psychotherapists).
1 Introduction
In response to the call for more the research in the field of affective factors and emotions, the
researchers approaching the twenty-first century shifted their attention to the role of positive
emotions experienced in the educational context (Pekrun & Perry, 2014). The current
approach to language education advocates that the relationship between emotions and
cognition is reciprocal (Piniel & Albert, 2018), learning environment abounds with a variety of
positive emotions (Pekrun & Perry, 2014), educational setting is replete with affective
experiences (Fiedler & Beier, 2014), and eventually, learning is inevitably an emotionally
charged experience (Oxford, 2015).
During the ongoing classroom interaction, emotions are involved in the exchange of
information, transfer of knowledge, interaction between learners and teachers, atmosphere of
the classroom, learners’ engagement and motivation. Thus, taking into account the affective
nature of learning environment (Gabryś-Barker, 2019), it is fair to believe that language
learners differ in their susceptibility to emotions depending on the context. Whereas some of
them flourish in the learning environment and remain resilient in the face of challenging tasks,
the others languish if exposed to stressful and/or anxiety provoking stimuli. At the heart of the
present article lies the group of those language learners who experience positive emotions in
the classroom and are able to regulate them in order to enhance thinking and drive effective
behaviors.
An example of such a positive emotion prevailing in the foreign language classroom is
foreign language enjoyment (FLE). The very concept of FLE was coined by Dewaele and
MacIntyre (2014). Since that moment, FLE has sparked the interest of many researchers in the
field, who believed that affective variables do not operate independently of one another but
are interrelated. For that reason, FLE has been widely investigated in relation to other affective
factors, such as foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA). Concomitantly, FLE has been
examined in relation to a number of learner-internal (e.g., age, gender, proficiency, etc.), and
learner—external factors (e.g., learning environment, atmosphere in the classroom,
relationship with peers and teachers, attitude of the teacher). Nonetheless, there is a relatively
small body of literature that directly concerns gender differences in FLE, which might be
caused by a desire to avoid simple and stereotypical concepts of gender differences.
Nonetheless, in relation to emotional dimensions in language learning, gender differences
have been identified. The present article aims to investigate them in relation to foreign
language enjoyment and fill the existing gap in the field. The starting point for the present
study was the assumption that female FL learners experience a higher level of FLE than their
male peers, which was reported and strongly emphasized in the pioneering research on FLE
(Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Dewaele et al., 2017). Nonetheless, the author of the present
paper believes that a closer analysis of selected empirical research on FLE may offer a better
understanding of the complex relationship between FLE and gender. Additionally, an overview
of the articles in this new research avenue exploring FLE creates the opportunity to examine
the development of empirical instrument for the measurement of FLE, that is, Foreign
Language Enjoyment Scale developed by Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014).
6 Discussion
Through a careful examination of major empirical research in the field, the present chapter
summarized selected research on FLE and principal research methods used in the studies
reviewed. The main aim of the current study was to determine the effects of gender on FLE.
This study has identified that the relationship between FLE and gender is vague. The
researchers in the field either point to females’ superiority in FLE over man, or to insignificant
effect of gender on FLE, or they did not measure gender differences in FLE at all. Thus, it
would be a deceptively simple assumption to treat gender as a determinant of FLE, and to
perceive females as predisposed to experience more FLE than males, even if we take into
account females’ heightened emotionality in the FL classroom. It is more reasonable to believe
that males and females do not necessarily differ significantly in FLE but they may differ in
terms of what each group perceives as the most crucial sources of enjoyment (Mierzwa, 2018).
To put it different way, there might be different paths to enjoyment (FLE-private, FLE-social,
FLE-atmosphere), but gender should not be perceived as a determinant of either high or low
level of FLE. Moreover, if there are no gender differences to be found in FLE, then a language
teacher does not have to focus exclusively on either females or males in order to boost their
language enjoyment and teacher’s attention might be distributed equally between the genders.
If this assumption was to be confirmed, then it is worth to focus on other (affective) factors
that may translate into a high/low level of FLE experienced by students. Since FLE is a
relatively new concept and there is a substantial research gap on positive emotions in the field
of SLA in general, it can be only speculated what factors may directly and/or indirectly affect
FLE.
It is reasonable to believe that FLE is positively correlated with intrinsic motivation, as it
refers to performing an action for the sake of enjoyment. Further, it is worth to continue
investigation on: the effect of various independent variables on FLE (e.g., age, gender, length of
learning experience, FL proficiency); the effect of bilingualism on FLE (initiated by De Smet et
al. 2018); the relationship between WTC and FLE measured by Dewaele and Dewaele (2018);
learners’ motivation and FLE, etc. It is also worth to investigate FLE in different geographical
contexts to verify any regional differences in the FLE experience.
In terms of pedagogical implications, it is recommended to focus more on teacher and
learner psychology. That is, to investigate which aspects of L2 teaching are directly related to
learner’s psychology. The emphasis should not be placed on implementation changes in EFL
methodology exclusively, but rather on focusing on learners’ and teachers’ emotions in the FL
classroom. The research points to the crucial role of the teacher whose role is to manage the
emotional tenor of the FL classroom and to create a positive classroom atmosphere where
learners can blossom and experience FLE (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2017; Dewaele et al., 2017).
More specifically, the teachers who are supportive, positive, well organized, funny and
respectful of students are likely to boost students’ FLE (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). The key
to effectiveness in FL teaching is to make learning a positive and enjoyable experience for all
the students, regardless of gender, as the best academic results are achieved by those students
who enjoy learning a FL.
Similarly to the previous studies, FL teachers are encouraged to focus more on increasing
FLE rather than decreasing FLCA, as recent research emphasizes that the effect of FLE on
performance is significant, positive and slightly bigger than the significant negative
relationship between FLCA and performance (Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018) and that feelings of
enjoyment are more prevalent in the FL classroom than those of anxiety (Dewaele & Jiang,
2019; Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Dewaele et al., 2018; Khajavy et al., 2018). It might be due
to the fact that FLE is explained by teacher-related factors such as the classroom atmosphere
and evaluation methods, while FLCA is a rather context-independent emotion. Further,
teachers should bear in mind that their predictability may have a deleterious effect on FLE
(Dewaele et al., 2017), yet not in the case of Chinese students—here—Dewaele and Jiang
(2019) descried a positive relationship between Chinese students’ FLE and their teachers’
predictable behavior.
The present study is not free from limitations that must be addressed. First of all,
presenting a complete overview of research of a field in the full expansion is undeniably a
challenging task. The present contribution has focused on selected empirical research. Since
the research on FLE and its dynamic relationship with FLCA continue to thrive, it was beyond
the scope of the study to focus on all studies on FLE conducted in the field thus far.
Second of all, although it has been mentioned that the chapter analyzes the major results of
the studies conducted in various geographical and cultural contexts and among learners of
different age, proficiency level, etc., the study focused exclusively on gender differences in FLE
and the relationship between FLE and FLCA. All the remaining results were neither analyzed
nor presented. Further, the present study did not focus on an in-depth description of the study
design, methodology, or statistical procedures adopted in each of the aforementioned
research.
7 Conclusions
The major aim of this paper was to shed more light on the role of gender in foreign language
enjoyment (FLE). One of the most significant findings to emerge from this study is that the
relationship between FLE and gender is not clear-cut, and female learners are not predestined
to experience a higher level of FLE than their male peers. Since significant differences between
male and female learners in FLE have been found only in a few research thus far, gender
should not be treated as a determinant of either high or low FLE. As such, teacher’s attention
to boost FLE in the FL classroom should be distributed equally between female and male
students.
To conclude, FLE, nested in the PP movement, proved to be a promising and rapidly
blooming research avenue. Nonetheless, it is still a “crawling” field of knowledge. While the
deleterious effects of foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) on the learners’ progress,
motivation, and performance in a FL seem to be well-established (Horwitz, 2010, 2017;
MacIntyre, 2017; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012), much is still unknown about the mechanism
behind SLA related to positive emotions. Thus, further PP-inspired research is needed in the
FL classroom as it is crucial not only to increase FL learners’ linguistic skills but also provoke
positive emotions, boost FLE, alleviate deleterious effects of negative emotions and thus foster
their well-being.
Appendix
Summary of research on FLE, instruments development and main results
Aim Instrument Results
Dewaele To investigate the relationship between FLCA & FLE scale – Females experience more FIE and
and FLE FLCA than males
MacIntyre
(2014)
Dewaele et To investigate gender differences in FLE & FLCA FLE scale – Females report more FLE and (mild)
al. (2016) at the item level FLCA than males
Aim Instrument Results
Dewaele To examine whether FLE & FLCA constitute FLE scale – Gender differences were not of the
and opposite dimensions main interest
MacIntyre – FLE and FLCA constitute separate
(2016) dimensions
Dewaele To investigate how FLE & FLCA evolved 10 items extracted – Girls scored higher on FLE than
and overtime across different age groups from FLE scale boys in age group 12/13
Dewaele – Weak negative relationship between
(2017) FLE & FLCA
Piechmka- To investigate the relationship between L2 and FLE scale – Gender differences were not of the
Kuciel L3 enjoyment, L3 enjoyment and proficiency main interest
(2017) among Philology students – L2 enjoyment was at a higher level
than L3 enjoyment
– FLE was significantly, positively, linked
to proficiency
Dewaele et To investigate FLE & FLCA in relation to learner- 10 items extracted – Females scored higher on FLE/FLCA
al. (2017) internal and teacher-specific variables from FLE scale than males
– FLE increases with students’
proficiency
Dewaele To investigate the effect of FLE & FLCA on FL 10 items extracted – Gender differences were not of the
and performance from FLE scale main interest
Alftman – FLE more strongly linked to
(2018) performance than FLCA
De Smet et To investigate FLE & FLCA in CLIL while 5 item scale – Gender difference were not of the
al. (2018) learning a L2/FL in Belgium measuring main interest
extracted from FLE – Bilinguals score higher on FLE than
scale monolingual
Li et al. To investigate FLE in the Chinese EFL context Chinese Version of – Gender differences were not of the
(2018) the FLE scale main interest
(CFLES) – Teachers shaped their students’ FLE
more than peers
Li et al. To examine the interaction between FLCA & FLE CFLES – Gender difference were not of the
(2019) of Chinese students main interest
– FLE & FLCA are negatively correlated
– FLE was significantly, positively, linked
to proficiency
Mierzwa To investigate the relationship between FLE and FLE scale – No statistically significant gender
(2018) sender anions Polish EFL students differences in FLE
Dewaele et To examine FLE & FLCA in relation to learner- 10 items extracted – Females reported higher FIE and
al. (2018) internal and classroom-specific variables FLE scale FLCA than males negative correlation
between FLE and FLCA
Dewaele To measure the effect of FLE and FLCA on WTC 10 items extracted – Gender differences were not of the
and FLE scale main interest
Dewaele – Gender had no effect on WTC
(2018)
Dewaele et To explore the relationship between FLE & FLCA 10 items extracted – Gender was unrelated to FLE &
al. (2019a) and teacher-centered variables of Spanish FL from FLE scale F1CA
students – FLE & FLCA are separate dimensions
– Teachers shape their learners’ FLE to
a larger extent than FLCA
Dewaele To investigate FLE & FLCA of Chinese EFL 10 items extracted – Gender differences were not
and Jiang learners from FLE scale significant for FLE & FLCA
(2019) – A moderate negative correlation FLE
and FLCA
Aim Instrument Results
Mierzwa To investigate the level of FLE among FL FLE scale – Female teachers experience more
(2019) teachers in Poland FLE than male ones
Dewaele et To focuses on FLE and FLCA of Kazakh learners 10 items extracted – Insignificant gender differences in
al. (2019b) of Turkish from FLE scale FLE
– FLE and FLCA are weakly positively
correlated
Dewaele To investigate the relationship between FLE & 10 items extracted – Gender differences were not of the
and FLCA from FLE scale main interest
Maclntyre – FLE & FLCA are weakly correlated, but
(2019) separate emotions
– FLE depended mostly on their teacher
Wei et al. To assess the role of FLE in the relationship CFLES – Females reported higher scores in
(2019) between Grit and FL performance (FLP) FLE, FLP and Grit
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Empirical
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_5
Keita Kikuchi
Email: [email protected]
J. Lake (Corresponding author)
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The academic field of positive psychology has been rapidly growing in the past few years.
Recently, a burgeoning interest in applying positive psychology to learning a second language
(L2) has developed. One way to integrate positive psychology and L2 motivation is through
showing relationships among key constructs from both disciplines. This paper explains and
partially replicates positive psychology and motivational variables that elaborates on aspects
of a positive L2 self-system. In previous studies, it has been theorized but empirically
unknown if aspects of a positive L2 self-system are stable or malleable. This longitudinal study
is the first to provide evidence for the stability and susceptibility to change for aspects of a
positive L2 self-system in students in an educational context. After the presentation of the
results, some implications based on the study are discussed.
Keywords Character strengths – L2 motivation – Positive L2 self – Self-changes over time –
Self-system
Keita Kikuchi is Professor at Faculty of Cross-Cultural and Japanese Studies, Kanagawa
University, Japan. He obtained an MA in ESL from the University of Hawai’i at Manoa and an
EdD in TESOL from Temple University. His research interests include curriculum development,
educational psychology, and second language acquisition, especially individual differences.
J. Lake, Ph.D., is a lecturer at Fukuoka Women’s University in Fukuoka, Japan. He has taught
in universities in Japan for many years. His research interests include educational psychology,
positive psychology, and language assessment.
1 Introduction
Research in positive psychology has been outlining and detailing numerous human strengths
and how people can build psychological resources to thrive and flourish in life (Peterson &
Seligman, 2004; Seligman, 2011; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). As interest in positive
psychology grew in academic contexts, Siegel (2016) notes, “Positive psychology conferences
are held around the world, academic journals showcase the research, and hundreds of colleges
and universities offer classes on the topic” (p. 5). Applying positive psychology to education is
a more recent development (e.g., Furlong, Gilman, & Huebner, 2014; Mercer, MacIntyre,
Gregersen, & Talbot, 2018; White & Murray, 2015). A few researchers have applied it to the
field of second language (L2) learning in a variety of contexts and a range of identity or self-
levels from general trait-like to the specific state-like (e.g., Gabryś-Barker & Gałajda, 2016;
MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014; MacIntyre, Gregersen, & Mercer, 2016, 2019).
Since the beginnings of the field of positive psychology much research has been done to
identify positive constructs, that is, constructs that help people function optimally. These
construct are sometimes called character strengths or strengths. One weakness was the lack of
organization of strengths, so various classification schemes have been proposed. Peterson and
Seligman (2004) created the Values in Action inventory of strengths that was composed of 24
strengths organized around six virtues. The define character strengths as being similar to
personality, trait-like but more flexible as with “individual differences that are stable and
general but also shaped by the individual’s setting and thus capable of change” (p. 10). Linley
(2008) offers another classification scheme with a larger number of 60 strengths and a
broader definition of strengths that are “a pre-existing capacity for a particular way of
behaving, thinking, or feeling that is authentic and energizing to the user, and enables optimal
functioning, development and performance” (p. 9). Another way to look at strengths is as
aspects of the self-system (Lake, 2016) composed of various self-concepts, which are a
person’s perspectives of their own self. That is, they are identity-like concepts that can refer to
the global-self or self-as-a-whole, or it can refer to the self in particular domains, or the self
can be even more specific as in relation to certain tasks or situations.
An attention to levels of specificity is common to hierarchical models of self (Marsh &
Craven, 2006; March & Shavelson, 1985). This study is concerned with aspects of the self at
three broad levels: a global level, a domain level, and a situational self level. The aspects at a
global level have no domain (other than the self); for example, a curious self is curious about
many things. The aspects of a domain level self has a specified domain; for example, a positive
L2 self has the domain of second language learning. The aspects of a situational self is
concerned with a particular situation or task within a domain, not the domain in general; for
example, reading self-efficacy relates to the ones competence to do specific reading tasks.
These levels help form the self-system, that is, a motivated self-relevant meaning system that
informs, constrains, and guides interpretations of experience, goals, and self-regulation
(Mischel & Morf, 2003; Swann & Bosson, 2010). In addition, this study focuses on aspects of
positive selves, not negative aspects (e.g., anxiety), not deficit or discrepancy driven
approaches (e.g., ideal or possible selves). Positive psychology offers an approach that differs
from these previous approaches.
This study uses self-levels to help clarify the relationships among constructs. The self-
levels refer to the specificity or “grain size” of the self-construct under investigation (Swann &
Bosson, 2010). Swann, Chang-Schneider, and McClarty (2007) argue that self-researchers use
the specificity matching principle that “holds that the specificity of predictors and criteria
should be matched” (p. 87). Lake (2013) used this specificity-matching principle to show how
constructs from positive psychology could connect aspects of a global positive self, and narrow
skill and task specific self-efficacy motivations through links of aspects of a positive domain
level self, that is, a positive L2 self.
Lake (2013, 2016) examined aspects of a global positive self with constructs of flourishing,
curiosity, and hope; aspects of a domain level positive L2 self used constructs of interested L2
self, passion for L2 learning, and L2 mastery goal orientation; aspects of a more narrow,
specific motivational level used L2 speaking self-efficacy, L2 reading self-efficacy, and L2
listening self-efficacy. He found that relationships or correlations within levels were stronger
than between levels. This shows that taking levels of specificity into account is a meaningful
way to organize constructs. He also found aspects of positive L2 self had stronger relationships
with aspects of a positive self than with aspects of L2 self-efficacy. This shows that aspects of
positive self had little or no relationships to aspects of L2 self-efficacy as would be expected
from the theory, that is, global self is further removed from situational constructs. In theory,
global aspects of a positive self that are general in that they relate to the whole self should be
relatively stable and trait-like. The aspects of a domain level self are less general in that a
domain is specified and less stable or fixed, that is, domain level aspects are dispositional in a
particular sphere or field of activity. The aspects of self at a motivational level are more state-
like, dynamic, situational, contextual, or task specific (Lake, 2013, 2016). In the following
section, we outline constructs of positive L2 self tested in this study.
The constructs used for modeling are all selected within the context of an learning
environment where students are studying English as a second language. Learning can be
considered Janus-faced, that is, facing forward or backward in time. Constructs in this model,
that is, curiosity, hope, flourishing, interest, passion, mastery goal orientation, and self-efficacy
are situated in the present but are oriented to the future. Constructs such as self-esteem,
satisfaction, and happiness are situated in the present but are oriented to the past in the
context of learning. Ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self are based on the idea of discrepancies
between some future state and present state (Dörnyei, 2005, 2009). In positive psychology the
emphasis is on being authentic and true to oneself (Ryff & Singer, 2008; Schlegel & Hicks,
2011; Seligman, 2002; Sheldon, 2002), rather than an emphasis on reducing the discrepancy
between present and a future ideal. Although constructs oriented toward the past and the
future may correlate, and outcomes such as satisfaction and happiness are desirable, the
educational setting of a learning context with participants beginning to live life on their own
determined the orientation toward the future in this model.
1.1 Flourishing
Flourishing is a psychological construct that refers to being mentally healthy. Flourishing
people display some observable signs of an unobservable underlying self that persists over
time. One perspective on flourishing comes from Seligman (2011) who in his 2011, reworking
of positive psychology, advocated for an updated model that focuses on well-being composed
of five elements of: positive emotion (of which happiness and life-satisfaction are aspects),
engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA) (see Gabryś-Barker, Jin et al.,
Mystkowska-Wiertelak, & Werbińska, this volume). For Seligman (2011), the target of positive
psychology is flourishing, that is, well-being through having high levels of PERMA in life.
Positive emotions consist of emotions such as happiness, joy, amusement, interest, and
gratitude. Engagement refers to being absorbed, and finding flow, that is, using strengths to
meet challenges in life. Relationships have to do with having and maintaining positive personal
relationships in life. Meaning refers to having purpose in life.
Other theories of psychological flourishing overlap considerably with Seligman’s PERMA
model (2011). Ryff and Singer (1998, 2008), for example, included dimensions of: self-
acceptance, purpose in life, environmental mastery, positive relationships, personal growth,
and autonomy. Some theories are more parsimonious with fewer elements. For instance, Deci
and Ryan (2000) proposed that differing dimensions of well-being can be subsumed by three
basic psychological needs of autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Diener et al. (2010, p.
144) created a flourishing scale, used in this study, that includes the “major aspects” of these
theories.
