Compton Effect:

When high energy photon collides with a target (electron) and is scatter, then wavelength of the scattered
photon becomes greater than the wavelength of the incident photon. This phenomenon is called Compton
Effect.

Explanation: The explanation was given by Compton which was based on quantum theory of light. According
to quantum theory when photon of energy hυ strikes with the substance some of the energy of photon is
transferred to the electrons, therefore the energy (or frequency) of photon reduces and wavelength increases.

Various assumptions were made for explaining the effect these were:
(i) Compton Effect is the result of interaction of an individual particle and free electron of target.
(ii) The collision is relativistic and elastic.
(iii) The laws of conservation of energy and momentum hold good.

Law of Conservation of energy

The energy of the system before collision = The energy of the system after collision

EP + Ee = E′P + E′e

Or, ..............(1)
According to the principle of conservation of linear momentum along and perpendicular to the direction of
incident photon (i.e., along x and y axis), we have

P + Pe = P′cosՓ + P′e cos θ (X axis)

..........(2)

And
 P + Pe = P′sinՓ - P′e sinθ (Y axis)

or

..............(3)

Squaring (2) and (3) and then adding, we get

or, ..(4)

Squaring equation (1), we get

(5)

Subtracting (4) from (5), we get

.. (6)

According to the theory of relativity

Multiplying both sides by c2, we get

.... (7)

Using equation (6) equation (7) becomes

 .. (8)

To find the relation in term of wavelength, let us substitute and, we thus have

Compton shift

Question: Describe the result of Rutherford’s alpha particle experiment.

Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment (Rutherford)

The thickness of the gold foil used in the experiment was 6 x 10-7 m. On the other side if the gold plate there was
movable zinc sulphide screen. When an alpha particle is incident on the screen fluorescence it was observed.

After performing his experiment he made observations:

 Almost all the alpha particles did pass through the foil but

 Some alpha particles were deflected off at different angles as observed at the screen of the detector.

 Very few of the alpha particles (one or two) even bounced backwards after hitting the gold foil.
On the basis of these observations Rutherford made the following conclusions:

 Since most of the alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil without any deflection, most of the
space within the atoms is empty.

 Since some of the alpha particles (which are big in size) were deflected by large angles or bounced
backwards, they must have approached some positively charged region responsible for the deflection. This
positively charged region is now called the nucleus.

 As very few alpha particles undergone the deflection, it was concluded that the volume occupied by the
central region ( nucleus ) is very small.

Bohr postulate:

Neil’s Bohr for his model proposed two revolutionary postulates which are known as Bohr’s postulate.

The postulate of Stationary State: the electron can move around the nucleus staying at certain fixed orbits
where the angular momentum L of the electron is the product of the integer n and h/2π

That is L = n h/2π

The postulate of frequency: Bohr imagined that when an electron is transferred from one stationary state
to another state it radiates or absorbs energy. The radiate or absorbed energy is equal to difference of energy of
two states. If an electron moves from a higher energy state Eu to a lower energy El the energy of emitted photon
will be, hf = Eu - El

# Question: Find an expression for Radius and Energy of electron revolving in the nth orbit of a hydrogen
atom.

Expression for Radius and Energy of hydrogen atom according to the Bohr Model

Let the electron moves around the nucleus in a circular path of radius r and with speed v. so the centripetal force
applied on the electron is,

𝑚𝑣 2
Fc =
𝑟

Again the charge of proton is also e so the electrostatic force between the proton and the electron is

𝑒2
Fe =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

Since the electrostatic force supplies the centripetal force, so

 Fc = Fe

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑒2
Or, =
𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

𝑒2
Or, V2 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑚

𝑒
Or, V =
√4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑚

For nth orbit, then the equation.

𝑒
Vn =
√4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 𝑚

Form first postulate of Bohr, the condition for stationary

𝑛ℎ
L=
2𝜋

𝑛ℎ
or, mvnr n =
2𝜋

Putting the value of Vn in the above equation obtained from equation

𝑚𝑒 𝑛ℎ
rn =
√4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 𝑚 2𝜋

m2 e2 r2n 𝑛2 ℎ2
or, =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 𝑚 4𝜋2

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 ∈𝟎
or, rn =
𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐

The total energy of the electron is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies:

En = Ek + Ep

Here the Kinetic energy of the electron is

1 1 𝑒2 1 𝑒2
Ek = mvn2 = m =
2 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 𝑚 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛

Now the potential energy Ep of the electron. Where V = e / 4 𝜋 ∈0 𝑟𝑛

 Ep = -eV = - e2 / 4 𝜋 ∈0 𝑟𝑛

So, we get the total energy

1 𝑒2 1 𝑒2
Ek = - e2 / 4 𝜋 ∈0 𝑟𝑛 = -
2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛

Putting the value of rn

𝒎 𝒆𝟒
Ek = -
𝟖𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 ∈𝟐𝟎

Radioactivity:
The phenomenon of emission of radioactive rays from radioactive element is called radioactivity.

