Frontiers - Meditate To Create - The Impact of Focused-Attention and Open-Monitoring Training On Convergent and Divergent Thinking - Psychology

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and
Methods
Results
Discussion
Conflict of Interest
Statement
Acknowledgments
Footnote
References
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Front. Psychol., 18 April 2012
| https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00116 (https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00116)
Meditate to create: the impact of focused-

TABLE OF CONTENTS
attention and open-monitoring training on

Abstract
Introduction
convergent and divergent thinking
Materials and
Methods
Lorenza S. Colzato (http://www.frontiersin.org/Community/WhosWhoActivity.aspx?
Results
sname=LorenzaColzato&UID=7934)*, Ayca Ozturk
(http://www.frontiersin.org/Community/WhosWhoActivity.aspx?sname=AycaSzapora&UID=47636) and
Discussion
Bernhard Hommel (http://www.frontiersin.org/Community/WhosWhoActivity.aspx?
sname=BernhardHommel&UID=7950)
Statement
Institute for Psychological Research and Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
Acknowledgments
The practice
Footnote of meditation has seen a tremendous increase in the western world since the 60s.
Scientific
References interest in meditation has also significantly grown in the past years; however, so far, it has
neglected the idea that different type of meditations may drive specific cognitive-control states. In this
study we investigate the possible impact of meditation based on focused-attention (FA) and
meditation based on open-monitoring (OM) on creativity tasks tapping into convergent and divergent
thinking. We show that FA meditation and OM meditation exert specific effect on creativity. First, OM
meditation induces a control state that promotes divergent thinking, a style of thinking that allows
many new ideas of being generated. Second, FA meditation does not sustain convergent thinking, the
process of generating one possible solution to a particular problem. We suggest that the enhancement
of positive mood induced by meditating has boosted the effect in the first case and counteracted in the
second case.
Introduction
The practice of meditation has seen a tremendous increase in the western world since the 60s (Murphy and
Donavon, 1997). Scientific interest in meditation has also significantly grown in the past years (Cahn and Polich,
2006) and increasing evidence suggests the efficacy of meditation in health care and the field of stress
management (Chiesa and Seretti, 2009) and some potency to enhance positive feelings (Chang et al., 2004)
increase pain tolerance, and reduce anxiety (Wachholtz and Pargament, 2005). Thus, meditation seems to be an
effective tool for enhancing general well-being.
In previous studies, meditation training has been shown to enhance some cognitive processes, such as the
allocation of attentional resources in attention-demanding tasks (Brown et al., 1984a,b; Slagter et al., 2007). Less
clear is the connection between meditation and creativity, to which the present study was devoted (see Horan,
2009, for a review). While some studies found evidence for a strong positive impact of meditation practice on
creativity (Orme-Johnson and Granieri, 1977; Orme-Johnson et al., 1977; Ball, 1980), others found only a weak
association or no effect at all (Cowger, 1974; Domino, 1977). However, the methodological diversity across these
studies with regard to sample characteristics and type of meditation is considerable, which renders it questionable
whether they were actually assessing the same construct and processes. Moreover, there is still no mechanistic
model explaining how creative processes operate and how different type of meditations might affect these

operations, which in view of the lack of conceptual clarity may not be surprising. To address this issue, we tried to
avoid addressing meditation and creativity as a whole but, rather, focused on particular, relatively well-defined
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meditation techniques and specific subcomponents of creative performance. More concretely, weABOUT(HTTPS://WWW.FRONTIERSIN.ORG/A
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investigated the
impact of focused-attention (FA) meditation and open-monitoring (OM) meditation on creativity tasks tapping
into convergent and divergent thinking.
Regarding meditation, FA and OM meditation represent the main techniques of Buddhist meditation practices
(Lutz et al., 2008), even though many exercises represent mixtures of these two types (Cahn and Polich, 2006). In
FA meditation, the individual focuses on a particular item, thought, or object. Everything else that might tend to
attract attention, such as bodily sensations, environmental noise, or intrusive thoughts, is to be actively ignored by
redirecting attention constantly back on the same focus point. In OM meditation, instead, the individual is open to
perceive and observe any sensation or thought without focusing on a concept in the mind or a fixed item;
therefore attention is flexible and unrestricted.