1.2 Curiosity
Curiosity is a trait-level construct that, unlike interest in this study, is not focused on an object,
skill, or domain and is distinctly different from enjoyment and happiness. Curiosity as used in
this study refers to “recognizing, embracing, and seeking out knowledge and new experiences”
(Kashdan et al., 2009, p. 988). In their study on the development of a curiosity measure,
Kashdan et al. found that curiosity correlated positively with various other positive measures
such as openness to experience, happiness, personal growth, autonomy, positive relations with
others, and purpose in life. Curious people tend to look for opportunities to acquire knowledge
and pursue new experiences. Curiosity helps learners to seek to fill in knowledge gaps,
recognize potential learning material, and seek new learning situations thus leading to
increased achievement and competence (Kashdan, 2004, 2009).
Curiosity has been shown to have positive relationships to both well-being and learning.
Kashdan, Rose, and Fincham (2004) demonstrated that curiosity leads to personal growth
through an orientation to stimuli that are: novel and challenging, rewarding, and flow-like, in
addition, through assimilation or accommodation that integrates novel experiences. They
found curiosity to be associated with hope and well-being. In another study, Kashdan and Yuen
(2007) found that when the school environment was supportive of growth and learning,
higher levels of curiosity was demonstrated to be associated with higher scores on national
achievement exams and school grades. Von strum, Hell, and Chammorro-Premuzic (2011)
conducted a meta-analysis and found that curiosity had as much influence on academic
achievement as intelligence., that is, “prime a hunger for knowledge” (p. 971).
1.3 Hope
The hope construct is composed of elements of clearly defining goals, thinking about ways to
achieve those goals, and motivating oneself to act toward goals. Hope can be characterized and
measured of as a trait or state.
Hope is composed of two subcomponents that act toward goals, agency or agentic thinking
and pathways or pathway thinking. Agency refers to the belief that one has the ability to
initiate, act, persist, and exert effort toward valued goals. It is the belief that one has volition
and is in control of making progress toward goals. Pathways refers to the belief that one can
find a way or multiple ways, even in the face of obstacles, toward a goal. Hope has been shown
to have effects on academic achievement in a number of studies (Lopez, 2013; Snyder, 1994,
2000). For example, Snyder et al. (2002) found that hope predicted academic achievement in
college.
Hope has been associated with well-being and learning in a number of studies. Curry,
Snyder, Cook, Ruby, and Rehm (1997) found that hope in college students predicted athletic
performance beyond training, academic ability, and global self worth. Chang (1998) found in
his sample of college students that hope had a positive influence on well-being. Ciarrochi,
Heaven, and Davies (2007) tested hope, self-esteem, and attributional style for effects on
academic achievement and well-being and found that hope had the strongest effect in
predicting school grades in high school and was the only variable to have predictive utility
across all outcome measures.
2 Present Study
The measurement instruments used in this study were analyzed using the Rasch rating scale
model (Bond & Fox, 2015; Boone, Staver, & Yale, 2014; Engelhard, 2013; Engelhard & Wind,
2018). See Lake (2013, 2016) for the details of the development of instruments.
2.4 Procedures
Teachers participating in this research were given the questionnaire to distribute to students
to complete during class time. Participants took approximately 20–25 min to complete the
questionnaire. Rasch analysis was done to get measures for each student and then
relationships were examined using SPSS.
Rasch analysis uses what is known as the Rasch model that is based on a probabilistic
procedure where a person with a greater quantity of an attribute will have a higher probability
of endorsing an item than someone with less of the attribute under consideration, while items
that are more endorsable will have a greater probability of being endorsed than those that are
less endorsable. The person and item are then put on the same log odds (logit) scale. Rasch
analysis then returns information on all participants, an individual person, the scale as a
whole, or single items, as well as how information is organized through a measure. Rasch
analysis for this study was done with Winsteps software (Linacre, 2011).
The analysis was done on five occasions. First the measures were analyzed with the total
participants (N = 1,023). This was done to get item and person parameters. In subsequent
times, the measures were analyzed with the item parameters anchored to the first analysis so
that changes could be detected with the persons. Incremental gains and total gains were
subtractions from each subsequent time and the final from the initial time for the total gain.
3 Results
Descriptive statistics and alpha reliabilities for the initial analysis are presented in Table 1. The
items and scale measures met the requirements of the Rasch rating scale model for a well-
formed scale. The statistics of these requirements were similar to that found in past research
(Lake, 2013, 2016). In other words, item fit statistics were acceptable, average measures
advanced monotonically with categories, step calibrations or thresholds advance with
appropriate higher values, and no additional dimensions to each measure were found to
suggest violations of unidimensionality.
Table 1 Descriptives, alpha, and incremental and total gains
Measures M SD α G1 G2 G3 G4 G Tot
Interested in L2 Self 0.34 1.80 0.92 −0.04 0.01 −0.20 −0.16 −0.40
Mastery Goal Orientation −0.17 1.74 0.91 −0.10 0.03 −0.19 −0.14 −0.39
L2 Harmonious Passion −0.22 1.59 0.90 −0.01 0.11 −0.20 −0.11 −0.21
L2 Listening Self-efficacy −2.25 1.69 0.91 0.75 0.32 −0.18 0.12 1.01
L2 Reading Self-efficacy −2.05 2.06 0.91 0.71 0.37 −0.15 0.18 1.11
L2 Speaking Self-efficacy −2.26 1.82 0.91 0.77 0.45 −0.15 0.11 1.17
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Positive Self – – – – – – – – –
1. Curiosity 1 – – – – – – – –
2. Flourishing 0.71 1 – – – – – – –
Positive L2 Self – – – – – – – – –
L2 Motivation – – – – – – – – –
9. L2 Speaking Self-Efficacy 0.46 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.52 0.54 0.80 0.79 1
Note n = 1,023
4 Discussion
When the results of Tables 1 and 2 are compared to the findings of Lake (2013, 2016) the
descriptive statistics and correlations show a similar values and patterns. Each of the variables
had high alpha reliability. The L2 self-efficacy variables are being reacted to more negatively
than the positive self-variables. There is more variance in the positive L2 self-variables and the
L2 self-efficacy variables than in the positive self-variables. Even though the students in
general may seem to have low L2 self-efficacy motivation, the higher variance values show that
students vary considerably in their L2 self-efficacy.
The correlation matrix in Table 2 showed within a level, variables had very strong
correlations and weaker correlations between levels. As mentioned before, this demonstrated
the importance of grouping constructs by level. In addition, the global positive self-variables
correlated with the L2 domain self variables stronger than the positive L2 self-efficacy
variables. The positive L2 domain self variables in turn correlated higher than the positive
global variables with the L2 self-efficacy variables.
The research in this study supports the theory that global positive self-variables should be
more stable, L2 positive self-variables, less stable, and L2 self-efficacy least stable or most
susceptible to change. The positive self-variables changed a maximum of 11 logits but mostly
much lower for the semester or total gains. If we use 30 as a criterion for a substantive
significant difference (Engelhard & Wind, 2018) then we can see that the positive self-
variables remained stable over the two-year period. The less stable positive L2 self-variables
made small incremental changes did not make any substantive changes semester to semester
but the changes added up, the two variables Interest in L2 Self and the L2 Mastery Goal
Orientation, showed substantive accumulated differences from initial to final occasions,
although they were negative. The motivational L2 self-efficacy variables showed substantive
gains both semester of the first year and this has a cumulative effect that showed strong total
gains over 1 logit over the two-year period.
The reasons for the reductions in identifying positively with the second language are
unknown. However, we can see from Table 1 that the drop happened over two semesters in the
second year. It may be that students were identifying more with their major or school subjects
more or it may be that the reality of the long and slow process of learning a second language
sunk in, to cause a distancing in identifying positively with the second language.
5 Conclusion
This study provided replication evidence by reproducing similar results from previous studies
(Lake, 2013, 2016). Similar results were found for variable means and variances. Also, similar
patterns of relationships were found that showed progressively more distal relationships as
level of generality/specificity grew, that is, positive self variables had a stronger relationship to
positive L2 self variables than to motivational L2 self-efficacy variables. It was noteworthy that
this study empirically showed that a global aspects of a positive self-level was stable over time,
a domain level aspects of a L2 positive self less stable, and a more specific motivational L2 self-
efficacy even less stable or susceptible to change.
This study shows the stability of positive self and positive L2 self. However, this stability is
a double-edged sword; while it is comforting that they are not easily lost, it also shows that
development may take some time and effort. School systems and teachers might give some
concern and attention to developing positive self-constructs. Teachers may be able to help
learners develop a positive L2 self by not making relative comparisons of L2 learners but
stress the importance of all students making incremental gains and giving feedback that helps
develops competence (Da Silva, 2007; Dweck, 2000). In addition, teachers can help learners
develop practices that directly relate to learning, such as breaking up a distal goal into
proximal sub-goals, deliberate practice, time management techniques, staying aware of the
importance of persistent effort over long time periods. Teachers can help students increase
their self-efficacy by regularly measuring student progress through sensitive assessments and
giving feedback that demonstrates competence, thus making learning gains salient (Brown &
Hudson, 2002; Da Silva & McInerney, 2008; Rouault, 2007).
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© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_6
Anna Mystkowska-Wiertelak
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Research into language learners’ willingness to communicate (WtC) has demonstrated a
profound complexity of the processes underlying communicative behavior and its dynamic
character. While many of such studies relied on self-report data, the present investigation
takes into account actual communicative behavior, quantified as language output including
word count and turn taking. These results were correlated with scores for different facets of
WtC and four dimensions of learner engagement, considered the key precursor of success and
achievement. Engagement is also a vital component of the PERMA model proposed by
Seligman (2011), one of the founders of Positive Psychology. The framework, whose main aim
is promoting human well-being, offers promising implications for language learning and
teaching as well. Language data from 12 advanced learners of English were collected by means
of audio-recordings of interactions, post-task questionnaires, and post-task interviews.
Quantitative analyses showed that correlation between communicative behavior and
questionnaire scores were insignificant. Qualitative data indicated a link between the
students’ engagement in task performance and language output.
Keywords Willingness to communicate – Learner engagement – Communicative behaviour –
Mixed methods
Anna Mystkowska-Wiertelak is Assistant Professor at the Institute of English Studies of
Wrocław University, Poland. Her main interests include, apart from teacher education, second
language acquisition theory and research, language learning strategies, learner autonomy,
form-focused instruction, willingness to communicate, motivation, and learner engagement.
She authored and co-authored a number of publications in, among others, System, Language
Teaching Research, Language Learning Journal, Studies in Second Language Learning and
Teaching and Research in Language. She is also a co-author (with Mirosław Pawlak) of the
books Production-oriented and Comprehension-based Grammar Teaching in the Foreign
Language Classroom (Springer, 2012) and Willingness to Communicate in Instructed Second
Language Acquisition (Multilingual Matters, 2017).
1 Introduction
The premium put on target language (TL) communication has resulted in a surge of studies
into processes underlying interaction in and out of the classroom. A prominent line of enquiry
that originated in the second language context (e.g., MacIntyre, Dörnyei, Clement, & Noels,
1998) and has flourished as well in foreign language settings (e.g., Kang, 2005; Peng, 2014;
Zarrinabadi, 2014; Zhong, 2013) centers around willingness to communicate (WtC)—an
immediate antecedent of communicative behavior. Originally understood as a stable
behavioral tendency related to anxiety and perceived competence (cf. MacIntyre, 1994;
McCroskey & Richmond, 1991), WtC is today viewed as readiness to initiate or contribute to
ongoing interaction on a voluntary basis. In the WtC model put forward by MacIntyre et al.
(1998), learners’ readiness to communicate stems from their personality but is also shaped by
layers of affective, cognitive, motivational and situational antecedents. The recognition of the
trait and state-like nature of the construct acknowledges its malleability, depending on a wide
range of factors including interlocutors, task type, topic, organizational mode and others (for
an overview see Mystkowska-Wiertelak & Pawlak, 2017).
Research into L2 WtC has respected the complex nature of the construct and, apart from
large-scale questionnaire studies, employed diverse data-collection tools, including interviews,
immediate recall, idiodynamic methodology or self-rating grids to note shifts in WtC intensity
over various time scales. Most of the time researchers relied on self-reported data with a few
exceptions where WtC was operationalized as observed communicative behavior (Cao, 2011;
Cao & Philp, 2006; Yashima, MacIntyre, & Ikeda, 2016) or an indication (a raised hand) of a
learner’s willingness to contribute to classroom discussions (Peng, 2014). To the best of my
knowledge, however, none of the studies to date has quantified WtC in the form of actual
language output involving word count and turns taken by the participants over a specified
time span. The present study is an attempt to investigate a link between these discourse
measures and three separate WtC subtypes identified in the course of factor analysis
performed as part of research into the component structure of willingness to engage in
communication of students majoring in English in the foreign language context (Mystkowska-
Wiertelak & Pawlak, 2017). The correlational analysis also involved data collected by means of
a questionnaire intended to tap into participants’ engagement (Reeve & Tseng, 2011), a
construct whose significance for language learning has been recognized in a growing number
of studies (e.g., Dincer, Yeşilyurt, Noels, & Vargas Lascano, 2019; Mercer, 2019; Noels, Lascano,
& Saumure, 2018; Philp & Duchesne, 2016). Engagement, one of the components of the
PERMA framework (Seligman, 2011) (see Budzińska, Gabryś-Barker, Jin et al., Kikuchi & Lake,
& Werbińska, this volume), the cornerstone of Positive Psychology (PP), assumes increased
concentration on task performance and reaching higher levels of ability. It is also accompanied
by strong feelings of happiness, motivation and well-being. Knowing how to increase or
generate classroom engagement could become a powerful tool capable of increasing student
success and teacher satisfaction. The need to promote positive affect in the language
classroom is not only supported by the rapidly growing field of PP (e.g., Fredrickson, 2009;
Seligman, 2011; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) but also intensified attempts to apply its
insights in language learning and teaching (Gabryś-Barker & Gałajda, 2016; MacIntyre,
Gregersen, & Mercer, 2016). In the present investigation, learner engagement has become the
main theme of interviews performed with all the participants following task completion.
Before the study design and results are presented and discussed in greater detail, a brief
overview of most recent research on WtC will be presented together with an outline of
engagement studies pertinent to language development. The study presented here is part of a
larger research project, a piloting stage, whose aim is identifying links between WtC, learner
engagement and language use, as well as testing various approaches to the component
structure of engagement.
3 Engagement
In educational psychology the significance of engagement has long been recognized and linked
to achievement, enhanced motivation and interest, the feeling of self-efficacy and goal-
orientation (Christenson, Reschly, & Wylie, 2012), all of which appear much desired
components of the educational process. Despite years of enquiry there still remains some
degree of terminological and conceptual confusion, which, on the one hand, can be attributed
to the fact that research on this multifaceted concept covers four hierarchically arranged
contexts: school, community, classrooms, and learning activity (Skinner & Pitzer, 2012) and its
understanding may depend on the particular setting where the enquiry is performed. On the
other hand, there is no consensus on the number of engagement dimensions or components:
from a two-fold structure, involving behavioral and emotional engagement (van Uden, Ritzen,
& Pieters, 2013), through a tripartite division into behavioral, emotional and cognitive
engagement (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004), to a more recent four-component
structure, complementing the previous one, with the dimension of agentic engagement (Reeve,
2013; Reeve & Tseng, 2011). This most recent extension of the model manifests itself in an
active stance, not only in the form of contributions to the lesson, but also taking action to
create personally meaningful circumstances for learning. Reeve (2012, p. 161) defines agentic
engagement as “students’ intentional, proactive, and constructive contribution into the flow of
the instruction they receive.” Although its distinctness from other engagement subtypes may
not be fully established, agentic engagement has been represented as a separate entity in a
number of studies (Dincer et al., 2019; Eccles, 2016; Henry & Thorsen, 2018; Reeve, 2013;
Reeve & Tseng, 2011).
All of the engagement models share direct reference to action, be it involvement and
participation in activities, use of suitable learning strategies, adequate emotional response, or
shaping the learning context, as captured in Skinner, Kindermann, Connel, and Wellborn’s
(2009, p. 225) definition of engagement as “energized, directed, and sustained actions.” Mercer
(2019) observes that the action dimension distinguishes engagement from another
multilayered and multidimensional construct underlying effort and achievement—motivation.
There seems to be a close affinity between the two and their interdependence is still far from
being clear; nevertheless, the view prevails that engagement is “a visible manifestation or
‘descriptor’ of motivation” (Philp & Duchesne, 2016, p. 52) and motivation may act as
engagement’s precursor (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2012), or antecedent (Christenson,
Reschly, & Wylie, 2012). Reeve (2012) points out that motivation constitutes unobservable
mental reality consisting of conscious and unconscious drives, whereas engagement is a
manifestation of cognitive and emotional activity these motives provoke in the form of
participation and displayed enjoyment.
The obvious connection between motivation and engagement calls for locating the latter
within a wider motivational framework (Christenson et al., 2012). Across a bulk of recent
studies the model that has repeatedly been used to account for forces predicting engagement
is Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017), which posits that greater
engagement can be expected if basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and
relatedness are met. Autonomy corresponds to the learner’s need to exercise agency in
shaping own learning according to their beliefs, values and interests (Ryan & Deci, 2017). As
observed by Noels et al. (2018, p. 3), “people generally engage more with self-relevant,
voluntarily chosen activities, compared to activities imposed on them.” Competence concerns
learners’ conviction they can successfully engage with challenges and bring action to a desired
end. Students’ sense of relatedness depends on the feeling of belonging and social support
provided by peers and teachers (Dincer et al., 2019; Jang, Kim, & Reeve, 2012; Ryan & Deci,
2017). The power of SDT to explain engagement is aptly summarized in the words of Noels et
al. (2018, p. 5) that “the satisfaction of the needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness is
fundamental for the experience of intrinsic motivation, the internalization of an activity into
one’s sense of self, and, ultimately, positive, productive engagement.”
4 Engagement in SLA
The track of studies into learner engagement across various contexts and subject areas is quite
impressive (e.g., Christenson et al., 2012; Fredrics et al., 2004, 2011; Lawson & Lawson, 2013);
therefore a relative paucity of studies on engagement in language learning may be surprising,
particularly, given the significance of active practice and language use in developing
communicative competence (cf. Philp & Duchesne, 2016; Mercer, 2019). Recently more and
more studies tackling the subject of language learners’ engagement have been published,
within which three main lines of enquiry can be distinguished: exploring engagement with
language (EWL; e.g., Svalberg, 2009), engagement in task-based interaction (e.g., Philp &
Duchesne, 2016), and attempts at positioning engagement within a broader theoretical
framework involving statistical procedures to test the hypothesized model (Dincer et al.,
2019). One of the first authors to bring up the topic of engagement in SLA was Svalberg (2007,
2009, 2017), who advanced the term engagement with language and defined it as “a cognitive,
and/or affective, and/or social state and a process in which the learner is the agent and the
language is the object and may be the vehicle (means of communication)” (Svalberg, 2009, p.
244). She made a clear distinction between engagement and “neighbouring” terms of
involvement, commitment and motivation, each of which shows some facets of engagement but
fails to capture the entirety of the construct. Svalberg (2009, p. 246) considers EWL on three
different plains: cognitive, affective and social. Cognitive EWL involves heightened alertness
and focused attention as well as reflection and problem solving. The affective EWL component
denotes positive feelings towards the language, the speaker and values they represent, which
result in maintained willingness to interact. The social dimension of EWL is manifested in
behavioral readiness to interact, initiating and maintaining communication, the aspect which
bears resemblance to the notion of WtC.
Engagement in relation to pedagogical tasks has been studied in activities performed in the
classroom and operationalized as quantity and quality of language produced. The
measurement of engagement involved word count (Bygate & Samuda, 2009) and turn taking
(Dörnyei & Kormos, 2000) as well as the analysis of dyadic collaborative dialogue, where
indicators of engagement involved sharing previous knowledge or explanation of choices in
language related episodes (Fortune & Thorp, 2001) or responsiveness and attentive listening
demonstrated in questions and negotiation of meaning, back channeling, commentary, and
indications of empathy (Baralt, Gurzynski-Weiss, & Kim, 2016; Lambert & Philp, 2015; Storch,
2008), or vicarious responses, private speech and attentive listening (Snyder Ohta, 2001).