Characteristics of radioactivity

1. The element whose atomic number is more than 82 only those atoms are normally radioactive. Exception
are there as 16C is a radioactive element.

2. Radioactive substance radiates α, β and γ ray.

3. Radioactivity is purely a nuclear phenomenon and due to radioactive decay one element is transformed
into another element.

4. Radioactivity is a spontaneous aimless phenomenon and it is not influenced by any external like pressure
heat electricity or magnetism.

Type of radioactive ray:

Radioactive are three types 1. Alpha particles (α) 2. Beta particles (β) 3. Gamma particles (γ)

Alpha particles (α):

The alpha particle is simply a helium nucleus, comprised of two protons and two neutrons. It is associated with
the radioactive decay of elements of high atomic number. For example,

Properties

1. Alpha ray are positive charged particles. Their charge is 3.2 x 10-19 C.
2. These are defected by magnetic and electric fields.

3. Those rays can produce ions.

4. These rays can affect photographic plate

5. These rays produce fluorescence on Zinc suphide screen.

6. The speed of alpha particles is of the order of 107 m/s.

7. Their charge is 3.2 x 10-19 C.

8. Mass is 6.694 x 10-27 kg.

Beta particles (β)

The beta particle is an electron that has been ejected from a neutron‐rich nucleus. It differs from an electron only
because it is a product of radioactive decay. This leads us to observe that the neutron is essentially a proton with
an attached electron. During the radioactive decay event, the neutron reverts to a proton, an energetic electron
and a neutrino that escapes the nucleus. For example,

Properties

1. These rays are negative charged particles. Their charge is 3.2 x 10-19 C.

2. These are defected by magnetic and electric fields.

3. Those rays can produce ions in gas

4. These rays can affect photographic plate

5. These rays produce fluorescence.

6. The speed of Beta particles is of the order of 108 m/s.

7. Their charge is 1.6 x 10-19 C.

8. Mass is 9.1 x 10-31 kg.

Gamma particles (γ)

The nucleus has orbiting electrons which indeed have some energy, and when an electron jumps from a level of
high energy to a level of low energy, there is an emission of a photon. The same thing happens in the nucleus:
whenever it rearranges into a lower energy level, a high-energy photon is shooted out which is known as a gamma
ray.

Properties

1. These are electrically neutral.

2. These are not defected by magnetic and electric fields.

3. The speed of Gamma-radiations is the same as the speed of light.

4. The ionizing power of Gamma-radiations is very low.

5. Gamma radiations affect a photographic plate.

6. Gamma radiations cause fluorescence when they strike a fluorescent material.

7. No charge.

8. No mass.

Law of Radioactive Decay

When a radioactive material undergoes α, β or γ-decay, the number of nuclei undergoing the decay, per unit time,
is proportional to the total number of nuclei in the sample material.

If N = total number of nuclei in the sample and dN = number of nuclei that undergo decay in time dt then,

dN / dt ∝ – N

or, dN/ dt = - λ N

Where λ = radioactive decay constant or disintegration constant

Radioactive exponential law

Let us consider N0 be the total no. of atoms present. dN /dt be the rate of disintegration of atoms. N be the no. of
atoms present after time’s’t. According to decay law,
This equation gives the no. of atoms present after certain interval of time. This equation can also be expressed in
graph as:

The total number of nuclei drops very rapidly at first, and then more slowly (Figure).

A plot of the radioactive decay law demonstrates that the number of nuclei remaining in a decay sample drops
dramatically during the first moments of decay.
 Fig: the rat of change decay with time.

Half-life:

The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time required for one half of the radioactive substance to decay.

The number of radioactive nuclei remaining after an integer (n) number of half-lives is therefore

N = NO / 2

If the decay constant (λ) is large, the half-life is small, and vice versa. To determine the relationship between
these quantities, note that when t = t1/2, then N = NO / 2. From the equation (iii)

This expression gives the half size of the radioactive substance

Nuclear Reactions

The process of production new element of changing nucleus of the atom artificially is called nuclear reaction.

Types of Nuclear Reactions

Although the number of possible nuclear reactions is enormous, nuclear reactions can be sorted by types. Most
of nuclear reactions are accompanied by gamma emission. Some examples are:

Elastic scattering.

When no energy is transferred between the target nucleus and the incident particle.

208Pb + 1n → 208Pb + 1n

Inelastic scattering.

When energy is transferred. The difference of kinetic energies is saved in excited nuclide.

40Ca +4α → 4α + 40Ca* (excited) + hν

Capture reactions.

Both charged and neutral particles can be captured by nuclei. This is accompanied by the emission of ˠ-rays.
Neutron capture reaction produces radioactive nuclides (induced radioactivity).

C12 + H1 → N13 + hν

Transfer Reactions.

The absorption of a particle accompanied by the emission of one or more particles is called the transfer reaction.

4He + 4α → 1H + 7Li

Fission reactions.