Regarding creativity, Guilford (1950, 1967) has distinguished between two main ingredients of most creative
activities:
TABLE divergent
OF CONTENTS and convergent thinking – even though other processes may also contribute (Wallas, 1926).
Divergent thinking is taken to represent a style of thinking that allows many new ideas being generated, in a
Abstract
context where more than one solution is correct. The probably best example is a brainstorming session, which has
Introduction
the aim of generating as many ideas on a particular issue as possible. Guilford’s (1967) Alternate Uses Task (AUT)
to assess
Materials the productivity of divergent thinking follows the same scenario: participants are presented with a
and
Methods
particular object, such as a pen, and they are to generate as many possible uses of this object as possible. In
Results
contrast, convergent thinking is considered a process of generating one possible solution to a particular problem.
It emphasizes speed and relies on high accuracy and logic. Mednick’s (1962) Remote Associates Task (RAT) that
Discussion
aims to assess convergent thinking fits with this profile: participants are presented with three unrelated words,
such as “time,” “hair,” and “stretch,” and are to identify the common associate (“long”). Interestingly for our
Statement
purposes, performance on the AUT and the RAT were found to be uncorrelated (Akbari Chermahini and Hommel,
Acknowledgments
2010) and differently affected by the same experimental manipulations (Hommel et al., submitted), which
Footnote
supports Guilford’s (1967) suggestion that convergent and divergent thinking represent different components of
References
human creativity.
Hommel (2012) and Hommel et al. (submitted) have argued that convergent and divergent thinking call for
different cognitive-control states. Based on general considerations regarding the processes underlying human
decision-making (for a review, see Bogacz, 2007) and on the possible impact of practice on these processes
(Colzato et al., 2008), Hommel and colleagues suggested that two parameters may play a central role in
generating creative acts. For one, people may exert strong or weak top-down control (in the sense of Duncan,
2001) on the process that is searching for the solution(s) of a given creative problem, such as an item in a
creativity task. Strong top-down control focuses the search on very few or just one item that satisfies a number of
well-defined criteria, whereas weak top-down control broadens the search space to activate many items that
satisfy loosely defined criteria. For another, people may be able to implement a strong or weak degree of mutual
inhibition between alternative representations, which again increases or decreases the competition for selection.
From this perspective, divergent thinking (as assessed by the AUT) would be likely to require or benefit from a
control state that provides a minimum of top-down control and local competition, so that the individual can easily
and quickly “jump” from one thought to another in an only weakly guided fashion (Hommel, 2012; Hommel et al.,
submitted). In contrast, convergent thinking (as assessed by the RAT) would be likely to benefit from a strong top-
down bias, which would heavily constrain and direct the search process, and from strong local competition (as
only one solution can be correct)1.
Colzato et al. (2008) have argued that practicing tasks and skills might establish chronic biases of cognitive-
control toward states or state parameters that these tasks and skills require. In their own study, this argument was
applied to bilinguals, who were assumed to acquire a bias toward relatively strong top-down control and local
competition, so to stay within one language and not occasionally switching to another. Colzato et al. predicted that
this bias might generalize to other, non-lingual tasks that benefit or suffer from the hypothesized cognitive-control
bias. This prediction was confirmed by the observation that bilinguals perform more poorly than monolinguals in
a task that requires distributed-attention. Using the same theoretical framework, Colzato et al. (2010a) showed
that practicing Calvinists, who can be assumed to have acquired a bias toward focused top-down control (Colzato
et al., 2008), perform worse than well-matched atheists in a distributed-attention task. Applying this theoretical
framework to the practice of meditation, one would expect that particular types of meditation practice (OM vs.
FA) establish particular biases toward particular cognitive-control states. Given its goal and characteristics, OM
meditation would seem to call for rather weak and “allowing” top-down guidance (Lutz et al., 2008), which allows

jumping from one thought to another. In contrast, FA meditation would seem to call for a strong degree of top-
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If so, engaging in
OM meditation should facilitate subsequent performance in tasks that require weak, “distributed” control (as
presumably required by the AUT task) while engaging in FA meditation should be beneficial for subsequent
performance in tasks requiring a more focused control style (as presumably required by the RAT task).