Although, as noted by Dincer et al. (2019, p. 3), concepts resembling engagement appear in
some theoretical frameworks, for example the socio-educational (Gardner, 2010) and the
socio-contextual (Clément, 1986) model, little focused attention has been paid to engagement
in language learning. The theoretical framework that recognizes the causal relationship
between classroom engagement and other motivational variables is the Self-System Model of
Motivational Development (SSMMD) proposed by Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, and Kindermann
(2008) and Skinner et al. (2009). Within the model four categories of motivational variables
can be differentiated: context, self, action and outcome. The context of the educational setting
shapes learners’ attitudes and perceptions, in particular, those concerning the degree to which
their needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness are satisfied. These aspects of learners’
self influence the action component, which is engagement in learning.
Several research projects were launched with a view to a better understanding the role of
active engagement in language learning within the SSMMD model. Noels (2009), for example,
looked at motives predicting classroom engagement in learning English and found that
intrinsic motivation (i.e., interest in English, enjoying the process of learning) was a stronger
predictor than extrinsic motives (e.g., good exam grades or fulfilling parents’ expectations).
Noels et al. (2018) measured engagement using Gardner’s (2010) motivational intensity scale
to test its link to psychological needs and orientations as well as changes over a semester of
study. The results revealed that earlier motivational levels affect later perceptions of
psychological need fulfillment and later engagement, but also earlier engagement levels
strengthen later motivational orientations. The mutually supportive relationship was also
observed by Chen and Kraklow (2015), who established that intrinsic motivation and external
regulation predicted behavioral engagement. Oga-Baldwin and Nakata (2017), in turn, proved
that engagement strongly predicted intrinsic motivation and introjected regulation, but
external regulation was predicted negatively. The results of structural equation modelling in
Dincer et al. (2019) demonstrated that engagement was predicted by students’ need
satisfaction, which was in turn predicted by students’ perceptions of their teachers’ autonomy-
support. Engagement was found to predict achievement and absenteeism differently,
depending on the particular engagement dimension, and thus higher emotional and agentic
engagement predicted academic achievement but cognitive engagement was linked to
decreased absenteeism.
5 Purpose
Many of the studies outlined above have taken the challenge and explored the construct from
many different angles; however, as Dincer et al. (2019) observe, so far accounts of teachers’
and learners’ perceptions of engagement have been relatively scarce in the literature and still
little is known about factors and processes that shape engagement in language learning.
Primarily, the present study was undertaken to bridge this gap and better understand the
relationship between students’ engagement in task performance, willingness to communicate
and their actual communicative behavior. The secondary aim of the study was to consider
students’ accounts of their engagement and possible factors increasing or hindering it in the
classroom, with a view to establishing some recommendations that could help teachers
engage students in language learning to a greater extent. More specifically. The following
research questions were addressed:
1.
What is the relation between the three facets of in-class WtC (planned and unplanned
WtC, practice-seeking WtC) and communicative behavior, quantified as turn taking and
word count?
2.
What is the relation between different dimensions of engagement and communicative
behavoiur in task performance?
3.
What is the relation between WtC and engagement?
4.
What are learners’ opinions about (a) how they performed the task, (b) their engagement
in task performance and factors influencing it, (c) the impact their contribution had on
task completion?
6 Method
6.1 Participants
Participants were 15 (11 female, 4 male) English majors in their 3rd year of the BA program
who came from one student group and should be considered a convenience sample.
Participation was voluntary and the students provided their written consent. They were also
informed they could withdraw any moment and were given bonus points in one of the content
courses in return for their effort. They were assured that their scores were confidential and
would not affect their grades in a negative way. At the time of the study all of the participants
were 21 years old. On average, they had been learning English for 12.87 years and their
proficiency level could be roughly described as upper intermediate, with some degree of
individual variation. Apart from regular classes of English as a foreign language and content
courses conducted in English, their exposure to the target language happened through online
games, social media, watching films and tv series, using various types of websites, but also
contact with family and friends abroad, as well as experience of working abroad during the
summer break.
6.3 Analysis
Numerical results were fed into a spread sheet and Spearman rank-order correlations were
calculated between students’ linguistic output in the form of words and turns and
questionnaire scores. Content analysis (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008) of qualitative data was conducted
with the help of NVivo 11 software, which involved identifying words and phrases that were
grouped around individual concepts as well as performing several rounds of identification of
main themes. A categorization matrix was made reflecting the four engagement dimensions,
following Reeve and Tseng (2011), as well as including one category corresponding to
students’ appraisal of the role their interlocutors played in fostering or hindering engagement.
Another round of analysis concerned differences in qualitative data provided by students who
produced the largest and smallest number of words and turns (highest and lowest quadrants).
7 Results
7.1 Quantitative Data
First, descriptive statistics were considered. The inspection of students’ (N = 15) transcripts
covering 10 min of interaction showed that, on average, 445.06 words were produced by each
of the participants (range from 196 to 687) with considerable differences between individual
students, as can be seen in SD = 130.73. As for the number of turns that were taken during
conversations, the mean was 39.06 (range from 16 to 63) with SD = 16.16. The mean for the
category labelled Unplanned WtC amounted to 3.96 (SD = 0.52). Planned WtC was rated a little
lower with the average at 3.33 (SD = 1.194). The highest mean was reported for Practice-
seeking WtC: 4.15 (SD = 0.99). The engagement scales were considered separately for
Cognitive Engagement M = 4.26, SD = 0.33 and Emotional Engagement M = 4.18, SD = 0.61
(Table 1).
As the data were not normally distributed, Spearman rank-order correlations were
conducted to determine the relationship between the variables. A two-tailed test of
significance did not indicate significant correlations between students’ actual communicative
behavior (number of words and turns) and any of the engagement dimensions. There was only
one positive significant correlation between actual behavior in the form of turns taken during
the task and Unplanned WtC (rho = 0.677, p < 0.001). When it comes to the relationship
between engagement dimensions and aspects of WtC, Cognitive Engagement significantly
correlated with both Practice-seeking WtC (rho = 0.626, p < 0.05) and Planned in-class WtC
(rho = 0.692, p < 0.001). The same tendency appeared between Emotional Engagement and
Practice-seeking WtC (rho = 0.526, p < 0.05).
8 Discussion
The results did not show a strong link between students’ actual communicative behavior and
WtC reported in the survey. The word count did not correlate significantly with any of WtC
subtypes and the only significant correlation was noted for turns and Unplanned in-class WtC,
which is willingness to interact with the teacher and peers. The result is not surprising, given
the complexity of forces interacting to produce a wish to speak in a foreign language; thus
linguistic output might have been under the influence of conditions that did not correspond to
a general disposition the questionnaire could tap. On the other hand, this particular WtC facet
represents a person’s openness and eagerness to cooperate with others to learn and practice,
and that is why students with higher levels of Unplanned WtC took more turns. No significant
link was noted between any of the engagement dimensions and number of words and turns,
which implies a more dynamic nature of classroom engagement dependent on shifts of
context-related variables that evade the questionnaire measure, most likely capable of gauging
general tendencies rather that situated approaches.
When it comes to the relationship between WtC and engagement, a number of significant
correlations were found. The significant relationship between Emotional Engagement and
Practice-seeking WtC can be accounted for by the fact that being willing to use English out of
class or modifying one’s utterances in response to an indication of an error, requires a positive
emotional climate and having good relationships with interlocutors. The same facet of WtC
also correlated significantly with Cognitive Engagement, which consists in applying
sophisticated strategies to language learning, and it seems that items included in the Practice-
seeking scale represent techniques which could be understood as strategies for learning a
language. A significant connection between Cognitive Engagement and Planned in-class WtC
can be explained on similar grounds: this type of WtC also involves readiness to use certain
types of classroom-based strategies to practice the language.
The qualitative findings show that most of the students, with very few exceptions, felt
engaged in the activities and enjoyed taking part in them. Their positive emotions, Emotional
Engagement, stemmed from a favourable appraisal of the tasks’ format (prompts, topic,
instructions) and easiness of language that was required to accomplish the aims. However, a
stronger predictor of positive affect were good relationships with conversation partners or an
opportunity to interact with a new partner and get to know them better.
The importance attached to interpersonal relations and their impact on students’ declared
engagement calls for readdressing the role of Social Engagement in the engagement model.
Introduced and discussed by Svalberg (2009) as a component on a par with other engagement
dimensions, Social Engagement has not been considered in many recent studies because, as
explained by Mercer (2019, p. 4), “all aspects of cognition and affect are socially situated and
behavior typically involves others in social settings,” thus even if behavioral, cognitive and
emotional engagement types are interrelated, there is no denying they are distinct and all
happen in the social context.
More output was also generated in the presence of the feeling of responsibility, which
corresponds to the findings by de Saint Léger and Storch (2009), who, while investigating
classroom WtC, established that students who felt responsible were more willing to speak. In
the same study the researchers found that apart from responsibility, the feelings of security
and excitement were also important predictors of communicative behavior. In the present
study, participants were likely to be more engaged in the activities when they felt secure
among peers whom they liked and knew. As a whole, the findings seem consistent with the
SSMMD model, according to which engagement is linked to satisfying basic psychological
needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (cf. Dincer et al., 2019; Noels et al., 2018).
Students who felt more autonomous asked more questions, offered suggestions and took
responsibility for the activity’s flow. Such students also chose to stay focused and perceived
the tasks as challenges and an opportunity to learn. A feeling of competence shown in
students’ conviction that they knew prerequisite vocabulary increased their eagerness to go
on with the discussion. And finally, relatedness was evident in the participants’ reference to
social bonds helpful in sustaining communication.
A number of limitations need to be acknowledged here. First, it appears that conclusions
based on data collected from such a small sample cannot be generalized. That is why caution
should be taken while considering numerical data gathered here. The sample size might have
also impinged on unsatisfactory reliability measures of two out of four engagement scales. It
needs also to be stressed that the original engagement scales (Reeve & Tseng, 2011), were
meant to tap into learner engagement in lessons of language, whereas in the present study
they were employed to report on two tasks, which might have caused inconsistent reactions of
the participants. Moreover, the sample’s unique character, they were English majors, has to be
taken into account as they may not be representative; thus, other age groups and proficiency
levels should be considered to produce a more comprehensive picture of influences hindering
or enhancing engagement before teaching recommendations are offered.
9 Conclusion
The main goal the present study pursued was exploring the relationship between actual
communicative behavior observed in the classroom and two constructs whose level was
indicated by means of surveys: WtC and classroom engagement. Showing interdependence
between these two multidimensional concepts was a secondary study aim. Although WtC and
engagement have sometimes been operationalized as actual communicative behavior in the
literature, the analysis of the quantitative data did not show a clear link between the concepts.
Correlations between language output and questionnaire data were not found with the only
exception of turns and Unplanned WtC. The relationship between engagement and linguistic
output was not significant. The fact that certain WtC facets correlate with particular
engagement dimensions draws attention to a considerable overlap between the constructs:
some scale items seem to tap into exactly the same issues. It appears that comparisons of
means for WtC, engagement, word count and turns failed to capture an interplay of cognitive,
affective, motivational and behavioral variables involved in task performance, which definitely
calls for involving larger samples and different contexts as well. More explanatory potential
was found in qualitative data collected by means of post-task interviews. Many of the students’
opinions and comments revolved around the theme of cooperation with others, the
importance of the interlocutor’s response and engagement. It seems that considering social
engagement as a separate component could help understand how students engage themselves
in communicative activities performed in the classroom. This fragmentary picture does not
provide sufficient grounds for formulating far-reaching teaching recommendations, but it
appears a step towards a better understanding of the impact of the social context on learning
outcomes.
Table 1 Spearman rank-order correlations *p < 0.05, **p < 0.001
Words Turns Unplanned Planned Practice- Emotional Cognitive
WtC WtC seeking WtC engagement engagement
Words rho 0.233 0.407 305 211 0.219 0.126
Sig 0.404 0.133 0.269 0.450 0.433 0.653
Turns rho 0.233 0.677** 0.176 0.268 −0.0159 0.165
Sig 0.404 0.006 0.530 0.335 0.572 0.556
Unplanned WtC rho 0.407 0.677** −0.140 211 0.019 −0.020
Sig 0.133 0.006 0.619 0.450 0.946 0.943
Planned WtC rho 0.305 0.176 −0.140 0.225 0.139 0.692**
Sig 0.269 0.530 0.619 0.419 0.621 0.004
Practice-seeking rho 0.211 0.268 0.211 0.225 0.526* 0.626*
WtC
Sig 0.450 0.335 0.450 0.419 0.044 0.012
Emotional rho 0.219 −0.159 0.019 0.139 0.526* 0.671**
engagement
Sig 0.433 0.572 0.946 0.621 0.044 0.006
Cognitive rho 0.126 0.165 −0.020 0.692** 0.626* 0.625*
engagement
Sig 0.653 0.556 0.943 0.004 0.012 0.013
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© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_7
Katarzyna Budzińska
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Positive psychology in education, labelled as Positive Education (PE), puts well-being at the
centre of education together with academic subjects. Recently, the notion of Positive Language
Education (PLE) has been introduced, which combines PE and Language Education. Mercer et
al. (2018) highlight the need to create a universal framework of PLE and argue that PLE can be
achieved by combining the teaching of linguistic skills together with 21st-century
competences such as those promoting well-being. Nevertheless, if there is a mismatch with the
implicit message about well-being being conveyed by the institution as a whole, it is not
sufficient to enact PLE just on the level of teaching. It is vital that the institution also embodies
and communicates the principles of PLE in its structures, policies, and culture. The present
study aims at identifying the features constituting a positive institutional policy in a language
education setting. It was conducted in a private language school in Poland. The author used a
mixed method approach: Data were obtained through the use of narratives, analysed using the
PERMA model and, subsequently, triangulated by means of a quantitative questionnaire. Ten
features of the institution’s policy reflecting PERMA were identified. The study hopes to
contribute to a framework of PLE by adding to it the third positive psychology pillar—positive
institutions.
Keywords Positive psychology – Positive institutions – Institutional policy – PERMA –
Positive language education
Katarzyna Budzińska has a Ph.D. in applied linguistics from the University of Lodz and a
Cambridge Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. She teaches at the
Lodz University of Technology, where she is involved in teacher training. She also works
freelance at the University of Humanities and Economics in Lodz, where she teaches Positive
Psychology and supervises MA dissertations in Applied Linguistics. Katarzyna’s main areas of
interest are psychology in language learning and positive psychology, whose third pillar,
positive institutions, she has been exploring recently.
1 Introduction
Positive Language Education (PLE), puts well-being at the centre of language education beside
language learning. Therefore, if an educational institution wants to implement PLE, it is
essential that it applies PERMA (see Gabryś-Barker, Jin et al., Kikuchi & Lake, Mystkowska-
Wiertelak, & Werbińska, this volume), a model of language learning well-being, in its
structures, policies, and culture alongside effective teaching practices. The chapter looks at the
language institution policy of a private language school in Poland and compares it with typical
state school policy using the PERMA framework. The aim of this research is to find out
whether and to what extent the policy of the institution reflects PERMA and thus, together
with well-being oriented pedagogical approaches to language learning, has the potential to
enact and communicate PLE. The paper also aims to identify PERMA quality language
institution policy features in order to demonstrate what institutions themselves can do to
achieve PLE. The study hopes to contribute to the PLE framework by adding the third pillar of
positive psychology (PP) to it and the perspective of the institution as a whole.
2 PP and PLE
PP, defined as “the empirical study of how people thrive and flourish,” “the study of the human
strengths and virtues that make life good” (MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014, p. 154), or “the
scientific study of what goes right in life” (Peterson, 2006), investigates and promotes human
well-being (Oxford, 2016, p. 21) as well as the techniques that can enable living well
(MacIntyre, 2016). The objective of PP is to build positive emotions, greater engagement, and
an appreciation of the meaning in life rather than to come to terms with negative experiences
(Seligman, 2006). Even though the modern PP movement was launched in 1998, when Martin
Seligman became the president of the American Psychological Association, its roots are in
humanistic psychology and with such scholars as Maslow, Bruner or Moskowitz. In fact, as
Malczewska-Webb (2016, p. 194) observes, “human happiness is deeply rooted in ancient
philosophy and was explored in the virtue ethics of Confucius, Mencius and Aristotle.”
What makes PP different from traditional psychology is that instead of focusing on the
negative, for example, mental illnesses or disorders and their treatment, PP focuses on the
positive. It aims at helping people to lead better lives by building on their strengths and
promoting positive attributes such as resilience, happiness, or optimism. PP looks at human
well-being and explores how people can function to the best of their potential (Malczewska-
Webb, 2016, p. 194) and how they can “thrive and flourish” (MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014, p.
154).
PP was founded on three main pillars (see Gabryś-Barker, MacIntyre, Seidl, & Werbińska,
this volume): positive emotions and feelings, positive character traits of people associated
with living well and positive institutions, defined as “organizational structures that enable
success and promote positive language learning environments” (MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014, p.
165). However, research in the third pillar has been scarce so far. In order to partially fill the
gap, Budzińska (2018) has studied the nature of positive institutions in language education
contexts. In her study, she demonstrated that the three main components of positive
institutions are a positive physical structure, the adoption of positive pedagogical approaches
and the positive psychological consequences of being educated in the particular context such
as low anxiety, motivation, or enjoyment.
Recently, a new term, Positive Education (PE), has been used to describe a PP-informed
approach to education. The term has been defined as “applications of positive psychology
within schools” (MacIntyre et al., 2019a, p. 266), “the bringing together of the science of
positive psychology with best practices in teaching, to encourage and support schools and
individuals to flourish” (Norrish, 2015, p. xxvii). As Mercer et al. (2018, p. 19) explain, “PE
seeks to put wellbeing at the core of education alongside academic subjects without either
being compromised by the other.”
Together with the PE, the notion of PLE has been introduced, which stems from a
combination of PE and Language Education (Mercer et al., 2018, p. 11). Mercer et al. (2018)
argue that PLE can be achieved by combining the teaching of linguistic skills together with
21st-century competences such as those promoting well-being. The notion seems to offer an
alternative lens for understanding positive institutions in a language education context.
To promote well-being in language education, Mercer et al. (2018, p. 24) highlight the need
for creating a universal framework of PLE:
Since PLE means applying PP in Language Education, it is essential to look at the model for
PP, PERMA, which was introduced by Seligman (2011) in his book Flourish. The acronym
represents five elements of PP: Positive emotion, Engagement, positive interpersonal
Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment. (P) positive emotion is related to feeling of
happiness such as joyfulness, contentment and cheerfulness. (E) engagement is about being
engaged in activities, which involves feeling interested and absorbed. Engagement has been
interpreted as flow (Csíkszentmihályi, 1990, 1997, 2008; Egbert, 2003). This theory highlights
the importance of intrinsic motivation in achieving goals. Csíkszentmihályi (1990) states that
what makes experience genuinely satisfying is a state of consciousness called ‘flow.’ It is a state
of concentration so focused that it leads to a total absorption in an activity and, at the same
time, to improved performance on a task. (R) positive Interpersonal relationships have been
interpreted as feeling socially integrated, cared for and supported by others. (M) meaning
refers to serving a cause other than the self, believing in the value of life. The fifth element, (A)
accomplishment, is about identifying areas of achievement, progress towards objectives, and
believing that your daily life brings you closer to achieving aims.
I would like to argue that if an institution wants to implement PLE, its structures, policies,
and culture ought to embody and communicate the principles of PLE, e.g., reflect all five
elements of PERMA as well as promote successful language learning. It seems that enacting
PLE on the level of teaching on its own may not be sufficient if there is a mismatch with the
implicit message about well-being being conveyed by the institution as a whole. It is vital that
the institution also embodies and communicates the principles of PLE in its structures,
policies, and culture.
The purpose of the present study is to investigate the school policy of an institution in a
language education context using the PERMA framework to find out whether the policy
reflects the five PERMA constructs and can be thought of as promoting well-being. The study
also aims to identify the PERMA quality institution policy features, which would add to the
PLE framework that Mercer et al. (2018, p. 24) have called for.
4.4 Analysis
The qualitative data analysis involved inductive coding. The data were analysed for salient
ideas, and, subsequently, a set of themes was created. The author then sought to assign these
themes to PERMA categories.
As far as the quantitative data analysis is concerned, a mean score (calculated using excel)
of 3–4 (the respondents find a given aspect of the policy either helpful or very helpful)
suggested that a given policy element was confirmed to be perceived as positive by the
respondents, while a mean score of 1–2 (the respondents find a given aspect of the policy
either unhelpful or very unhelpful) would have suggested that a given policy element was
regarded by the students as negative (see Table 4).