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei). The
fission process often produces free neutrons and photons (in the form of gamma rays), and releases a large amount
of energy.
Fusion reactions.
When, two or more atomic nuclei collide at a very high speed and join to form a new type of atomic nucleus.
The fusion reaction of deuterium and tritium is particularly interesting because of its potential of providing
energy for the future.

Chain Reaction

Chain reaction is such a reaction which once started the reaction continues without requiring further energy.

𝟐𝟑𝟓
Explanation: In figure chain reaction has been shown. Here nucleus of 𝟗𝟐𝑼 is bombarded with high energy
neutron, then two or three neutrons are released from it. Two neutrons have been shown in figure. Two neutrons
235
of it create fission of two more 92𝑈 nuclei; consequently four more neutrons are produced. These 4 neutrons
create fission of 4 235
92𝑈 nuclei and 8 neutrons are produced. This reaction will continue till the fissionable material

is exhausted. This process is the chain reaction.

Mass defect: A mass defect refers to the difference in mass between an atom and the sum of the masses of
the protons, neutrons, and electrons of the atom.

Mass defect ∆m = ZMP + (A – Z)Mn – M

Where,

M = mass of the nucleus, Mp = mass of the proton, Mn = mass of the neutron, A = mass number, Z = Charge
number.
Binding Energy:

The nucleons exert short range nuclear forces of attraction on each other. When any two particles attract each
other, the sum of their masses, when separated, exceeds that of the bound system since energy must be added to
the system to separate it into component particles. This energy is called Binding Energy.

Binding Energy, B.E. = ∆m C2

= [ZMP + (A – Z)Mn – M] C2

Binding Energy per nucleon:

B.E. / A = ∆m C2 /A = [ZMP + (A – Z)Mn – M] C2 / A

Relativity
In physics, Albert Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity is derived from first principles now called
the postulates of special relativity. Einstein's formulation only uses two postulates.

1. First postulate (principle of relativity): The laws of physics take the same form in all inertial frames of
reference.

2. Second postulate (invariance of c): As measured in any inertial frame of reference, light is always propagated
in empty space with a definite velocity c that is independent of the state of motion of the emitting body. Or: the
speed of light in free space has the same value c in all inertial frames of reference.

The Galilean Transformation

Suppose there are two reference frames (systems) designated by S and S' such that the co-ordinate axes are parallel
(as in figure 1). In S, we have the coordinates (X, Y, Z, t) and in S' we have the co-ordinates (X′, Y′, Z′, t′) . S' is
moving with respect to S with velocity V (as measured in S) in the direction. The clocks in both systems were
synchronized at time and they run at the same rate.

Figure 1: Reference frame S' moves with velocity V (in the x direction) relative to reference frame S.
We have the intuitive relationships

X′ = X – Vt

Y′ = Y
Z′ = Z
t′ = t
This set of equations is known as the Galilean Transformation. They enable us to relate a measurement in one
inertial reference frame to another. For example, suppose we measure the velocity of a vehicle moving in the
in X-direction in system S, and we want to know what would be the velocity of the vehicle in S'.

𝑣𝑦′ = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑣𝑧′ = 𝑣𝑧

Length contraction

In an inertial reference frame S, X1 and X2 shall denote the end points of an object in motion in this frame. There,
its length L was measured according to the above convention by determining the simultaneous positions of its
endpoints at t1 = t2. Now, the proper length of this object in S' shall be calculated by using the Lorentz
transformation. Transforming the time coordinates from S into S' results in different times, but this is not
problematic, as the object is at rest in S' where it does not matter when the endpoints are measured. Therefore,
the transformation of the spatial coordinates suffices, which gives

The reverse transformation is:

Since, t1 = t2 and by setting and L0 = X 2 - X1 for initial frame, and L = X′2 - X′1 it measure the moving the reference
proper, the length in S is given by

L0 = X 2 - X1

𝑿′𝟐 + 𝑽𝒕′𝟐 𝑿′𝟏 + 𝑽𝒕′𝟏 𝑽𝟐

= - [β =√𝟏 − ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝑪𝟐
√𝟏− 𝑽𝟐 √𝟏− 𝑽𝟐
𝑪 𝑪

𝑿′𝟐 + 𝑽𝒕′𝟐 −𝑿′ 𝟏 − 𝑽𝒕′𝟏

= 𝟐
√𝟏− 𝑽𝟐
𝑪

𝐕𝟐
= X′2 – X′1 / √(1 - 𝐂𝟐 )

=L/

L = Lo

Time Dilation

The calculation of an elapsed time interval must take into account that the moving clock will be in different
positions w.r.t. the observer at the different time intervals. (Note the distinction of this case to that of length
contraction.) It is therefore easier to use the inverse Lorentz Transformation obtained by replacing V with - V
and primed with unprimed quantities.

The reverse transformation is:

N:

The time measurement made in the moving frame are made at the same location, so the expression reduces to