We investigated this hypothesis by having participants practicing OM- and FA-type meditation, in addition to a
third visualization exercise that was considered as a baseline, and then performing a divergent thinking and a
convergent thinking task. We expected that OM meditation practice would improve divergent thinking but not
convergent thinking, while FA meditation practice should have the opposite effect. A complication that can be
expected to work against this prediction is that any kind of practice remotely related to meditation or relaxation
techniques are likely to improve mood (Chang et al., 2004), which again has been found to facilitate divergent
thinking but not convergent thinking (Akbari Chermahini and Hommel, in press). This suggests that the benefits
of OM meditation on divergent thinking might be easier to demonstrate than the benefits of FA meditation on
TABLE OF CONTENTS
convergent thinking. To check whether mood is affected by the two meditation techniques, and whether it is
Abstract
affected the same way, we also assessed perceived mood.
Introduction
Materials and
Materials and Methods
Methods
Results
Participants
Discussion
Nineteen
Conflict healthy adults (13 females and 6 males) practitioners of both FA and OM meditation, (the average length
of Interest
Statement
of meditation practice in both FA and OM was about 2.2 years), aged 30–56, served as participants and
volunteered to the study without a financial reward, except a Leiden University coffee mug as gift. Informed
Acknowledgments
consent was obtained from all participants after the nature of the study were explained to them. The protocol was
Footnote
approved by the local ethical committee (Leiden University, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences).
References
Meditation Sessions
Focused-attention meditation
Similarly to Samatha, which aim is to focus on a particular object, the participants use the natural breath as an
anchor to focus attention at a particular point, i.e., parts of the body: “During the inhalation bring the attention to
that particular area and exhale from there.” The aim of instructing to focus the attention to the body part was to
constantly revive the awareness and effort of the participant to sustain the intensity of the focus (and therefore the
intended top-down control) throughout the whole session.
Open-monitoring meditation
As OM meditation we used an adapted version of the Transformational Breath® (TB) developed by Dr. Judith
Kravitz in 1980 (Kravitz, 2002; de Jager, 2007). Breath was used as a vehicle to “set the mind free” and allow any
thoughts, sensations, and emotions that arise. “Opening” or “being open” is a key concept that is encountered in
the practice of TB (Kravitz, 1996, 2002; de Jager, 2007). The first goal is to open the breath, then open the mind
to any occurring thought, sensation, or emotion and consequently expand the consciousness to a (spiritual)
connection where one reaches clarity. During a session, as a thought occurs, most often accompanied by an
emotion and/or a sensation in the body, the practitioner observes and acknowledges the experience without any
judgment. A TB coach invites the practitioner to be open and instructs the meditator to observe rather than judge
thoughts and emotions, leading to more readily accept all feelings and forms of emotions arising from moment to
moment (Kravitz, 2002).
During a TB session, after guiding the practitioner into achieving and maintaining the full, connected breathing
pattern, the coach uses certain verbal guidance, and affirmations. Affirmations are self-liberating statements of
fundamental truths (Kravitz, 2002; de Jager, 2007). The practitioner is repeatedly instructed by the coach simply
to notice and accept what comes up while continuing to breathe without pausing (Kravitz, 2002). Examples of
affirmations used in this study are: “I am open”; “I let go”; “I open and expand my consciousness”; and “I accept
myself as I am.” 
(https://w
Baseline session (BA)
As baseline session we used a guided visualization exercise in which participants were asked to visualize
certain
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household activities such as cooking and giving a dinner party. In order to prevent the attention to be fixed at one
particular point or concept during this session, attention was being switched between (a) visualizing the activity,
and (b) contemplating about the activity (e.g., with instructions such as “Think of who you would like to invite”).
Procedure and Design

The participant and the coach laid on two separate mats (at a distance of about 1 m) on the floor; half sitting with
the back against a back-jack. Eyes were closed in all three conditions. The same instructor, certified in Samatha,
Mindfulness, and TB training, provided the instruction for all three sessions. Participants served in three 45-min
sessions separated by 10 days. In one session they performed under the supervision of a certified meditation coach
the FA meditation (35 min) and completed for 10 min (5 min each) a short version of the RAT (based on Mednick,
1962,OF
TABLE and translated
CONTENTS into Dutch; see Akbari Chermahini et al., in press) and the AUT (Guilford, 1967). In the other
two sessions the method was the same except that participants performed the OM meditation and the baseline
Abstract
session and completed new items of the RAT and AUT. The order of these three types of sessions was
Introduction
counterbalanced across participants by means of a Latin square. The RAT and AUT were scored by two
Materials and
independent readers blinded to the experimental conditions.