Intermediate 14–17 6 0 6
intermediate 16+ 6 3 3
intermediate 16+ 11 4 6
advanced 16+ 10 5 5
Table 2 Positive features of the institutional policy with corresponding PERMA pillars
Positive institution feature PERMA element observed in the feature
5 Positive evaluation P
6 L2 as a language of instruction M, A
7 Paid tuition E, M
8 Professional development A
10 Teacher autonomy P
Peer testing
While unannounced tests are common practice in state schools, this form of testing does
not take place at the institution analysed it this study, which students consider to be a positive
aspect of its policy. Generally, the policy makers of the institution believe that regular revision
is more important than testing. One of the school’s principles is that students should learn as
much as possible during their lesson time, therefore, revision and activation of the new
language are recommended to be used in every lesson. This is related to the institution’s
growth mindset, i.e., the belief that with effort students can improve and become more
competent (Williams et al., 2015, p. 70).
Revision is also likely to reduce test anxiety, since it allows students to be better prepared
and thus more confident. In addition, the teachers try to make tests as little anxiety-provoking
as possible. One of the techniques recommended by the management of the institution is peer-
testing. Teachers also try to reduce test anxiety by familiarising students with the test format
and contents, creating a friendly atmosphere, playing background music, or allowing as much
time as learners need. Moreover, the participants point out the fact that at this institution,
unlike in state schools, students are not evaluated for giving speeches in front of other
learners. All in all, the evaluation methods used by the institution do not seem to provoke as
much test anxiety as the methods used by state schools. The institution attempts to alleviate
test and evaluation anxiety in order to promote the PERMA element P—positive emotions. The
following comments illustrate favourable student opinions of the evaluation policy of the
institution:
Wioletta: Tests reflect what we have done in class.
Józefina: Tests at this school are less stressful than in state schools.
Róża: At this institution, there is a friendly approach to all methods of testing, which
improves their quality.
This policy has also been mentioned by a few teacher participants, who believe that it has a
favourable influence on class atmosphere and the instructor’s rapport with learners, since
negative grades may create animosity towards teachers.
1 L2 as a language of instruction – – 3 30
5 Positive evaluation – 3 13 17
7 Paid tuition 1 10 18 4
Table 6 Positive features of the institutional policy in order of student perceptions of their helpfulness
The policy M SD
The institutional policy concerning instruction in the target language turned out to be the
most desirable one according to the learners. It obtained the highest mean (3.9) and was
endorsed by all of the participants. 91% of the respondents regard it as a very helpful factor in
foreign language acquisition and 9% as helpful. The fact that the institution tailors the
instruction to student level was also rated very highly with the mean of 3.76. The students
were consistent in their opinion about this policy feature with 76% participants considering it
very helpful and 24% helpful. The policy related to small class size obtained a very similar
score of 3.67 with 70% of the informants considering it very helpful and 27% helpful. One
participant did not find this aspect important. The institutional policy about keeping student
proficiency differences to the minimum was seen as positive by all of the respondents and had
the fourth highest mean of 3.64. The policy related to positive evaluation also had a high mean
of 3.42; however three participants did not think that this policy aspect was helpful. The fact
that the institution puts little emphasis on grades turned out to be slightly controversial, since
24% of the participants did not consider it helpful. However, it had a high mean of 3.18 with
the highest standard deviation of 0.88. One participant believed this policy aspect was
unhelpful and commented that “there is no motivation without grades.” As expected, the fact
that tuition is paid was the most controversial policy aspect with 33% of the participants
considering it a drawback. Nonetheless, 67% of the learners thought that this is positive,
which is in line with their opinions included in the journals.
6 Conclusion
In this paper, it has been proposed that enacting PLE only through teachers incorporating
positive interventions into their classes may not be sufficient. If a school wishes to introduce
or enact PLE, it is not enough to just do this on the level of teaching as this may result in a
mismatch with the implicit message about well-being being conveyed by the institution as a
whole. It is vital that the institution also embodies and communicates the principles of PLE in
its structures, policies, and organisational culture.
The chapter has outlined what factors contribute positively to learner and teacher well-
being from a PERMA perspective. The positive policies presented in the chapter could serve as
guidelines for other schools that want to enact PLE. This study is one of a very few so far
looking at the institution. More studies of institutions are needed, for example, those
incorporating other positive policies, so that language institutions worldwide can better
understand how to embody and communicate the good practices, which would set the scene
for PLE. Lastly, the chapter adds the third PP pillar—positive institutions—to the PLE
framework making it more comprehensive and expanding it from the classroom level to the
whole school level (Mercer et al., 2018, p. 24).
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https://podstawaprogramowa.pl/Liceum-technikum/Jezyk-obcy-nowozytny
http://www.elc.pl/kursy.htm
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_8
Dorota Werbińska
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The chapter discusses the construct of preservice language teacher identity related to the
aspects of positive psychology. The author draws on findings from a three-stage longitudinal
duoethnographic study of 10 pairs (duo) of preservice English teachers with a view to
exploring what preservice teacher identities are emerging from their dialogues, which can also
shed light on their future teaching practice. The themes and discourses identified in the study
and interpreted in the context of the current theoretical frameworks imply that preservice
teacher identity is in a constant state of flux. It is suggested that the application of
duoethnographic dialogues in teacher preparation programmes may offer a way of capturing
its emergence in order to learn both about teacher identity and from teacher identity.
Keywords Preservice language teachers – Teacher identity – Duoethnography – Positive
psychology
Dorota Werbińska is Associate Professor in the Institute of Modern Languages at
Pomeranian University in Slupsk, Poland. A former teacher, a teacher trainer, and an in-service
teacher educator, she is an author of 4 books on modern language teachers and over 60
articles, book chapters, and reviews published nationally and internationally. Her main
academic interests are within the field of language teacher education, both pre-service and in-
service, in particular language teacher identity, teacher professional development, and
qualitative research in applied linguistics.
1 Introduction
Teacher identity has become a powerful lens to explore many topics related to language
teacher education. It has been studied through a teacher’s context, personal histories, social
identifiers, such as gender, ethnicity, religion, etc., a teacher’s sense-making of school reforms,
staying abroad, or shadowing of a teacher’s identity formation. More and more popular are the
views that language teacher preparation courses should move away from the formation of
language teachers as technicians with predetermined skills and make the construction of
teacher identity its primary goal (Yazan, 2019, p. 16). This is so because learning to teach is
not merely an acquisition of knowledge and skills but rather a matter of deciding what kind of
language teacher a person wants to be, which requires activities that would provide time and
space for reflection, make sense of experience and confront the affordances and constraints
shaping and limiting who and what a language teacher is.
This chapter discusses a one-semester long three-stage duoethnographic project which
was conducted by the author with twenty preservice English teachers in Poland. The research
reported here was part of a larger two-year investigation with different cohorts of teacher
candidates into their duoethnographic language learning and teaching experiences which
shape a language teacher identity. The present study supplements the pilot and previous
findings (Werbińska, 2018) and focuses on the aspects related to positive psychology (PP),
which were one of the serendipitous insights that the study uncovered. In particular, the
attention is placed on what kind of PP-related teacher identities the participants are
developing and may develop in the future.
The two main objectives of this chapter are: (1) to introduce duoethnography as a method
to explore preservice teacher identity; and (2) to contribute to the knowledge of preservice
teacher identity through the lens of PP. The opening section outlines the theoretical
framework for the study focusing on its three main constructs: preservice teacher identity,
duoethnography and positive psychology. Following this, a duoethnographic study is described
in which ten pairs of preservice English language teachers—the participants of the study–
reveal their identity-related aspects of PP.
Throughout the study, Gee’s (2000) conception of identity is used, according to whom
identity is “being recognized as a certain ‘kind of person,’ in a given context” (p. 99) or, by the
same token, the kind of teacher a person is in a given time and place. To me, such a conception
implies a person’s changing on the way of becoming a teacher, being a ‘teacher-in the making,’
or a ‘teacher-in-progress,’ depending on the context in which the teacher is now.
2 Theoretical Framework
The constructs of preservice teacher identity, duoethnography, and PP are briefly presented
and followed by an explanation of how together they can be used to study a preservice
language teacher’s well-being aspects of identity in a duoethnographic dialogue.
2.2 Duoethnography
The second useful construct in exploring what kind of teacher the participants are becoming is
a relatively new qualitative method created by Sawyer and Norris (2012) called
duoethnography. Duoethnography derives from narrative studies and refers to William Pinar’s
(2004) currere, according to which each person’s life is a curriculum that can be studied
critically. In line with this, in duoethnography, two or more individuals discuss a certain topic,
using, as sources, artefacts and photos pulled from autobiographical experiences.
Duoethnography juxtaposes the histories of two or more diverse people who experience
the same phenomenon in a different way. Although duoethnography uses autobiography, the
main focus is not the narrator, nor the topic itself, but personal experiences which are
reconceptualised, questioned and reflected upon. In other words, the information garnered
from duethnographic interactions is not aimed at presenting external ‘true’ reality but rather
the subjective experiences of the interlocutors.
I assumed that a duoethnographic dialogue would be a good research instrument to obtain
insights about the study participants’ experiences, interpretations or re-interpretations of
those experiences that constitute their teacher identity at the present moment. I took into
consideration the following arguments that, to my mind, help make duoethnography the most
appropriate method of data collection in this study:
1.
Dialogue is a relevant mechanism that underlies the relationship between teacher learning
and the formation of teacher identity, and if the dialogue is meaning-oriented, it leads to
strong and self-conscious teacher identities (Vermunt et al., 2017). In line with this, a
duoethnographic dialogue can be regarded as an important aspect of fostering meaning-
oriented learning.
2.
Teachers develop their identities by interacting with others but if they interact with
another preservice teacher who is also developing his/her identity, which is the case in a
duoethnographic dialogue described here, they both develop a preservice teacher’s
identity (Akerson et al., 2016).
3.
Identities have been defined as “conceptions of ourselves (…) conceptions of others about
us and our conceptions of others’ ways of ‘seeing’ us as we act, think, perform, feel, and
position ourselves in activity” (Varelas et al., 2007, p. 205). The information about all these
three kinds of conceptions is reflected in the design of my duoethnographic project.
4.
Identity can be shifted through raising critical consciousness and reflection (Cross, 2017,
p. 224). In line with this, a duothnographic conversation fosters critical reflection on
contradictions in the interlocutors’ experience, which may evoke new levels of awareness.
5.
Identity should be researched less procedurally and more as a messy and unpredictable
form of understanding teachers, their reflections, and their actions, as the inquiry process
itself is often more important than any specific conclusions that emerge from those
inquiries (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009). In line with this argument, a duoethnographic
conversation is messy, unpredictable and emergent.
6.
For teacher education it is important to use an approach which gives students an
opportunity to contribute and build on insights they already have as a result of their
experience, to develop the ideas that are important to them personally, to engage and so
teach them more, to give confidence in presenting their insights and practising inquiry
abilities, to make their educators learn about them, and sometimes what they are
advocating (Beck & Kosnik, 2017, p. 111). It must be noted that all these opportunities are
offered by duoethnography.
3 The Study
The design of the present project was inspired by Breault’s (2015) study and Brown and
Barrett’s (2015) duoethnographic investigation.
The focus, as presented in this chapter, was to find out what PP-related language teacher
ideologies are emerging (who/what kind of teachers they are now in the context of the PP
constructs) at the end of their language teacher BA education, which can be extrapolated to
investigating what language teacher PP-related identities they might adopt (who/what kind of
teachers they will be in the context of the PP constructs) in the future.
3.1 Participants
The participants of the project were a group of students (n = 20, ten pairs) attending the last
term of their BA studies in English with a profile in language teaching. The group consisted of
seventeen women and three men. One third of the participants were in the process of doing
their school placements in primary school. In addition, as many as sixteen of them offered
private English lessons to learners in all age groups.
3.2 Methodology
The study took place in the winter term (October 2017–January 2018) and comprised the
three stages presented below.
Stage 1: Introduction to the project (October 2017)
I started the first stage with a short PowerPoint presentation on duoethnography comprising
the definition of duoethnography, its genealogy and the benefits of its use. Then I introduced
the students to the aims of the project and the following three tasks within stage one:
1.
Find a person in the group in order to conduct an interesting conversation. The person
should differ from you in a significant way.
2.
Talk to the person about what you believe language teaching is, supporting your claims with
your own experience. Record the conversation.
3.
Hand in the written transcription of the talk and the recorded text. The time limit for the task
is one month.
Stage 2: Summary of the talk with a focus on oneself and one’s interlocutor (November–
December 2017)
The second stage was initiated after receiving the students’ recordings with transcriptions
concerning their views on language learning and teaching. Having read all the conversations, I
copied the transcripts to enable each participant to have access to his/her dialogue on paper. I
distributed the copies and gave instructions for the second stage as follows:
1.
Read the transcription of your dialogue carefully. Focus on the meanings of your own words.
2.
On the basis of the words used by you, write down a one-page interpretation of what kind of
teacher you may become, supporting your claims with examples from the conversation.
Interaction To look for the personal The value of Education for me is vital. Not only to get a good job but also to
PP-related experiences of education feel good in society. It’s something that we gain our whole life,
the participants that relate nobody can take it away from us. It’s a kind of our heritage for
to their orientations to our whole life
language and language
teaching, including their Significant Ms. Asia, my teacher from the primary school, was wonderful. She
interaction with other teacher brought a small box to the class and we could put small cards
people with compliments inside. We felt equal as a whole group. Ms. Asia
also gave us diplomas for writing clearly. She collected our
notebooks every two weeks and those students whose writing
improved received a diploma and a pen. Everyone tried to write
their best. We were proud and happy
Continuity To look for the past PP- Positive I remember English classes in which we had some dancing
related experiences of the experiences activities. It was more like fun for us, not a typical lesson in which
participants, the present related to we have to sit and learn something. We were relaxed. Even now,
PP-related experiences, language when I have private lessons with girls from the second grade I
and possible PP-related teaching at really want them to have fun during those lessons, so I prepare
actions in the future primary school, games, songs. When they have fun, I think it’s more beneficial for
using similar them
methods as a
private teacher
Dimension Analysis aim Sample codes Sample quote
Situation To look for positive Buying a My mother once bought me a magazine for children to learn
situations in the magazine for English. I spent hours and hours of doing exercises from this
participants’ environment, young learners magazine. There were CDs, songs. I could learn by myself. It
which involves physical of English helped me a lot later in my school. I was the kid who liked to study
spaces (school, home, English at home by myself with my things
university).
5 Discussion
The data based on duoethnographic conversations and self-and-conversation partner analyses
are about what it means to be a language teacher in the investigated PP-related educational
landscape in the last year of BA studies with a language teaching profile. It is assumed that the
participants’ identities are in their dialogues and narratives when they discuss the issues
around language teaching, or make interpretations and explanations of themselves and their
conversation partners in the reflexive and reflective accounts. As Thorne (2009, p. 225)
recommends to interpret study findings in the context of the available, and certainly up-to-
date, literature, my discussion is based on the concepts developed by Ketelaar et al. (2012)
which are fundamental for a theory of identity, including teacher identity learning, the
ecological framework of the Douglas Fir Group (2016) and my own 3A Language Teacher
Identity Framework (3ALTIF) (Werbińska, 2016, 2017).
The concept of ownership proposed by Ketelaar et al. (2012) is especially useful because it
showcases “who one is as a teacher and what one finds important, or what one identifies with”
(Beijaard & Meijer, 2017, p. 182). A similar concept in my 3ALTIF would be the affiliation
domain which stands for a person’s beliefs and motivations for intentional choosing a
language teaching career. If student teachers feel the urge for learning something, they put a
lot of effort into it, identify with it, ‘own’ it, or ‘affiliate’ with it. In the data there are themes
about the value of education (pair 1, pair 2), the importance of learning English (pair 1, pair 6,
pair 7), or the pleasure derived from the contact with the language (pair 1, pair 5, pair 7, pair
8, pair 9). Those who refer to English as a fascinating language thanks to which they have
decided to become language teachers subscribe to the English as a Passion Discourse. With
regard to this, the pre-service teachers intimate what and how much can be taught via English,
if compared to any other school subject. The possibility of conducting lessons with elements of
film making, script writing, music listening, game playing, etc. which all emerged in the data, is
something that makes a language class outstanding and more interesting than other subjects.
The participants maintain that learners can develop multiple passions in the English
classroom, and that learning English itself can become a passion, as it has become for them.
An equally important aspect under the ownership concept could be some participants’
individual experience that would be used for defining themselves, expressing their self-
identity to others, or assuring the continuity of self across the time (Pierce et al., 2003). Some
of the participants’ experiences confirm to this idea of ownership when, for example, a student
teacher emphasizes her Scottish experience (pair 2, The Autonomy Discourse in which a
teacher candidate intends to promote students’ thinking in her future teaching), the African
experience (pair 3, the Helping Others Discourse in which one study participant has already
decided that her purpose in life would be helping those in need through teaching them
English), or the Japanese experience (pair 8, in which one student teacher discloses that low
proficiency in English of a typical Japanese person made her a confident English speaker while
living in Japan). Ownership has also been expressed when participants opted for joining
language teaching study for the sake of their previous teachers or family members, themselves
language teachers (pair 2, pair 5, pair 9, pair 10), to better get to know what it is like to
experience teaching. Consequently, the development of teacher identity should acknowledge
what preservice teachers already own and refer to this knowledge when building their
engagement with teacher education programmes. Teacher candidates’ awareness of positive
meanings would be promoted on the basis of which they could build and broaden their scope
of attention (Fredrickson, 2005).
The second identity-related concept proposed by Ketelaar et al. (2012) which seems useful
in trying to answer who the study participants are becoming is sense-making. According to the
authors, this concept refers to a process as a result of which a change in some aspects of a
person’s identity arises. The 3ALTIF’s domain of attachment—feeling attracted to certain ways
of performing a job—in a way overlaps the concept of sense-making, as it signifies a language
teacher’s meaningful application of theory into practice. An example of sense-making in the
data could be the Teaching Vision Discourse in the classroom. In the extract, Marta expresses
the essence of communicative language teaching by stressing the focus on communication and
using English. In fact, a lot of language teachers in Poland use English sparingly in
communication with their students and tend to focus on grammar structures. Using English in
English classes is often limited to simple classroom management commands and situations
where whole lessons are conducted in English are few and far between. The Teaching Vision
Discourse also shows the opposition to what the participants wished they had been taught
and, therefore, they might enact this discourse in the future to be considered more
‘recognizable’ (Gee, 2005) as language teachers. Moreover, the Teaching Vision Discourse with
the communicative use of English can also be found in the writings of those who claim how
much the intention to learn English is connected with a person’s life. It can be ‘a good
investment’ in a learner’s future, and immersing in English, as much as possible at the level of
a school classroom, may help it come true.
Beijaard and Meijer (2017) argue that sense-making may result in assimilation (fitting
something new to the existing knowledge), accommodation (adapting existing knowledge to
what is new), distantiation (rejecting something new), or toleration (accepting something
new) and all of these processes can be accomplished with a view to eliciting the feeling of well-
being. Examples of positive experiences related to significant teachers who, for example, went
beyond the subject matter structure and treated relationships as fundamental (pair 1, pair 3,
pair 4, pair 5) or focused on students’ individual differences (pair 2) could be treated as
evidence of sense-making. Many participants intend to copy some of their previous teachers
(“She is my role model,” “I’d like to look up to my two English teachers”), which refers to
Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi’s (2000) views of PP about positive emotions described as
being contented with the past (here: being contented with former teachers in the past), happy
in the present (here: positive memories of former teachers held at present), and hopeful for
the future (here: the intention to imitate former teachers).
The third concept that may be helpful in describing what kind of teachers the participants
are becoming is Ketelaar et al.’s concept of agency, which makes up one component under the
same label in 3ALTIF’s autonomy domain. Agency makes the study participants give an active
direction to their teacher identity development, which results in control over its
(re)construction. A good example of agency would be the articulation of their desire to
become teachers. Several students (pair 3, pair 6, pair 7, pair 9) discuss how much they want
to be teachers (the Helping Others Discourse), despite their little knowledge about the
intricacies of the profession. In defining their teacher-selves, they express their personal
theories concerning teacher responsibility, the benefits resulting from teacher optimism but
also the conviction that, as one participant noted, “teaching is a wonderful thing as long as it’s
a pure joy, not a necessity.” This discourse, which is categorized in the study as the
Meaningfulness Discourse, enables the participants to interpret and make sense of their own
experience, link it to their own place and aim in life, and learn from it. This, in turn, makes
them happier, as people who have found meaning in life enjoy more satisfaction and greater
well-being.