Methods
Results
Remote Association Task (Convergent Thinking)
Discussion
In this task, participants are presented with three unrelated words (such as time, hair, and stretch) and are asked
to find a common associate (long). Our Dutch version comprised of 30 items (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85; see Akbari
Statement
Chermahini et al., in press). In the three sessions, participants completed 10 different items.
Acknowledgments
Footnote
Alternate Uses Task (Divergent Thinking)
References
In this task, participants were asked to list as many possible uses for six common household items (brick, shoe,
newspaper, pen, towel, bottle). In each of the three sessions, participants completed two different items. The
results can be scored in several ways with flexibility, the number of different categories used, being the most
consistent and reliable (Akbari Chermahini and Hommel, 2010).
Originality
Each response is compared to the total amount of responses from all of the subjects. Responses that were given by
only 5% of the group count as unusual (1 point) and responses given by only 1% of them count as unique (2
points).
Fluency
The total of all responses.
Flexibility
The number of different categories used.
Elaboration
The amount of detail, e.g., “a doorstop” counts 0, whereas “a door stop to prevent a door slamming shut in a
strong wind” counts 2 (1 point for introducing door slamming and another for providing further detail about the
wind).
Subjective Measures of Mood

Perceived mood was assessed once (after all three session) by means of a visual analog scale ranging from 0
(mood did not increase at all) to 5 (mood increased very much).
Statistical Analysis 
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Mood scores and five measures (from the two tasks) were extracted for each participant: originality,
fluency,
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flexibility, and elaboration scores from the AUT, the number of correct items from the RAT. All measures were
analyzed separately by means of repeated-measures ANOVAs with Session (OM vs. FA vs. BA) as within-subjects
factor and order of Session as covariate (in order to account for possible order effect). A significance level of p <
0.05 was adopted for all tests.
Results
Replicating earlier findings (Chang et al., 2004) mood increased after the OM and FA session, as compared to the
BA session (see Table 1), F(2,36) = 59.53, p < 0.0001, MSE = 0.460, η 2
p = 0. 768. Performance in the AUT and
RAT was good and comparable to performance in other studies (e.g., Akbari Chermahini and Hommel, 2010); see
Table 1.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
Introduction
TABLE 1
Materials and
Methods (https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/22970/fpsyg-03-00116-HTML/image_m/fpsyg-03-00116-
t001.jpg)
Results
Table 1. Means and SD for originality, fluency, flexibility, and elaboration scores from the
Discussion Alternate Uses Task (AUT), the number of correct items from the Remote Associates Task
(RAT), and perceived mood ratings as a function of focused-attention training, Open-
Monitoring training, and Baseline.
Statement
Acknowledgments
Footnote
As expected, all four scores of the AUT showed an advantage for the OM session over the FA and BA session.
References
While this advantage was reliable for flexibility, F(2,36) = 10.34, p < 0.0001, MSE = 7.963, η 2
p = 0. 365, fluency,
F(2,36) = 8.88, p < 0.001, MSE = 29.195, 2
ηp = 0. 330, and originality, F(2,36) = 8.46, p < 0.001, MSE = 1.726,
2
ηp = 0. 320, it did not reach significance for elaboration, F(2,36) = 1.47, p = 0.24, MSE = 0.514, η 2
p = 0. 075, see
Table 1.
Post hoc multiple comparisons tests revealed that during OM session practitioners showed greater flexibility,
fluency and originality than in the BA session (p = 0.001; p = 0.001; p = 0.02) and the FA session (p = 0.023; p =
0.005; p = 0.024), respectively.
No significant interaction of order of session on the four scores of the AUT was found, F < 1.
In the RAT task participants did not report better (or worse) performance in the FA session than the OM and BA
session, F < 1, see Table 1. As in the case of the AUT task, no significant interaction of order of session on mean go
RT was found, F < 1.
Discussion
The aim of our study to evaluate the possibility that different types of meditation (OM vs. FA) induce or bias
people toward particular cognitive-control states. OM meditation was assumed to induce a relatively “distributed”
cognitive-control state that is characterized by weak top-down biasing of information processing and weak local
competition among alternative thoughts, while FA meditation was assumed to induce a relatively focused
cognitive-control state characterized by strong top-down control and strong local competition. If so, OM
meditation practice would be expected to facilitate divergent thinking, as assessed by the AUT, but not convergent
thinking. And this is exactly what the data show: individuals excel in the AUT task after the OM meditation.