Agency can also be related to teacher identity through one’s convictions and work
standards that are not typical of everyone. When a student teacher (pair 6) argues for a rather
unpopular statement that Polish, rather than English, should be used in younger classes, this is
also an expression of her agency, as resistance to something may signal engagement and
development. Likewise, for some study participants, opting for the English teacher as one in
the Authority Discourse, in which the teacher keeps a professional distance, can be agentic.
Ola, quoted in this discourse, wrote about her own classroom rules and hard, tiring work
which, to her, means the hallmark of a fulfilled English teacher. Interestingly, the Authority
Discourse as presented here is not only based on a strong teacher’s position in the classroom
(“my own rules”), but also subject-based knowledge and skills (“hard work”) which are her
goal. In the representative quote, subject knowledge and skills that learners acquire can
consequently contribute to a teacher’s authority in the classroom, whereas lack of work could
indicate that the teacher was not in control in the classroom.
Ownership, sense-making and agency, like affiliation, attachment and autonomy, all
recalled here through the quoted frameworks, are interrelated when shaping a teacher
identity. Who the teacher is (becoming) and who he/she might become, to refer to the
transdisciplinary framework of the Douglas Fir Group (2016), begins at the micro level with
cognitive processes within an individual teacher and his/her personality traits, further shapes
at the meso level by institutions and communities which offer or limit access to particular
experiences affecting investment, agency and power, and is still further developed by the
wider social context (the macro level) with its orientations towards language teacher profiles,
including their belief systems and values (p. 24). Although each concept referred here
(ownership, sense-making, agency or affiliation, attachment, autonomy, or the micro, meso
and macro levels) has its own characteristics, each constantly interacts with the other
concepts, giving shape to them and being shaped by them. A state of emergence and
continuous change is, therefore, the main characteristic of preservice teacher identity.
Appendix 1
Themes related to interaction, continuity and situation generated by the study participants in
stage 1.
Pair 1
Value of education: language learning is important
Significant teacher: engaged teacher who related to each pupil in class
Motivation to become interested in the language: a magazine for English learners which initiated English passion
Helping others
Pair 2
Significant others from family: older sister who invented creative activities to teach English at home
Learning about different cultures from international students and teachers
Positive past experience related to a teacher who noticed the student’s ability and encouraged her to read in English
Valuable course in language learning strategy training
Positive Scottish experience: attending primary school in Scotland: team teaching, learner autonomy fostering approach,
developing practical activities (singing, acting, poem writing, etc.)
Pair 3
Positive experience related to passionate teachers as role models/Imagining being a teacher: motivating, improving skills
and personality, a good person, a role model with a mission, passion, hope, skills, infecting with happiness
Pair 4
Positive impact of school placement: getting to know people and surroundings, learning organization and patience
Self-confidence: conviction of self-efficacy
Pair 5
Desire to be respected and become an authority/father figure to learners like a past teacher: becoming an authority through
being ‘human’: honest, kind and helpful in solving their problems
Gratefulness to the teacher: pushing out of ‘safe zone’
Imagining being a teacher: ‘connection’ with students and teaching them at the same time, patience and empathy
Pair 6
Positive experience of primary school language learning
Positive attitude to English
‘Crossing the learning boundary at school’: learning language and culture from an ‘eccentric’ teacher (shabby-looking
appearance, song lyrics as language input, discussions on living British culture)
Positive tutoring and school placement experience: enjoyment
Pair 7
Attempts to define language teaching
Importance of English
Passion for English
Pair 8
Thrill of learning English
Pair 9
Motivation to study English: sharing your knowledge and helping others
Thrill of learning: learning all the time as a teacher, learning from students
Effective teaching: the importance of feeling safe in a language classroom, dur to the use of another language
Helping others is more important than money
A history teacher’s perspective on students’ motivation to learn English: all the time reinforced in the life context, can be
quickly revised in lessons
Meaningful decisions: conscious refusal of teaching a 7-year-old girl on a one-to-one basis, as children at this age need
interaction with peers
Pair 10
Motivation to learn English: meeting a girl rom Canada
Meaningful personal theories: As teacher you should make everything to make learners feel language learning is important,
show how to learn, but the rest is theirs. If they don’t want to learn, it’s not worth teaching them. Teacher is not a person
who is obliged to teach only one subject, but also to teach how to be a good person, how to be helpful, work effectively,
extend hobbies and passions, take from school as much as possible
Appendix 2
An example of a memo chart for one study participant.
Ela, pair 4
Self-analysis:
Teaching as mission/being for others: finding pleasure in helping children, especially those from Africa
Teaching as becoming/discovering oneself: her attitude to teaching after her first EFL methodology class
Teaching as being obeyed and respected: most children in Tanzania want to be English teachers
Positive emotions related to the previous teacher: still remembers her gestures, her perfume, the sadness when class was
over
Ela’s analysis by her partner Pola:
Sensitivity to details which helps her remember the moments from the past.
Self-awareness which makes her know a lot about future learners, the way they should be approached
Subconscious image of the teacher who is a role model, forms children’s mindsets
Passion, understanding, purposefulness: “Teaching means a great mission in life for me”
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Footnotes
1 A similar limitation was expressed by Voerman et al. (2014) in their study on revisiting feedback as based on PP.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_9
Olga Majchrzak
Email: [email protected]
Patrycja Ostrogska (Corresponding author)
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
This chapter investigates the idea of teaching as a profession and posits components of a
teacher training programme that may increase teachers’ effectiveness in the classroom and
help teachers to manage their resources. We explore how prospective teachers perceive the
profession in order to explore their motivation to become a teacher. We also explore the
potential intersection of prospective teachers’ notions of the ideal teacher with the skills and
awareness that positive psychology and neurodidactics suggest are necessary for a sustainable
and successful teaching career. The chapter draws on a metaphor study (Camerona & Low,
1999) and introduces findings of neurobiology, psycholinguistics and educational therapy. The
discussion is interwoven with the results of a metaphor study. This analysis is part of a larger
study investigating the elements that, the authors argue, need to be modified in the foreign
language (FL) teacher training programme in our department to prepare teachers for changes
in social awareness and the demands of the system.
Keywords Positive psychology – Neurodidactics – Metaphor study – Teacher–student
dynamics – Teacher training – Neurodiversity – Learning difficulties
Olga Majchrzak received her Ph.D. degree in Linguistics from the University of Lodz, Poland.
She works at the University of Humanities and Economics in Lodz, Poland, where she has been
the Dean of Foreign Language Studies since 2016. She is the author and supervisor of the
Teacher Training Programme for Foreign Language Teachers at AHE. Her scientific interests
include issues related to the attitudes and identity of bilinguals, developing writing skills in a
foreign language, and recently emotions in the writing process. She teaches courses in Creative
writing, Academic writing and Trends in Alternative Education.
Patrycja Ostrogska holds a Ph.D. in Linguistics from the University of Lodz, Poland. She is
Assistant Professor at the University of Humanities and Economics in Lodz, Poland. Her
research interests focus on teacher education, language teaching methodology, teaching
English to SEN students (especially with developmental dyslexia) and motivation. At AHE she
trains students enrolled in Teacher Training Programme for Foreign Language Teachers, for
which she designed and teaches a course in teaching foreign languages to students with
special educational needs.
1 Introduction
In recent years the system of education in Poland has gained considerable media coverage and
social interest due to the drastic reforms introduced by the ruling parties. Schools have been
restructured. The unemployment rate among teachers has increased, and dissatisfaction has
developed among students and parents. This has been vividly expressed in the media.
Teachers have never been more pressurized by formal requirements and more dissatisfied
with their salary, as confirmed by the nationwide teachers’ strike happening at the time of
writing this chapter. Additionally, there has been growing bottom-up pressure from both
educators and parents to implement changes into teaching methods and practices, as they are
viewed obsolete and counterproductive. There is every sign that the system has been shaken
and that is why we have decided to carry out research in which we examine researchers’ and
teacher trainees’ perspectives on the teaching profession.
Being an FL teacher today is more of a challenge than ever before. With the growing focus
on administrative paperwork, on the one hand, and the increasing number of children
diagnosed with learning and behavioural difficulties on the other, teachers are required to
invest more time and resources inside and outside the classroom than ever before. Learners
are subjected to ever present, constantly changing stimuli from electronic devices. Social
media pressure, poor nutrition and sleep deprivation seem to contribute to changes FL
classroom dynamics in ways that are often unexpected for teachers, challenging their methods
and strategies, and making even more demands on educators. We venture a hypothesis that
these factors, among others, may lead to increased stress levels in FL teachers and decreased
levels of perceived contentment from the job. Therefore, we raise a question as to the type of
components that need to be included in the training that FL teachers should undergo
nowadays to be competent and efficacious in their work and prevent burnout. The answer to
this question is expected to help us reflect on the training process of teachers-to-be. Our
research aims at establishing the most vital skills that must be acquired, the concepts that
teachers need to understand and the dynamics they must be aware of.
Extensive research in the field of positive psychology, psycholinguistics, specific learning
differences, as well as our experience in both teaching and teacher training, have allowed us to
narrow down the areas for investigation. Thus, we investigate four areas of teacher
development: (1) the significance of teacher-student relationships; (2) expertise in the field of
specific learning differences; (3) understanding the dynamics of motivation from the point of
view of neurodidactics; (4) and finally, mastery of effective teaching strategies and classroom
management.
In the same manner, Quinn et al. offer an explanation as to the value of a co-creative
perspective:
6 The Study
6.1 Goal of the Study
The conducted study was guided by the following research questions:
RQ1: How is today’s teacher perceived by students?
RQ2:
On the basis of the generated metaphors, how can the teacher training programme be
modified/improved in order to develop better teachers?
As it was important for us to discover what picture students have of their teachers, we
decided to group the metaphors in the following way: (1) presenting a positive picture of a
teacher, (2) presenting a negative picture of a teacher, (3) and finally, presenting a complex
picture of the teacher. Later it was investigated which features are: (1) appreciated by the
students, in order to strengthen them as teachers-to-be, (2) disliked by the students, so that
the teacher training programme could focus more on helping a future teacher become a real
mentor for her/his students.
Female 15 4 5
Male 7 3 2
Total 22 7 7
It is worth mentioning that after the first year of the general programme of English studies,
students choose a specialization, which is either foreign language teaching or business
translation. Hence, the study group consists of students who have not yet decided on their
career path (Year 1), students willing to become teachers (Years 2 and 3) and those preparing
to be translators (Years 2 and 3). We have decided to include all the students in our study
irrespective of their future career path as we were mostly interested in discovering how they
perceive a teacher in today’s world, no matter if they are interested in becoming one or not.
6.3 Method
The questionnaire was designed by the authors of the present study. It comprised two parts.
The first part focused on data provided by the respondents. It included, inter alia, information
on the year of study, chosen specialization, willingness to choose the teaching profession in the
future. In the second part, the students were asked to share their reflections concerning their
perception of a teacher in today’s school. They were asked to finish the following sentence: A
teacher is like (…) with the use of a metaphor. The students were earlier informed how a
metaphor works. The language of the questionnaire was Polish, as all the study participants
were Polish. However, the students could choose the language in which they preferred to write
their reflections; it was also possible to switch between the languages. The full version of the
questionnaire can be found in Appendix.
6.4 Procedure
The study was conducted in March 2019, at the beginning of the summer semester. The
questionnaires were distributed to the students during their regular classes at the university.
The students filled them in by hand, which took approximately 30 min.
If the response failed to meet either of the two criteria, it was not taken into consideration
in further analysis.2
The second step was to interpret the conceptualization of the teacher provided by the
study participants. First, both the metaphors and their explanations (after the because) were
closely analysed. Finally, the metaphors were divided into three groups: positive metaphor,
negative metaphor, and complex metaphor. In case of any doubts in understanding the
provided metaphors and/or their explanation, or having problems in interpreting them,
individual follow-up interviews were conducted. They served mostly as a validation technique
as they allowed to identify and clarify any mismatch between our interpretation of the
metaphor and its intended meaning.
As can be seen, in general the students produced a similar number of metaphors which
presented a positive (41%) and a complex (45%) picture of a teacher. In comparison to these
two categories, the number of the metaphors that presented a negative vision of a teacher was
relatively low (14%).
It is interesting to note that within the group of first year students the most frequent were
metaphors which pictured the teacher in a positive light. The tendency was different in the
case of students doing their second and third year of study: through their metaphors a
complex picture of a teacher arose. The reason for such a tendency may be connected with a
romanticized vision of a teacher: most of the first year students have just finished their high
school education and have not yet decided about their career path. They have not started their
specialization at the university, hence they may not realize how complex the profession of a
teacher is. It can be seen, however, that the tendency to view the profession of a teacher as a
complex one is becoming higher with every year. It may mean that students are becoming
more and more aware of how complex the profession is, both in terms of responsibilities, time
spent on teaching and preparing for teaching, constant education. Undoubtedly, they see it as a
profession with as many advantages as disadvantages.
The teacher’s role is to familiarise students with the beauty and usefulness of the
knowledge she possesses. (KK)
Also, it was underlined that the way in which the teacher shares her knowledge with her
students matters a lot4:
A teacher is like a guide who shows her students around a new place which is unknown
to them. Her stories and the way she shares them with her tourists make her listeners
either interested or bored, and the rest of the trip may become a chore. (IF)
One of the respondents reflects that a teacher should “help her student to self-develop (…),
to show him the right way (…), and to teach him to learn from his mistakes” (KN). Hence, a
teacher is not seen as a passive transmitter of the knowledge but as a mentor whose role is to
show the way and not to provide a ready solution.
A teacher is also perceived as a wise person. This is how one of the students sees it:
A teacher meets various people on her way and she shares her knowledge based on her
experience with them. She advises them but also makes them reflect. She asks them
questions, to which answers need to be looked for in their own experiences. She strives
to put them on the right path. (BSz)
In this reflection a teacher is viewed as somebody who does not try to impose anything on
her students. She may be compared to a philosopher who encourages his/her students to
discover knowledge on their own.
The last metaphor in this group was Teacher as instructor. However, it did not focus on
instructing students on the subject taught. The author of the metaphor underlined that a
teacher does not only instruct us:
(…) She helps us achieve more, discover our talents, understand. She is the person who
is FOR us and not AGAINST us. (AG)
Hence, it can be said that the role of the teacher is much more complex than purely
teaching. As indicated in the theoretical introduction to this chapter, the relationship that
develops between a teacher and her students is of utmost importance. A teacher should serve
as a signpost to her students, which tries to show which way is worth taking in their future life.
Finally, it is not only the knowledge a teacher possesses that makes her students follow her
teaching; it is her approach to her students that makes a teacher a key person in the life of
young people. She helps her students understand and choose a way suitable for them;
however, she always leaves the final decision to the student, in this way helping him/her
become a mature and responsible human being.
Teacher as Carer
The second group of metaphors underlined the caring, parent-like aspect of a teacher.
School takes up a large part of the children’s time. It is a place which, apart from being a
platform where knowledge is shared, shapes children’s character and behaviour. A teacher is
somebody who accompanies children for a long time. The way in which pupils cope with the
social environment, and the relationship they develop with their teachers, can impact on their
future academic and behavioural performance (Hamre & Pianta, 2001, p. 625). Hence, as
observed by some respondents:
A teacher does not only teach her students a given subject, but also things important in
life, such as resourcefulness, how to cope with problems, how to behave. (PK)
One participant said that a teacher should be assertive and sometimes strict, but also
supporting and smiling (OM). Hence, being a teacher was compared to being a parent. Being a
parent, though, is also like being a friend, which was also noticed by one of the respondents.
When having trouble, we can always ask a teacher for advice or simply talk if we need this
(PK).
A teacher was also seen as a shepherd looking after his sheep. Just like a shepherd takes
care of his flock, a teacher is supposed to care about her students, with care and engagement
(MA). It is especially seen at the initial stage of education, when not so much attention is
placed on academic skills as on taking care of pupils’ well-being in the new environment.
Hence, teachers should teach their pupils trust and respect, encourage and inspire them.
Teachers have an immense impact on their pupils’ well-being, not only when they are at
school, but long after they graduate, as has been explained in the theoretical section. Thanks to
“appropriate treatment,” a pupil grows, flourishes, develops (IM). Just like a flower in the
hands of a good gardener (MNT). A teacher’s role is to inspire her pupils so that they want to
learn more. In this way, pupils will flourish like the most beautiful flowers.
Teacher as Photographer
A teacher—as has been shown above—is more than just an instructor; she cares about her
pupils and may serve as a friend when they are in need. However, a teacher is also seen as
somebody who is capable of capturing in her pupils something that others do not see. It is best
described in the words of one student:
A teacher is like the best photographer. (…) in the most shy person, in somebody not
noticed by others, she is able to see the hidden beauty and show it to the world. She can
teach her student—her model—how to express himself, how to love himself, and how
to open up. She sees what remains hidden to others. (KR)
In this metaphor it is clearly visible that a teacher is seen as a person whose responsibility
is much greater than simply teaching. She is seen as having the capability to help different
types of pupils to flourish: the shy, the introverted, those with problems and SEN students. The
teacher should care about the well-being of pupils, help them believe in themselves, and
convince them that their opinion is worth sharing. Simply, that their voice should be heard. To
see the potential of a pupil needs a good eye of a teacher. However, in order for the teacher to
be able to help a student effectively, she needs to possess the necessary and appropriate skills,
including teaching strategies.
Teacher as Rock Star
The final metaphor presented a teacher as a rock star:
A good teacher is like a rock star: the students wait for her next lesson as if they were
waiting for a concert of their favourite star. (DS)
Here a teacher is somebody who is admired by her students. She is not only respected and
liked by them, but as every star, she is adored by them. Her lessons are like concerts, during
which pupils can admire the show performed by the teacher. Not every teacher has a chance to
become a rock star; it may be a question of one’s character, teaching style, or mindset in
general. However, those who become such stars for their students will most probably make a
long-lasting impact on their pupils.
Negative Picture of a Teacher
The metaphors which presented a negative picture of a teacher focused on the following
aspects: criticism of the education system in Poland (including teaching qualifications and
students’ examinations), the skills of the teachers, teacher mindset, and the character of the
teachers.
Teacher as Police Officer
One of the metaphors which presented a negative picture of a teacher was teacher as police
officer. Although at first one could assume that a teacher is seen as a guard of the students’
rights, the metaphor underlines the negative aspect, or rather negative feelings that a police
officer evokes. This is how one of the students remembers his school times:
When I was younger, I was always afraid when I did not have my homework done.
When I got an F for not having my homework done, I felt as if I were caught by the
police. (DS)
A traffic officer waits, very often unnoticed, to catch drivers for having exceeded the speed
limit. In the same way a teacher is depicted here as somebody who waits to catch a student
who is not prepared for the lesson. Instead of organizing a group revision of the material that
has already been taught, she prefers to examine the students individually, in front of the whole
class, which only adds to the general feeling of stress and punishment. The metaphor
underlines what is still true about many teachers, namely the desire to find the weaknesses
and shortcomings in their pupils instead of their strengths. It might be due to the ill-targeted
teacher training, but it might also be connected with the teacher’s character, in this case being
vicious. The reference to a teacher’s character is also mentioned in another metaphor, namely
teacher as the executioner in the Massacre of the Innocents (NW). Having chosen a very strong
metaphor, the author explains that some teachers make their student’s life difficult
deliberately, often due to personal reasons or life failures.
It seems that the aforementioned way of perceiving a teacher is tightly connected with the
feelings that some teachers (and their lessons) evoke in their students. The possibility of being
asked and caught unprepared evokes a very strong feeling of stress within the students, which
may stay with them long after they graduate. However, what is even worse is how such a way
of organizing the educational process influences the students’ attitude towards school in
general and their success in school. A teacher with such a mindset makes it impossible to
develop a good rapport with her students, which is crucial both for the well-being of her
students and to enhance their learning process, as underlined by Bolitho et al. (2003, p. 525).
In consequence, students will not feel good in the classroom, they may start to dislike the
teacher and her subject, but they may also have problems with deep processing of the
material, which will finally result in problems with learning a given subject.
Teacher as Library with Locked Books
The vision of the teacher that was commonly shared in the students’ metaphors was of the
teacher being a transmitter of knowledge. A teacher is almost always seen as somebody very
knowledgeable, who shares her knowledge with others. However, it may happen that despite
having knowledge, the teacher does not have the skills to share it with her students. Such a
thing was noticed by one of the students, who compares her teachers to libraries where books
are locked:
The teachers I met on my way could not share the knowledge they gained. I always had
to count on my curiosity to learn more, on my family, and on the Internet. (PK)
The student notices that her teachers were not capable of sharing their knowledge with
pupils. If it had not been for her own attempts to look for knowledge, she would probably not
have learned much. The reason for such a situation may be insufficient teacher training, which
did not succeed in equipping the teacher with appropriate tools needed for effective teaching.
Nowadays teacher training programmes should cater for the differences in the environment of
today’s pupils and the one in which their teachers grew up. As Shanker and Barker (2016)
noticed, today’s young generation is much more bored, tired, distracted and restless than their
teachers used to be when they were students. Teachers should be aware of these differences,
but also know how to help their students become more engaged during lessons.
Teacher as Hard Clay
The teacher has already been caricatured as somebody who has knowledge, but does not have
the necessary skills to share this knowledge, and as somebody who waits to punish her pupils
for not being prepared for her classes. Both characteristics are dependent on the teacher and
her willingness to develop both as a human being and as a professional. The teacher is seen as
not having appropriate skills, not developing them in any way, standing in the same place. The
fixed mindset she has developed is not likely to change as is the teacher herself. This, in turn,
results in monotonous lessons, where every lesson is conducted almost in the same way: the
teacher uses the same student’s book, additional materials in the form of photocopies are
given from time to time, pupils are not encouraged to speak, the lessons focus on vocabulary
and grammar, with no reference to the contemporary world. This unwillingness to change is
clearly visible in the reflections shared by one of the students:
Teachers lack an individual approach towards their students. They do not try to bring
out the students’ potential; they only teach what is in the books. Teachers are like hard
clay, which has taken its shape and does not want to change. (KM)
The profession of a teacher is the one in which one needs to develop constantly, both
professionally and personally. This is due to new materials, new technologies that find their
way onto the educational market, but most importantly because of trends that appear in the
area of education. If one wants to be a good teacher, one should be up-to-date with recent
research findings concerning, most importantly, psychology, education, and new media.
However, many teachers do not update their knowledge and skills, which results in them
teaching in an old-fashioned way, which is not attractive to today’s students. Very often this is
the consequence of the heavy workload: as they have too many responsibilities at work and
are not decently rewarded for their efforts, they often find themselves on the verge of burnout.
In order to survive, they do the necessary minimum, which may be seen by their students as
unwillingness to diversify their teaching techniques and materials. Hence, teachers need to
take care of their personal development as well. To cite Quinn et al. (2014) again, highly
effective teachers treat the classroom as an adaptive organization, in which the key to
successful learning are relationships, both between a teacher and her students and among
students themselves. If a teacher takes such a perspective, she should be able to both
accelerate the learning process of her students and manage her own resources.
Whatever the reasons for the teacher’s alleged ineffective teaching methods, it is true that
the Polish system of education does not assess teachers or candidates for the teaching
profession. It was noticed by one of the students that economic rules do not apply to the
profession of a teacher. As explained by the student:
The public system of education produces people who teach knowledge which is not
practical, at the same time not verifying their effectiveness. (JP)
It seems to be true: a teacher who once gets a job, is rather unlikely to lose it, irrespective
of the quality of her teaching.
Complex Picture of a Teacher
Apart from the metaphors which concentrated either on the positive or on the negative vision
of a teacher, many students provided metaphors which indicate the complex nature of this
profession.
Teacher as Box of Chocolates
Being a teacher was compared to being one of the chocolates in a box of chocolates. The idea
could be best put in the form of the quote from the movie Forrest Gump, namely “Teachers are
like a box of chocolates. You never know what you’re gonna get.” The idea behind this
metaphor is that every teacher, just like every chocolate, is different. It is clearly visible in the
reflection below5:
A teacher is like a box of chocolates: sometimes you come across a sweet one,
sometimes with dark chocolate, and sometimes with a surprising filling. Everybody
likes different chocolates, but every chocolate brings something to our lives, evokes
certain emotions in us, from adoration to hatred. We may come across a luxurious one
and a total failure. (AG)
Just like everybody likes different chocolates, every student may like a different teacher,
because of her character, teaching techniques she uses, hobbies, or simply attitude towards
life. However, as indicated above, every teacher brings something valuable to the life of every
student, even to discover which “tastes” we are not fond of. Later, the student mentions that
It is also worth trying new tastes, because maybe something that at first appeared not
to be for us, will turn out to be a nice surprise. (AG)
Every chocolate hides its “sweet secret.” The chocolate melts slowly in your mouth,
uncovering a new taste of the filling. (IKD)
The situation looks similar in the case of relationships between a teacher and her students.
The more the students know their teacher, the more (or less) they may like her. A similar
process was noticed by another student, who compared a teacher to a salad from a fast food
restaurant:
A teacher is like a salad from a fast food restaurant. In theory, it should be boring
(stereotypical teacher) and rated second-class when compared with more interesting
dishes (…). However, thanks to variation and a multitude of possibilities (different ways
of conducting classes, being an interesting teacher) you can develop a taste for her. (AS)
Hence, even if a teacher is looked down on at first, the situation may change over the
course of time. The students may start liking her just like they develop a taste for a salad from
a fast food restaurant, although at first it seemed unattractive.
Teacher as Encyclopedia
The profession of a teacher is very often associated with possessing unlimited knowledge,
especially in the field one specializes in; hence, in the students’ eyes the teacher is seen as a
book, or an encyclopedia. And although the books the teachers were supposed to represent
were portrayed differently by the respondents, what seemed common was the teacher’s
inability to share the knowledge with the students, which was repeated in many of the
respondents’ reflections:
I have had the occasion to meet many teachers in my life. I can compare all of them to
an encyclopedia full of knowledge; however, not all of them were able to share the
possessed knowledge with their students. Some of them can attract the attention of the
students, sell the knowledge well; however, the vast majority discourage the students
with regards to themselves, their subject and learning in general. They kill their
students’ curiosity by conducting boring classes despite being the source of immense
knowledge. (NS)
As above, it was also underlined in other reflections that a teacher possesses immense
knowledge. Fortunately, none of the students reported that they had met a teacher who lacked
any knowledge in the subject she was teaching.6 Still, even if a teacher does possess vast
knowledge, she is not always able to share this knowledge with her students.
Another respondent concentrated on the life approach a teacher takes:
A teacher is like an encyclopedia full of knowledge, which may be divided into three
types: the first is open and comprehensible for everybody, always eager to help; the
second type is closed and willing to stay on the shelf for the whole lesson; and the third
type tries to demonstrate her knowledge, but is written in such difficult language that it
cannot help anyone. (AM)
In this metaphor it is shown that everything depends on the teacher, her approach towards
teaching, as well as her teaching skills. If the knowledge she possesses is impressive, but her
attitude towards her students is negative or she does not have the right skills to share her
knowledge, she will stay “closed” for most of the students.
Teacher as Student
The metaphor Teacher as student concerns three aspects that make the job of a teacher similar
to that of a student. In the first place, it was noticed that teachers need to constantly develop
their knowledge and skills, especially in relation to new teaching methods and teaching
materials. As has been indicated in the theoretical section, this development should concern
both the professional as well as the personal sphere of a teacher. Teachers might experience
problems when faced with their students and with their parents. This is how a respondent
sees the difference between being a teacher and a student:
Earlier, when misbehaving, a pupil was usually sent home with a note to his parents.
However now, the argument with a pupil has more serious consequences, both for a
pupil and for a teacher. (AD)
On top of that, as the student adds, it is the money that both teachers and students get for
their job. He compares it to pocket money, saying that the two parties may complain about the
money they earn.
Teacher as Good Actor
The profession of a teacher is a complex one. Apart from teaching, a teacher needs to prepare
for her classes, take care of the necessary documentation, be in contact with her pupils’
parents. This leads to a picture of teachers having a double life: one which is seen (teaching)
and the other that students and parents do not see. This phenomenon was noticed by one of
the respondents who compared a teacher to a moon:
A teacher is like a moon. We see the beautiful part of it, while the other darker part
stays hidden from sight. Such is the life of a teacher: seemingly bright and glittering, on
the other side dark, mysterious, sometimes sad, sometimes difficult. Nobody knows the
price we pay for our job. We cope with many difficulties, imperfections and obstacles,
to become a beautiful shiny star, which gives its beauty and warmth to our pupils. (IKD)
The comparison used by the respondent seems very true. For many the life of a teacher
may seem a perfect job: not many teaching hours, spending time with children, taking care of
them. However, very often non-teachers do not realize the negative side of this profession,
namely spending long hours preparing for the next class, checking tests, writing reports, and
on top of that a low salary. The picture some may have of a teacher would probably change
dramatically if they were fully aware of what it entails to be a teacher.
The idea of having a double life concerned not only the responsibilities connected with this
profession but also teachers’ private lives. One of the respondents compared a teacher to an
actor, justifying it in the following way:
A teacher is like a good actor. She should always be nice, content and fulfilled in order
not to transfer her complexes, poor mental state and dissatisfaction onto her students.
A sad teacher equals a sad pupil. (AG)
This only adds to the previous metaphor. A teacher is supposed not to mix her private life
with her professional one. Irrespective of the problems she may have at home, in the
classroom she is expected to enter into the role of a teacher, like an actor in the theatre, or a
singer on the stage. There is no place for showing her weaknesses. Hence, it seems so
important to prepare teachers for those difficult moments, and show them how to behave in
such situations, but also to teach them how to manage their own resources so that their job
will still be a source of passion for them.
Teacher as Candle
The actual workload of the teaching profession was also noticed by one of the respondents.
The teacher was compared by her to a candle, which burns out to light the way for others. It
was voiced that in order for a teacher to be an inspiration for her students, she needs to have
boundless reserves of motivation and perseverance. However, it turns out to be very difficult
in practice:
Having worked with children for a few years, I know that you cannot teach all the time.
In order to prepare for the classes well and to be able to support your students, you
need to sacrifice yourself to your job. (KP)
This, in turn, leads to burnout. In order to prevent it, teachers need to be aware that
education is “a co-constructive journey” (Quinn et al., 2014), shaped both by learners and their
teacher. If we shift the perspective from the static one, where our teaching is a ready product
offered to our learners, to a more dynamic one, in which we all create the learning situation,
we may feel less guilty about the failures we encounter on our way. Because, as was indicated
earlier, deep change, just like teaching, “involves embracing a purpose and then moving
forward by trial and error while attending to real-time feedback” (Quinn et al., 2014, p. 24).
Teacher as Bee
Teachers are often taken for granted by society. They do not attract special attention until
something bad happens at school, or, as recently, they go on strike. However, not many realize
that their job, just like the one of bees, is crucial for the whole society:
The student notices that the profession of a teacher is often underestimated and
unappreciated. By some, teachers are regarded as pests. In fact, they are very useful, not only
for the children they teach but also for society as a whole. Teachers need to be aware of how
important the role they have in the lives of the young generation is, in order to cater not only
for their academic achievements but also for their well-being.
Teacher as a Child Lost in the Fog
Much has been already said about the education system in Poland. It seems that everybody
engaged in the system, namely teachers, students and parents, are dissatisfied with it.
Politicians aim at changing the system by constantly introducing changes to the already
existing one. This results in greater chaos as teachers, along with educating children and
taking care of their well-being, are more and more responsible for their pupils’ results in final
exams. Hence, they tend to focus primarily on teaching for test, instead of on the holistic
development of their pupils. This has been noticed by one of the respondents, who compared a
contemporary teacher to a child in the fog:
A teacher is like a child in the fog. She does not know which way she should go as there
are conflicting signals from everywhere. You have to cover the core curriculum (which
does not reflect life skills at all); on the other hand, you would like the knowledge
(which does not reflect the core curriculum) you share with your students to be useful
for them. In Poland we learn for exams, but after passing them we are still stupid. (KZ)
The student realizes that today a teacher is treated as somebody who offers an exam
preparation service, upon which she is later assessed. It happens also in the case of extra
classes and teachers who teach pupils outside school. Their role is almost always limited to
preparing for exams or tests. The holistic development of a student is almost never taken into
consideration as there is no such a thing on the school certificate. What is more, the student
realizes that what is taught at school is very rarely useful in real life. The student concludes
her reflections admitting that she is sure she will never become a teacher in this system.
Teacher as Bird Closed in a Cage
The last metaphor is similar to the previous one. It presents a teacher who is willing to offer
much to her students, however, she is not capable of doing so for many reasons. Sometimes
her efforts are doomed to failure because of her pupils, be they either unwilling to cooperate
or simply not capable of comprehending some material:
A teacher is like a knight on a battlefield. She wants the best for those she teaches but
not always is she successful. Sometimes she needs to use sophisticated methods in
order to achieve the set goal. She strives as much as she can but sometimes the
opponent’s resistance makes victory hard. Just like a knight, the teacher after her
winning fight is more motivated to act. And it is her attitude that matters most! (AR)
The learning process is compared here to a battlefield where one side wins. Even if the
goal, namely succeeding in making the student understand the material, is noble, perceiving
the process of learning as a battle seems pessimistic.
Another reason for the teacher’s failure are the parents of the students. Nowadays the
expectations parents have towards teachers seem to be rising. As observed by one of the
respondents,
A teacher is like Don Quixote fighting windmills. She is a person who strives to teach
something but unfortunately is faced with resistance. Very often it is not the student’s
resistance but the “strange” attitude of a parent who expects miracles but often brings
nothing to the teacher-parent relationship. (KK)
However, the most problematic aspect to be overcome by the teachers in their teaching
process is the curriculum itself. The curriculum has been mentioned as the factor which
demotivates and makes it impossible for the teacher to introduce her own ideas. Hence, the
teacher has been compared to a slave dealer, who would probably prefer to sell vegetables,
however, everybody eats meat (MM). This idea is further developed by another respondent
who compares a teacher to a bird closed in a cage. She points out that even if the teacher is a
passionate one, her passion cannot flourish as the restrictions imposed by the curriculum and
teaching for test make it hard to teach. What is even more, teachers are not expected to fly
high:
They usually cannot spread their wings and fly. In most schools it is not good to be seen
as a teacher with vision. Schools in Poland still propagate old-fashioned rigid teaching
methods, which tie both the teacher and the student. (PP)
Even if the picture painted above is too negative,7 there are a great number of schools in
which not much has changed. Students are taught in a traditional way and, even if new
technologies have made their way to the classroom, they are used either infrequently or
without much reflection. And although teachers do tend to attend teacher training courses, not
much is changing in the classroom itself. The reason for this situation is probably the
complexity of the school environment, where there are many parties involved, all pushing the
teacher in a different direction. The difficulty of this situation is seen by the respondents, who
perceive a teacher in today’s world as somebody who is doomed to fail. And here must come a
solution in the form of a new teacher training programme to reverse this trend.
6.7 Conclusions
In many countries teaching is a profession held in low esteem and with low pay. According to a
survey conducted in 2017 in the USA (AFT, 2017), 61% of teachers reported their jobs to be
stressful at all times or often. Alarmingly, 58% of the respondents of that survey have been
diagnosed with mental health issues resulting from stress. Undeniably, stress factors in
teaching are abundant: the volume of paperwork is increasing, the online register allows
parents, with their complaints and expectations, to be part of the teacher-student dynamics in
what seems like a live mode, the focus on achievements and formal evaluation is at its peak, the
number of children diagnosed with learning and behaviour difficulties is growing, and thus the
need for additional courses is indispensable. Sensing the urgency of the issue, we aimed at
exploring it further. We inspected the theoretical foundations of the educational framework
from a number of perspectives, including: the quality of relationships in a classroom, the
changes in the outside-of-school environment that impact learners, their diversity, and last but
not least, the habits of highly effective teachers, which we felt could be used as a guideline in
creating future teacher training programmes. Additionally, we asked students from our
university to share their reflections in the form of a metaphor to gain a deeper understanding
of the social perception of the profession. Our goal was to establish the components of teacher
training programmes that would increase teacher effectiveness and also contribute to their
long-term well-being. We also sought to establish the elements that may have a long-term
effect on: the quality of classroom dynamics, the academic and personal growth of students,
both teachers’ and students’ well-being in as well as outside of school, and, hopefully, the
image of teachers within the social consciousness.
Having considered the results of the exploratory study and the theoretical framework, we
have concluded that teacher training programmes should include elements of psychology.
Both the researchers (Hattie, 2015; Hamre and Pianta, 2001; Siegel, 2012) and the
respondents of the study agree that it is the quality of teacher-student relationships that has
the longest lasting impact. As much as academic growth is valued by students, it is the nature
of the relationships with their educators rather than their academic contribution that affect
young people most. Most of the respondents referred to teachers’ attitudinal characteristics,
rather than their teaching standards. Therefore, we endeavour to state that, in teacher training
programmes, an individualized approach to students and humanistic values in teaching should
be attributed, at least, the same importance as the curriculum and formal evaluation.
Educators’ acceptance of diversity of opinions and appreciation of students’ agency and
autonomy appears to be in line with both the findings from psycholinguistics (Hattie, 2015)
and neuroscience (Perry, 2005).
Although not a single respondent has made a reference to the concepts of neurodiversity,
special educational needs or the ever changing outside-of-school environment, it is
unquestionable that their awareness of some aspects of positive psychology is fair, if only
intuitive. Both the research in the field of positive psychology and the respondents of the study
align in that it is teachers’ demeanour, with their high standards and high expectations, that
may be the key to motivating new generations of learners. Among social media demands and
intensely stimulating online activities, less personalized contact with peers, and considerable
social and parental pressure, young people need a signpost, a leader, a mentor they can relate
to. That particular role, evidently held in respect by the respondents of this study, resonates
with the fact that the need for a strong bond is one of the fundamental needs across humanity
(Steinke-Kalembka, 2017) and as such may have the power to motivate and engage students in
academic work, soothe them and calm them down. Additionally, students may, to some extent,
feel inspired to disengage from the online world and redress their physiological balance.
Despite no evidence from the metaphor study, we have felt encouraged by the examination
of the studies in positive psychology and neurodidactics to explore the broader context of the
teaching profession. We have come to an understanding that for teachers to be able to notice
and understand the subtleties of neurodiversity, teacher training programmes should include
educational therapy training, which would help teachers in differentiating between various
types of learning difficulties. We tentatively hypothesize that because the fields of positive
psychology and neurodidactics have only recently been invited to the FL domain, it is
impossible to expect prospective teachers to have any type of awareness of the issues, as their
experience within the educational system has not been enriched by the recognition of the
importance of the neuropsychological knowledge by their educators. Therefore, their lack of
experience remains reflected in their responses.
At this juncture, we propose that teachers’ ability to recognise precisely the type of
difficulties experienced by a given student would shorten the unnecessary struggle of many
suffering from developmental dyslexia, specific language disorder or Asperger Syndrome.
Additionally, drawing on research in the field of FL teaching and learning difficulties
(Nijakowska, 2010), we have concluded that the techniques and strategies used in therapeutic
settings might be more successful than traditional methods when used in mixed ability
classrooms. We believe that training in the area of special educational needs may also reduce
the level of stress teachers experience when faced with cases they are unfamiliar with. For the
lack of necessary tools, some educators may experience additional stress caused by
helplessness. More training in this area is expected to entail more tools, more understanding,
which in turn may induce more empathy and patience and reduce stress.
Our final conclusion is that, during their training, teachers should be assisted in the
discovery that teaching is a profession of life-long learning, with hard skills being as significant
as soft skills. A university graduate only just embarking upon a journey of learning, gaining
experience and continuing improvement. Teacher training should include elements of positive
psychology with tools like mindfulness, gratitude and journaling. On the basis of extensive
research into positive psychology, we speculate that these tools might support teachers in
becoming more mindful of their own needs and the needs of their students. Interestingly
enough, we conclude that a lot of negative perception of teachers may be attributed to their
inability to cope with the demands of the job and their negative expression of experienced
stress. The changes in the training programmes would allow teachers to manage their stress
levels, so, as a consequence, teachers might be more willing to give up control in their control-
driven and stress inducing everyday practices, trust the students and engage in more
meaningful relationships.
All in all, we remain hopeful after discovering that it was the first year students who
produced the most positive metaphors. Their positive perception of the teaching profession
leaves us heartened as to the changes we plan to introduce in their training.
Appendix
University of Humanities and Economics in Lodz
March 2019
The following assignment is an introduction to our research on the role of a foreign
language teacher in a modern school. Your answers will allow us to better outline the picture
of today’s teacher and, consequently, adjust the teacher training programme to the
requirements set for teachers today.
A Teacher is like (…)
We would like you to share with us your thoughts on the role of the teacher in today’s
language education.
You can express your thoughts in the language of your choice: Polish or English. You can
also switch between the languages if you consider it necessary.
We do not set a word limit for your reflections. We hope that you will know when you have
expounded the topic.
Thank you for participating in our study!
Ola Majchrzak and Patrycja Ostrogska
1.
Course of study:
(a)
English studies
(b)
German studies
2. Study level:
(a)
B.A. studies
(b)
M.A. studies
3.
Year of study:
4.
Do you work as a teacher? YES/NO
If you have marked NO, are you planning to become a teacher?
5.
What is your experience as a teacher?
(a)
0–5 years
(b)
5–10 years
(c)
more than 10 years
6.
Place of Work:
(a)
primary school
(b)
secondary school
(c)
language school
(d)
Other
7.
Subject taught.:
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Footnotes
1 The number of students who initially participated in the study was 43. However, the metaphors provided by 7 students
were not taken into consideration in the final analysis as they were either incomplete or did not coincide with the explanation
provided.
2 As has been mentioned in the section Study participants, seven students failed to provide valid metaphors and were hence
not taken into consideration in further analysis.
3 It should be mentioned that some of the students provided more than just one metaphor. As long as their metaphors were
valid, they were all taken into consideration. Hence, the overall number of metaphors is higher than the actual number of
study participants.
4 The way in which a teacher shares knowledge with his/her students was also mentioned in the metaphors which presented
a complex picture of a student. However, in that case the students voiced the inability of many teachers to deliver knowledge
to students (cf. section “Teacher as an encyclopedia”).
5 The same idea was expressed by another respondent who compared a teacher to a poker game, explaining that “You never
know what cards you get. You can be lucky and get a teacher that is great, loves his job and inspires you. But you can be
unlucky and get one that will turn your life into a nightmare.” (KP)
6 One of the respondents (NW) mentioned, though, that if a mistake occurs on the teacher’s part, students tend to forget that
a teacher is just a human being who has the right to make mistakes. Students very often expect teachers to be perfect in their
actions, decisions and answers.
7 It has to be said that there are schools in Poland which promote positive education, based on common respect, autonomy,
and positive psychology in general. These are both individual schools and the ones working together under the name Waking
up schools (Polish: Budząca się Szkoła).
Applied
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_10
Danuta Gabryś-Barker
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
One of the main pillars of positive psychology is the role our emotions (affectivity) play in
various contexts of life; it follows that it also plays such a role in the language classroom
(Dewaele et al., 2019; Gabryś-Barker, 2016). The power of affectivity is also exposed very
strongly in the other assumptions of positive psychology: our strengths and weaknesses (the
second pillar) and in the fundamental principles of enabling institutions (the third pillar)
(Seligman, 2002; MacIntyre et al., 2016). This chapter brings together an interest in positive
affectivity and the need for the development of effective teacher training programmes for
undergraduate students who are prospective EFL teachers. The underlying belief is that it is
the teacher that takes responsibility for his or her classes and individual learners in
communicating and interacting in the process of language instruction. At the same time, it is
believed that to some extent teachers also contribute to the personal development of their
learners. The data presented here consists of the reflections of trainee teachers on their
experience of positive psychology classes, introduced as part of a TEFL module in their
programme of studies to become FL teachers, and its contribution to altering the students’
frame of mind in understanding what teaching a foreign language embraces. The observations
made will be the basis for the implications for improving content of a pre-service training of
future FL teachers, focusing on affectivity awareness brought about by the introduction to
positive psychology in TEFL classes at the university.
Keywords Positive psychology – Language tasks – Affectivity – Interaction – Personal
development – Teacher training programme
Danuta Gabryś-Barker is Professor of English at the University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland.
Her main areas of interest are multilingualism, applied psycholinguistics and teacher training.
She has published books and over two hundred articles and edited twenty volumes nationally
as well as internationally for Multilingual Matters, Springer and the University of Silesia Press.
Apart from being on numerous editorial boards of scientific journals, Prof. Gabryś-Barker is
the co-editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Multilingualism (Taylor &
Francis/Routledge) and the co-founder and co-editor-in-chief of the journal Theory and
Practice of Second Language Acquisition (University of Silesia Press). She has also been the co-
organiser of the International Conference on Foreign/Second Language Acquisition in Szczyrk
(University of Silesia) for well over twenty years.
1 Introduction
When staring my career as an EFL teacher many years ago in a typical secondary school in
Poland, I was given a chance to work with students whose basic knowledge of English had
already been acknowledged by entrance proficiency tests and who seemed to have been very
motivated to develop their ability in English further. The training I received at the university at
that time in the old educational/political system was very traditional and restrictive. There
was no access to novel methods, not to mention the scarcity of language materials to use by a
highly motivated class of language students, for whom a prescribed course-book was never
enough. For any newly qualified teacher, still idealistic about the job, the situation was pretty
frustrating and required additional efforts and ingenuity in searching for something new,
something more creative. Also, what seemed to count and constituted one of the more decisive
factors in becoming a successful EFL teacher at that time was my own personal history of
learning English as a foreign language (in the very same school!). This was four years of
experience of being taught by a Scottish native speaker, a lady who did not have any
pedagogical qualifications but who put her heart into teaching and thus not only became a
success as a teacher but also as a trainer and real mentor to her future colleagues, new
teachers of English. I was one of them, at a fairly dark time for language instruction in the early
seventies as it was conceived in state-run schools.
Another factor in my career as a teacher was accidental access to a publication which I still
cherish as an EFL teacher of over forty years of experience and which, as a teacher trainer, I
never fail to recommend to my students. It was a book by Gertrude Moskowitz (1978) entitled
Caring and Sharing in a Foreign Language Class, which I believe is the first publication on how
the principles of humanistic psychology of Carl Rogers and others could be implemented in
foreign language instruction. In my mind, it constitutes a starting point for positive
psychology’s presence in educational settings, a long time before it became acknowledged as a
branch of psychology by Seligman and colleagues in 2000 with their “Manifesto.” Before then,
Gertrude Moskowitz had already articulated her deep belief that (language) education should
embrace not only the cognitive but also the affective dimension of human functioning in life,
and thus was integral to becoming successful in one’s educational endeavours, whether as
teacher or learner. What she emphasised was the role of positive emotions, one’s strengths
(signature strengths) and positive institutions putting the former into practice (for example in
schools). In fact, these are the main pillars of positive psychology (see Budzińska, MacIntyre, &
Seidl, this volume).
To my great satisfaction, the above beliefs which I held as a FL teacher a long time ago, and
which were very much intuitive and partly based on experience when I first started my
professional career at school, have now found their way into what constitutes a legitimate
branch of psychology, positive psychology. This field is supported by theoretical discussion and
empirical evidence coming from research on foreign language teaching and learning by such
people as Rebecca Oxford, Sarah Mercer and Peter MacIntyre. Their contributions and the new
approach turned out to be for me an exciting way of dealing with (inevitable) routine and
helping to avoid professional burnout in my career as an academic teacher, researcher, but
mostly, as a FL teacher trainer.
How can positive psychology function in a teacher training educational environment?
Should it constitute a part of this training and how would EFL trainees respond to such a
course? These are the main concerns of this chapter and my own concerns as a teacher trainer,
constantly searching for new ways to frame the minds of future teachers of foreign languages
in such a way that they will not only be successful professionals but will also enjoy their work
in and beyond their (FL) classrooms.
3.3.1 Lectures
The lectures aimed to introduce the students to the main assumptions of positive psychology
as a legitimate branch of psychology, with its three main pillars (Seligman, 2002), and to
emphasize their relevance in the classroom context (MacIntyre, Gregersen, & Mercer, 2016).
The students were acquainted with Seligman’s model of PERMA (see Budzińska, Jin et al.,
Kikuchi & Lake, Mystkowska-Wiertelak, & Werbińska, this volume) and a critical approach to it
as expressed by the EMPATHICS model of Oxford (2016b) (see Werbińska, this volume). The
model focuses largely on language learner well-being and is also pronounced as being relevant
to the well-being of language teachers and, as Oxford emphasises, it is also adaptable for the
well-being of learners and teachers in other fields (Table 1).
Table 1 EMPATHICS (based on Oxford, 2016b)
Emotion and The human brain is not only a cognitive brain but also an emotional brain, relating thoughts, emotions, and
empathy motivation (Le Doux, 1998)
(…) cognition and emotion cannot be separated thus, emotion is an important dimension of learning (Le
Doux, 1998)
Empathy is both cognitive and emotional. It is an “other-oriented emotional [and cognitive] response elicited
by and congruent with the perceived welfare of someone else” (Batson, Ahmad, & Lishner, 2009, p. 418)
Empathy comprises compassion, sympathy, and caring for oneself and for the others (Oxford, 2016c)
Meaning and Positive psychology believes that all people are goal-seeking and active in defining goals and meaning for
motivation their own endeavours (Linley, Nielsen, Wood, Gillett, & Biswas-Diener, 2010) by making sense of their
experiences and using energy in the directions making sense for individuals (Steger, 2011)
(…) motivation refers to a cumulative arousal, or want, that we are aware of” (Dörnyei, 2009, p. 209)
Perseverance, Perseverance means a continuous effort to reach one’s aims and targets, irrespective of challenges,
including problems and difficulties, or even failures accomplish something valuable despite problems, opposition,
resilience difficulties, or failures
Resilience is an ability to adapt in situations of risk or some form of adversity to go on (Masten, Cutuli,
Herbers, & Reed, 2012)
Agency and Agency means active engagement in actions (such as learning) in an autonomous way, defining the relevance
autonomy and significance of the (learning process (action) and controlling it (Lantolf & Pavlenko, 2001; Lantolf &
Thorne, 2006)
Autonomy means taking responsibility for one’s actions and behaviour with specific focus on learning
strategies and self-regulation (Benson, 2012; Little, 2007; Oxford, 2016a)
Time Positive psychology understanding of time (following Zimbardo (2002, p. 62) is in the value of an optimally
balanced time perspective, in which “past, present and future components blend and flexibly engage, depending
on a situation’s demands and our needs and values”
Habits of The concept refers to composite(s) of many skills, attitudes, cues, past experiences, and proclivities (…)
mind patterns of intellectual behavior that we value more than other such patterns and that we choose to enact at
certain times and in particular contexts (Costa & Kallick, 2008, para. 7)
Intelligences Each person has a certain set of intelligences, defined as sets of biopsychological potentials to process
information (…). Gardner (2006) classifies them into musical, logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, visual-
spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal (social), intrapersonal (introspective), existential (largely
spiritual), naturalistic (ecological, environmental) (Gardner, 2006)
Positive psychology put emphasis on emotional intelligence understood as the ability to understand feelings
in the self and others and to use these feelings as informational guides for thinking and action (Salovey,
Mayer, Caruso, & Yoo, 2011, p. 238)
Self-factors, A psychological definition of self-efficacy according to Bandura (1997, 2006) defines it as one’s level of
especially belief in oneself (self-confidence) when performing an action towards a well-defined goal in a given context
self-efficacy by the circumstances (situated/contextualized)
Each of the sessions of the course related to different assumptions made by positive
psychology and ways of applying them to the (FL) classroom context, looking at, among other
things, positive characteristics, the emotions and feelings of teachers and learners and the role
of contextual factors such as environment, and in particular, institutions (e.g., schools) and
their functions. The content of the course included all the components of the EMPATHICS
model, which were presented and discussed in detail during the lectures.
Each time the students were encouraged to participate by answering questions and
reflecting on the issues discussed. Thus, it seems to me that they received a fairly
comprehensive theoretical background to what was planned for the practical classes, that is,
how to apply positive psychology to teaching English at different levels of advancement and in
different age groups of learners.
On completion of the course, the students were asked to assess and respond to the course
they participated in in the form of a personal, experiential narrative text of 400 words. There
was no detailed instruction given so that the students would not be directed in their
reflections in any way, thus making sure they felt free to focus on what they found to be of
importance and of value.
4 Data
The different dimensions of reflection that the narratives brought expressed trainees’
experience in relation to both themselves as human beings but also as future teachers and
they commented on the effects these activities had on them. They also reflected upon the
didactic aspects of the tasks in relation to teaching a foreign language. Thus, the presentation
of the data here falls into the following categories of analysis:
– Life changing perspective
– Teaching/learning facilitation in and beyond the classroom
– Assessment of a positive psychology course
– “Problems” with positive psychology classes
The generally agreed-upon belief expressed in these narratives sees the main aim of
introducing elements of positive psychology as “Changing negativity into positivity” (subject
7) as if following on from what Helgesen said:
We also know that, as they are feeling good, the neuron connections—learning
centers—are lighting up with serotonin, endorphins, and dopamine—those “feel
good” neurotransmitters that go along with learning (www.Elthappiness.com)
The study is qualitative in nature, so the data analysis does not seek to interpret the
opinions expressed by the trainees quantitatively. At the same time, the codification of the
individual reflections in each narrative establishes the main inductive categories present in
the whole corpus, allowing the highlighting of the proportions between the major categories,
i.e., life changing perspective, teaching/learning facilitation in and beyond the classroom, and
the (possible) problems and challenges positive psychology classes may face. It can be
observed that 60% of the reflections shared by the trainees focus on the facilitative dimension
of positive psychology approaches for both FL teaching and learning processes in and beyond
the classroom. Thus, the course implemented as a new module in TEFL methodology seems to
have met its objective in encouraging a new approach to FL teaching. At the same time, 10% of
the comments also report on the possible challenges and difficulties a positive psychology
approach might generate in a FL classroom. What is also quite significant is that having been
introduced to positive psychology theory and classroom practice, 30% of comments point to
the development of a different, life-changing perspective by the trainees, not just as future
teachers but also as people. The general assessment of the course is very favourable, and the
students expressed their appreciation very forcibly. All this is evidenced in the comments
presented below.
Positivity should be a big part of our daily routine. It can also be with us in a classroom,
which will undeniably make FL lessons more exciting and colourful, and our students
more motivated, inspired and happy, However, we should be careful with the quantity and
quality of activities we use not to have opposite effects. (s. 8)
(positive psychology techniques) can make teaching and learning a FL more
humanistic and therefore, less artificial: Positive relationships between T & Ls Mutual
awareness of positive things about each other (…) An observant teacher sees his students’
strengths (…) holistic self-development (self-awareness of who we are as teacher and
learners. (s. 2)
Nowadays the motivation of students is much lower. That is why positive. psychology.
is important. Even easy to do exercises can be a good motivation (…) young people like to
talk about themselves and their feelings (…). Some of the teachers cannot share positivity
(…) the teacher is the one that sets the mood (…). Positive psychology tasks also develop
emotional maturity of students and teachers. (s. 3)
Students are getting bored with routine (…) learners are passive, they lack enthusiasm
(…) five-minute positive activities will be liked by everybody (…) with young learners and
older learners. (s. 4)
What can be successfully applied in life, can be also applied in teaching (…) I found
activities motivating and became more self-conscious (before applying it in the classroom,
teachers should) applied tasks to themselves (to become self-conscious), source of
motivation and enthusiasm (…) (s. 7)
(…) an unconventional way of looking at coursebook topics, thinking about issues we
do not always have time to consider. (s. 12)
(positive psychology techniques) can make teaching and learning a FL more humanistic
and therefore, less artificial. Positive relationships between T & Ls Mutual awareness of
positive things about each other (…) An observant teacher sees his students’ strengths (…)
holistic self-development (self-awareness of who we are as teacher and learners. (s. 2)
It can help make students’ mood better, especially when they are overwhelmed by the
amount of duties and boring, repetitive lessons. These techniques diversify and enrich a
lesson, they put a smile on their faces and highlight enthusiasm for learning. They create
friendly atmosphere in the classroom between students and students and the teacher (s.
5)
The relation (T-Ss) can take a step closer by applying positive exercises. e.g., at the
beginning of the lesson (a warm-up) (…) as a form of reward and encouragement. This
“dosed” positivity can make them more relaxed and happier. (s. 7)
One of the most important things that a teacher should do is improve the atmosphere
in the classroom (…) should be used regularly throughout the course. Happy and relaxed
students will be more motivated and eager to learn and to co-operate. They will also
memorise more from the contents of the lesson (…) we as teachers need to make our
students more aware of those positive things and help deal with negativity (noticing good
things tasks). (s. 8)
They (the classes) were both interesting and useful for development of our language
competence and teaching. They were also a great opportunity to spend time with our
friends in class in a creative way (…) it perhaps even changed the way in which we refer to
each other. I search for information on pp in my spare time. (s. 11)
(…) a perfect solution in the world full of violence, insults and negative emotions. School is
the place to find appreciation and support (…) develop students’ self-awareness, belief in
their strengths (…) in a Fl class, developing both language and personalities. (s. 20)
To help students understand their feelings and to learn to appreciate small things in
life. (s. 21)
Bad energy of a T affects the surrounding—positive psychology means to overcoming
negativity (…) appreciating light-heartedness, creating distance (…) to make the class feel
comfortable (emotionally secure) (…) physical health, enhancing empathy, reduces
aggression. (s. 22)
Good preparation, cooperation, trying to make others happy. Appropriacy for young
learners who are lazy and spoilt to develop respect., to take them away from a computer
screen. (s. 24)
Feeling of safety and motivating to help others, be positive about each other, grateful.
It brought happiness and nice atmosphere in the classroom (…) awareness of my
strengths (…) (s. 26)
To sum up the above reflections, it seems that the implementation of positive psychology
tasks, as they were used in this course and performed in peer teaching sessions, resulted in
the trainees’ powerful belief that
they offer both the teacher and the class a much stronger motivation to teach and to
learn respectively;
positive psychology tasks decrease the teacher preparation time and are easy to prepare
(which is not without value for any teacher pressed for time), there are also ready materials
to be uploaded from appropriate internet pages or simply an adaptated coursebook
material can be used;
the personal topics of these activities make them much more relevant for the learners
where they not only disclose what they think and feel but simultaneously learn the language
to do it and share with their peer group;
this sharing is an important aspect of the FL learning process, as it demonstrates that
language means authentic communication and interaction resulting in better
understanding, in the group working together, sharing similar doubts and anxieties, but also
importantly, joys and positivity;
these activities are also seen as being undoubtedly a source of fun, engaging all
senses/intelligences in their performance, thus being more effective tools in learning than
traditional course-book based tasks.
Additionally, as a result of the above, the trainees reported that they observed a better
classroom climate as they felt more secure and had a chance to express their various
enthusiasms. What was also exhibited was enhanced cooperation between the students and
the development of group cohesion. On the level of the individual student, the use of positive
psychology had a visible impact on their emotional development and confidence in themselves
as individuals and as a part of their peer group.
Positive psychology was seen as opening another door to reality and the classes on positive
psychology, as one of the students put it, (…) definitely stood out for me from all the other
subjects during our studies (subject 27). The above thoughts give evidence of what Oxford
(2016b) embraced in her EMPHATICS model presented earlier (Table 1).
4.4 “Problems” with Positive Psychology Classes: A Word of Caution from the
Trainees
Despite all the positive attitudes expressed by the trainees, they also voiced some criticisms
and pointed out the areas of difficulty and problems both a teacher and his/her students may
be faced with when using positive psychology tasks:
If students do not take them (activities) seriously, the teacher should improve them but
also be aware of the current mood. (s. 4)
Some activities may seem childish (e.g., drawing a family), broken families versus task
on a happy family—sensitivity of choice. (s. 5)
We must be careful with the content of the exercises (…) too personal to be presented
in public, may even create negative emotions. (s. 7, 27)
Some topics may be sensitive, e.g., a family, death or life expectations. (s. 6, 23)
Individual approach of a teacher to students (shy students) (s. 18)
Not to overwhelm learners by number of tasks (…), not used as routine at every lesson
(s. 8)
Age factor—not with children (too sensitive, crying) (subject 8), inappropriate
because of the emotional immaturity (s. 21)
Possible noise during the activities (s. 11)
One of the trainees even said, “I have mixed feelings about these tasks” (subject 24). The
emphasis of “warning” comments was mostly put on the need for teachers’ sensitivity to the
group and to individuals, to the present class mood and to classroom management problems
which may emerge. What was also seen as essential was the teacher’s ability to convince the
learners of the value of these activities, which may present a novel learning experience to
them and thus may be seen as intrusive or even threatening. To sum up, the trainees have
strong beliefs about the nature of the tasks and offer some guidelines and warning comments
to teachers.
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© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. Budzińska, O. Majchrzak (eds.), Positive Psychology in Second and Foreign Language Education, Second Language Learning
and Teaching
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64444-4_11
Kamila Lasocińska (Corresponding author)
Email: [email protected]
Łukasz Zaorski-Sikora
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
This chapter presents the results of an educational and research project which used
biographical narrative and metaphor. It was carried out among a group of pedagogy students
during practical classes in philosophical anthropology. The project was aimed at supporting
learners’ reflectiveness, self-cognition, their ability to perceive the world and their own lives
from different perspectives. It sought to help learners become aware of important values and
to determine the sense and meaning of different life events. During the classes, students were
offered biographical tasks that encouraged them to analyse their own life experiences. In these
assignments, a key role was played by questions posed to students, which stimulated their
narrative statements about different stages of life, as well as by visual metaphors that allowed
them to understand their own expectations, needs and emotions. In this chapter we present
conclusions drawn from an analysis and interpretation of students’ narratives and visual
metaphors, as well as from observations made during the classes.
Keywords Biography – Metaphor – Narrative – Self-creation – Self-awareness – Values
Kamila Lasocińska is a graduate of the Academy of Fine Arts in Łódź. She received a PhD
degree in pedagogy at the University of Łódź. She works as a lecturer at the University of
Humanities and Economics in Łódź. Her research interests focus on creative activity related to
one’s autobiographical experience. As an educator, she specialises in didactics of creativity,
aesthetic education, and also conducts workshops in interpersonal skills.
Łukasz Zaorski-Sikora is a philosopher, a doctor of humanities, a lecturer at the University
of Humanities and Economics in Łódź. He is an enthusiast and a practitioner of e-learning. He
deals with ethics, aesthetics and philosophical anthropology, as well as art criticism. He is
convinced of the need for philosophy understood not only as an academic discipline but above
all as a way of understanding and communicating within the world around us.
1 Introduction
In this chapter, we reflect on the need to implement didactic approaches into adult learners’
education that aim at the development of their personal competencies related to learning from
their own life experience, self-realisation, creativity, and building their autonomy. We discuss
an educational project conducted with pedagogy students from the University of Humanities
and Economics (AHE) in Lodz, during the Philosophy of Human Nature course. Initial
questions deal with aspects of education that relate to the basics of positive psychology: How
can one enrich adult education with activities that inspire learners to live a better life, fulfil
their needs and realise the importance of their emotions? How does the role of the educator
and her/his relations with adult learners change when we include knowledge and reflections
from everyday life experience in the teaching process? How can we organise the teaching
process with regard to planned activities (in this project it is the philosophy of human nature)
to realise and fulfil the needs of learners, for example, their need for happiness, self-realisation
or freedom?
The purpose of these reflections is to search for a combination of education and an
approach that would highlight personal experiences of learners and give them the ability to
articulate their expectations, needs and emotions, and allow them to find meaning in actions
of everyday life. This assumption has been a starting point for developing an educational
project on the philosophy of human nature course, with the use of biographical teaching and
metaphors that provoke us to reflect on life events. These classes also allowed us to collect
students’ statements (narratives) which we could analyse. The teacher’s observation of the
classes was important.
4.2 Participants
The project involved 78 students, aged between 19 and 50, women and men; they were first
year students of pedagogy, extramural studies and online studies.
4.5 Procedure
The concept of biographical narrative applied by us in the human nature philosophy classes
project did not involve learners telling their life stories and sharing them with other
participants, like in traditionally conducted biographical workshops, but particular
biographical tasks were prepared as part of a specific cycle of activities, that set different
perspectives in approaching participants’ lives. Additionally, questions for those tasks were
prepared to deepen learners’ reflection and to start a dialogue with other participants.
An important part of the proposed biographical tasks for the participants was to address
three time perspectives—past, present and future. This stems from the assumption that
reflecting on events in life allows one to arrange one’s memories, enables one to adopt
different attitudes towards the past (Demetrio, 1999; Bugajska & Timoszczyk-Tomczak, 2014)
and helps one to creatively design one’s future (Dubas, 1997; Lasocińska, 2013). By “looking
at” her/his past, a person acquires self-knowledge (Demetrio, 1999). At the same time,
reliving one’s past can be a constructive element of the vision of the future (Bugajska &
Timoszczyk-Tomczak, 2014, pp. 11–40). Martin Seligman claims that balancing the past with
the present and future helps one to evaluate if a person is on the “right track.” Therefore the
analysis of events serves to make sure that appropriate decisions are made for the future
(Seligman, 2002b, p. 117). The first step in biographical actions is retrospective. Developing a
summary of one’s current life allows a person to reflect on one’s past and to build images
related to possible future life experiences. Referring to the past can be a guide, an inspiration
for setting the course of future actions, and can help in the process of planning, designing and
realising goals (Bugajska & Timoszczyk-Tomczak, 2014). In biographical activities, one cannot
neglect the crucial role of the present, which is an important point of reference in the analysis
of events, and influences our reflections. Human life is, first of all, the “here and now.” By
referring to the present, we are building an image of what’s to come. At the same time the
present is difficult to grasp. To fully experience the present, one needs concentration,
attention, focus (Bugajska & Timoszczyk-Tomczak, 2014, p. 117), “immersing in the moment”
and seeing its exceptional value. Working with different time frames in a biography is
supposed, among other things, to define how we want to live, what activities are meaningful,
and to help build a good life, with regard to the “now” as well as the “future.”
Another important element of the biographical method we applied as part of the human
nature philosophy classes was metaphor. Here we refer to the assumption that the purpose of
a metaphor is to help us partially understand some kind of experience on the basis of another
experience (Lakoff & Johnson, 1988, p. 182). The use of metaphor in our project aimed to
support learners’ reflection on life experiences. It included visual and verbal metaphors. We
planned three biographical metaphors that would organise biographical experiences and
support reflection: a life path metaphor, a book metaphor, and a mapping metaphor.
The first one, the life path metaphor, describes a linear perspective, constant and
organised. In a biographical analysis, it searches for meaningful moments in life, events that
end specific stages of life and begin new ones. The book metaphor, on the other hand,
highlights the importance of a narrative approach to one’s own life. The order of the narratives
doesn’t have to be linear. It enables participants to approach their life as if it were a book,
which the “author” creates as he/she wants (Lasocińska, 2014, pp. 41–42; Tokarska, 1999, pp.
172–182). These biographical tasks seek to transform one’s own life experiences into the form
of a story that could be a base for learning, self-understanding, and understanding others. We
also refer to the “life map,” which shouldn’t be treated literally, as it is a representation of a
certain “territory” in which a person operates, showing different areas of life and the
connections between them. A person reflecting on biographical experiences defines a general
structure of values and important areas of life.
Biographical tasks proposed as part of the human nature philosophy classes refer to the
division of biographical activities, described in a different paper (cf. Lasocińska, 2018), which
assumes a two-phase division of biographical actions based on the concept of stability
(continuity) and change (variability). The first phase accentuates “stability” (continuity) based
on the introduction of biographical activities that allow the creation of an organised structure
of important life events, defining their meaningfulness for participants. The second phase
accentuates “change” (variability), which is often referred to as “living differently” (Lasocińska,
2013, pp. 107–141, 2018, pp. 152–155), because its purpose is to change one’s way of thinking
about one’s life, to reinterpret life events and to change the perspective of perceiving
experience. It allows for the creation of an alternative narrative of life that deviates from the
original structure. It inspires different thinking, creativity, auto-creation. It has a less obvious
character than phase one—it encourages us to go beyond traditional rules and structure of
interpretation of one’s biography. Each phase associated with biography contains
exercises/tasks that go back to biographical experiences, and aims to develop the abilities to
speak about one’s life. Each exercise incorporates questions that encourage reflectiveness.
Each exercise is based on tasks that require the completion of a simple graphic form (symbol,
metaphor), allowing imagination to work, making the conversation with one’s inner
experiences “safe” and their meaning easier.
In our project, conducted as part of the human nature philosophy course, phase one
related to the concept of “stability” (continuity) was the first step of biographical work, which
we labelled as a retrospective biography. This phase encouraged learners to look back at their
own past. The task that we implemented required learners to draw a line, which symbolised
their life, and to mark and define the most important events.
Participants also had the opportunity to enrich their vision of biography with symbols,
signs or words. Next, after drawing the lifeline, the participants needed to answer the
following questions:
What values were important to you in each stage of life? How did you change during those
stages? Who are you? Who do you want to be? Who or what controls your fate? In what aspects
do others influence you? In what aspects of life do you decide about yourself? When are you
independent? When do you feel free? When do you lack your freedom?
The second phase consisted of two parts of biographical activities. The first one, about
changing the perspective of seeing one’s life, strongly referred to the present. Shifting
perspective or “living differently” (cf. Lasocińska, 2013, pp. 107–141, 2018) referred to the
question: how would you describe your life differently?
Students were asked to produce any graphic form (but different from the lifeline from
phase one), that would show their life in a way different from the previous exercise. They were
expected to change their life story, to show it from a different perspective, to search for any
divergent interpretation of their biography. Students in this exercise related to the book
metaphor, by creating their own “authorial” narrative and its division. They were encouraged
to take a position as “authors” of their lives. After creating a picture of life using the new
graphic form, learners were asked to answer the questions:
What aspects of life experiences did you show in this part? What is the difference between this
image and the lifeline? What changes did you introduce? What important things does it tell about
your life? What values does it reveal? Who are you in the context of this diagram? What new
aspects did you show about yourself? While looking at the picture answer, what barriers,
limitations would you like to overcome? In what areas would you like to gain freedom?
The last phase was the other part of phase two (referring to variability) in our project. This
was called prospective biography. Participants referred to their general vision of the future,
creating their prospective biography (cf. Lasocińska, 2018, pp. 152–153). At this stage,
students were asked to name the three most important values they would like to develop for
the next 20 years. This task referred to the map metaphor. It encouraged participants to mark
certain points prominent in the future that would build its imaginary structures. After
choosing the core values, participants were asked to answer the questions:
What will be the most important values in the future perspective? How will the implementation
of these values influence your self-development, the acceptance of change and passage of time?
How will the implementation of these values affect people around you? What can you change in
your environment because of them? How do the values connect with the sense of freedom?
Sample statement No. 1: Family problems meant that I had to become an adult at an
early age and take care of myself.
Sample statement No. 2: Past unpleasant events that took place in the most
beautiful years of a young man entering adulthood taught me that one should not take
life as someone else describes it, but always form one’s own judgment in every matter.
This was an opportunity to see new perspectives of self-realisation. In becoming adults,
students can draw knowledge from experiences that shaped them.
The introduction of linear order allowed them to see the complexity and richness of
different life experiences and to understand their meaning and importance. Another effect of
the exercise was the fact that students saw the area of emotional and subjective order with
regard to their lives.
Sample statement: Every stage, every event listed on my lifeline was important to me.
The events mentioned above caused both negative and positive emotions in me. The
death of my grandfather made me realise that every day should be valued and that we
should spend every spare moment with the people we love. The birth of my brother
showed me that patience always pays. Starting high school taught me to be more self-
reliant. Engagement made me realise what love really is. When I decided to move out of
the family house, I had both positive and negative emotions. I knew that thanks to this
decision I would see for myself what living on my own is all about. But there were some
concerns about whether I could handle everything on my own. Starting a new job and
studies made me mentally stronger and increased my confidence.
In this stage of biographical activities, there was a sort of return (retrospection) to what
shaped a person’s life, which allowed personal goals and ambitions of participants to be
identified. Those aims were related to the values that were important and allowed them to
achieve happiness and enjoyment in life.
Sample statement: In addition, there are studies thanks to which I hope to return to
Poland and find a job in my future profession. This is all very important for me and my
close family and that is why I want to do my best.
The visual aspect of the activity was important, but so too were the questions that allowed
each student to engage in dialogue with the rest of the group. This exercise resulted in a
discussion on freedom in the context of life experience. This didactical activity encouraged and
inspired students to understand and widen their perspective of freedom and autonomy, which
was in line with the exercise topic (human nature philosophy). An important part of this task
was reflection on how participants saw the perspective of freedom in their everyday
experiences:
Realising the potential of their agency enabled participants to see themselves as creators,
consciously shaping their lives, themselves and their future (see Kuleta, 2002; Lasocińska,
2018, pp. 148–149). The questions posed in the first task inspired participants to create an
image of themselves in the context of the changes taking place over time. The students showed
in their statements how they built the concept of their own “self,” referring to the sphere of
indicated values and future plans.
Sample statement No. 1: I think I’m becoming more and more open and serious about
life. In the future, I would like to be a person who is not afraid of challenges and who
has more inner strength.
Sample statement No. 2: Over time, I am becoming a person who appreciates health
and stability more and more. It is important for me to rest, to have peace of mind and
time for my loved ones. I can choose my friends and acquaintances. I plan my life, but I
take it as it is.
Sample statement No. 3: I’m becoming a pedagogue, which is something I must
mention. Being a pedagogue is a really important task in my life. I always knew I
wanted to work with children. I’d also like to have a few children of my own, that’s my
goal for the near future. It is not work but family that is the source of strength. I want to
be responsible for my family.
Sample statement No. 5: As a child, I was very sociable, and during adolescence I
became a shy person who slowly opened up to the world. Today I am a confident
person, although I am still shy when making new friends. I would like to be open to
everyone. I would like to become a person who pursues their dreams and is more
spontaneous.
Sample statement No. 6: I want to continue being a mature individual who strives
for continuous growth. I want to continue being independent, strong and brave. I want
to be a role model for my children.
Grasping the concept of freedom and achieving autonomy in the first exercise was a good
starting point to reflect on different views on life so students could begin the second stage,
related to change. At this point the challenge was to present the biography in a way different
from our first exercise, creating a graphic form that would show their lives from a different
perspective (living differently). This activity allowed students to use diverse symbols,
metaphors and shapes (for example: circle, human, book, picture, mountain, jigsaw puzzle,
ladder), thanks to which one could see a new perspective of biographical experience. The
effect of this exercise was that the person experienced self in a conscious and responsible way.
After completing the exercise, students wondered how their standing, emotions and actions
affect the way they live, how they perceive life, what defines them, leads to self-fulfilment. In
other words, the first assignment (lifeline) defines the perspective of the road, processes,
events that we do not control. The second assignment shows the point of view of a traveller,
who can influence her/his life experience. The difference in perspective reveals many areas of
life where participants can decide for themselves. These are the areas of excellence and
autocreation, which are also a part of a good life.
Sample statement No. 1: While drawing this picture, I realised that many things depend
on me, which I overlook in everyday life, I forget about it.
Sample statement No. 2: The imposed form of a line was a limitation for me, I did
not find myself entirely in its symbolism. In its present form, the story of my life, which
I see as a tangled, multi-layered and intermingling picture of a garden—of
changeability, blossoming and closing but above all of the whole network of
connections and relationships, the phenomena that are resultant and emerging from
each other—is closer to me and speaks about me much more fully. This mutual
interpenetrating is a fundamental aspect of the currently created image. There wouldn’t
be many events or decisions in my life if there hadn’t been one or another earlier. There
wouldn’t be many of them if my aspirations or the perspective shaped by previous
experiences were different. In this version of the drawn biography, instead of on
turning points or cold facts, I focused on the genesis of the phenomena, events and
decisions, as well as on their development and consequences.
Thanks to the questions presented in this exercise, a discussion was initiated about
different views on one’s life. Participants came to the conclusion that our life is what we think
of it. Additionally, the metaphors and symbols used in the exercise inspired them to express
different interpretations and associations in relation to the drawing. Metaphor-based
visualisations carry a rich content, but they also make it easier to talk about things related to
oneself, related to one’s life, using a picture, a symbol of many different meanings. Thanks to
the visual exercise, students decide how much personal information they want to share. The
second exercise was a challenge for students, whose task was to create images of their lives, in
a way other than the linear perspective from the previous exercise, to show how one can look
differently at life. This exercise resembles the creation of a book, which we write and can
construct in a way that best suits us.
Sample statement: I presented my life as an open book. I chose this medium because I
want people to judge me on what I can do, what I like, what ideals I represent. (…)
Despite difficult moments, I try to achieve my goals. I also have many interesting
passions, which I often do not talk about because I do not like to brag. I’d like to come
out of my “shell” and show others my colourful personality. I’ve been a volunteer for
years. I’ve been working in many organisations. It was my love for helping others that
shaped me as a person. Additionally, it made me realise the fragility of life, so I try to
enjoy every moment, I like to try new things.
The third exercise also belongs to the category of change and provokes a deeper reflection
on values and their realisation in everyday life. Here, we refer to the statement in which
Csikszentmihalyi (1996) explains that “in order to gain personal control over the quality of
experiences, one must learn to find satisfaction in everyday experiences” (p. 94). In this stage
students tried to figure out what the realisation of specific values would mean for them, what
implications would result from that for them and others. This task gave them an opportunity
to reflect on the thing that would be the foundation of their self-realisation in the future
(prospective biography). Each student set the goals and tasks for him/herself that would
determine the shape of his/her future life.
Sample statement No. 1: I want to pass on to my children what I was taught at home, I
want to show them what it means to love, respect and trust another person so that they
can be good, honest and responsible for themselves and others in their adult life.
Sample statement No. 2: When I work with people with disabilities in the future, I
will further develop my empathy for others and see how satisfied they are with my
help.
Sample statement No. 3: I would like to keep working on myself, strive for
perfection, grow. I would like to improve my relationship with family and friends. I
want to work on myself, so that I can be more open to people and act in relationships
the way I would like to be treated.
Sample statement No. 4: Work will probably give me a lot of benefits, I’ll certainly
learn a lot. The people I will work with may be people with whom I will be able to talk
about my views and most important values, and perhaps they will have similar views to
mine.
The map perspective appears here. This perspective reveals a territory of future actions,
building a plan and a blueprint for the future. During this stage, participants define what
activities are worth undertaking, what challenges to accept. Participants can also reflect on
daily activities, while asking the question proposed and encouraged by Csikszentmihalyi:
Is what I do really what I want to do? Will it also be important in the future? Is it worth
the price that I will have to pay? (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 391)
6 Conclusions
The presented project is an example of teaching directed at social skills development,
broadening of self-knowledge, deepening of reflectiveness and self-reflection, and also
building knowledge based on one’s life experience. The project is complex and aimed at
reforming the traditional way of conducting human nature philosophy classes in a way that
allows us to refer to the emotional sphere, our own thoughts about values, freedom, time,
happiness and fulfilment. The biographical tasks encourage reflection on what in our lives is
subjective, objective, and what is absolutely most important. Changing our perspective on life
and searching for goals for the future benefits our lives, and is aligned with what is important
for any given person, and not forced by some trends in life or by other persons. As Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi (1996) writes: “the optimal state of inner experience is one in which there is
order in consciousness.” According to Csikszentmihalyi, it is possible when a person
concentrates on possible goals, and can refer them to his or her own experience (p. 24). An
important step on the road to fulfilment is to reflect on what is important in life, what things
are important enough to have time and attention dedicated to them, and which ones lead to
internal confusion. Reflection on life experiences provides participants with the ability to
make such a distinction and to find activities that help them achieve important goals in life. In
the opinion of Csikszentmihalyi (1996), actions and reflections should support one another
because “action by itself is blind, reflection impotent” (p. 391).
When talking about the biographical method that we used during the classes, it is
necessary to mention the importance of the role of educator/teacher, who creates an
environment that encourages reflection, openness and trust. The biographical tasks are all
about the context of personal experiences, so it is crucial to avoid assessment, giving pieces of
advice or answering the questions asked. The important thing is the educator’s attitude,
her/his mindfulness, interpersonal skills, ability to listen, empathy. Another essential element
is the appropriate preparation of biographical activities so that the participants (students) can
share with others only what they want to discuss, and do it in a way that is safe for them.
Visual symbols and metaphors, which can be interpreted in different ways, allowing
participants to talk about what is personal to them in an indirect way, are also a significant
aspect of our classes. The result is that the adult learner in the area of biographical activities is
an expert in the topic of personal life and understanding of events. The teacher listens, but
neither gives advice nor knows better, merely asks questions that stimulate participants to
auto reflection.
We are fully aware that this chapter is only a form of exemplification of using the
biographical narrative and metaphor in adult education, but, at the same time, we believe that
the biographical method can be implemented into a teaching process in different areas of
education. It is also worth emphasising that other researchers also indicate the role of
(autobiographical) reflection in the process of active and conscious learning and self-
development, as well as the importance of metaphor in interpreting everyday experiences (see
Cortazzi & Jin, 1999; Schӧn 1983; Szymankiewicz, 2017; Werbińska, 2004; Werbińska, 2010).
The use of biographical narration includes the personal context and makes it possible to refer
to one’s life experience, thus motivating students/learners to engage in the learning process.
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