Our second prediction was that FA meditation practice should facilitate convergent thinking, as assessed by the
RAT, but not divergent thinking. Even though RAT performance was best after FA meditation, this increase was
far from significant. However, the mood scores show that both types of meditation practice elevated mood in
comparable ways. Given that elevated mood facilitates divergent, rather than convergent thinking and may even
interfere with the latter (Akbari Chermahini and Hommel, in press), it is possible that meditation practice affected
convergent thinking in two opposite ways: the focused character of the meditation might have improved
convergent thinking performance while the relaxing aspect of the procedure might have hampered it. However, at

this point this is still a speculation that calls for further research, perhaps using more extended practice.
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Our hypotheses are motivated by the idea that particular types of meditation might establish or prime a particular
cognitive-control state, which then primes or interferes with the control states needed to perform a convergent- or
divergent-thinking task. A different, but not necessarily incompatible interpretation might be considered in terms
of transfer-appropriate practice. For instance, it might be that practicing a particular type of meditation is
associated with the acquisition or practice of particular cognitive operations, which are useful for particular
thinking task but not others. Whether one considers this interpretation as different from our control state
interpretation depends on how one conceives of what is a control state and what is a cognitive operation. From a
functional viewpoint, one might argue that a control interpretation locates the effect at a different processing level
than operation learning – with the latter representing particular information transformation rules but the former
the implementation of these rules. From a neural perspective, however, the difference between the interchanges
may be negligible: if one considers a control state nothing but the current wiring and activation pattern of the
neural network, it is evident that different wirings and activation patterns will lead to different kinds of
TABLE OF CONTENTS
information transformation. In other words, the differentiation between control states and the rules these states
imply may make more conceptual than neural sense.
Abstract
Given that our participants were practitioners of both FA and OM meditation, we considered a within-subject the
Introduction
most appropriate option. However, it needs to be mentioned that this design choice has the drawback that we
Materials and
cannot entirely exclude that self-selection and demand characteristics have biased our results. Future studies
Methods
might include an originally naive control group practicing FA or OM meditation for some time, similarly to Lutz et
Results
al. (2004), which would allow testing whether self-selected practitioners differ systematically from “experimental”
Discussion
practitioners. Moreover, it seems important to replicate our results using other types of OM meditation than
Mindfulness and FA meditation, such as the traditional Samatha. It would also be interesting to explore possible
Statement
commonalities with other more or less ritual practices with and without religious backgrounds. In previous
Acknowledgments
studies we have found that religious belief systems, like Calvinism, Catholicism, and Judaism, affect cognitive-
Footnote
control parameters in rather specific ways (Hommel and Colzato, 2010). In particular, practicing a particular
religion seems to bias the preferred values of cognitive-control parameters toward a range that is likely to generate
References
behavior that is approved by one’s social environment (Colzato et al., 2008, 2010a). Similar findings were
obtained with non-religious factors like sexual orientation (Colzato et al., 2010b), which suggests that it is not
religion per se but the selective reward of particular behavioral outcomes – and of the cognitive-control
parameters producing these outcomes – that matter. From that perspective, mediation may be seen as one of
many cultural practices that systematically shape the way people control their cognitive processes.
In any case, at least for divergent thinking we were able to show that meditation has a specific impact. This
suggests that not all types of meditation have the same effect, which might explain why previous studies failed to
provide unequivocal evidence for positive effects of meditation on creativity. Importantly, it also suggests that the
benefits of OM meditation go beyond mere relaxation and receiving attention from a supervisor, which
participants also received in the other two conditions. Apparently, OM practice restructures cognitive processing
to a degree that is robust and general enough to affect performance in another, logically unrelated task. We
suggest that this kind of practice reduces the degree of top-down control and local competition and, thus, leads to
a broader distribution of potential resources. This establishes, or biases the individual toward a cognitive-control
state that is less focused and “exclusive,” which facilitates jumping from one thought to another – as required in
divergent thinking. This consideration fits with the observation of Slagter et al. (2007) that OM meditation leads
to better performance in a distributed-attention task and reinforces the view that meditation practice can have a
lasting and generalizable impact on human cognition (Lutz et al., 2008).
Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships
that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
The research of L. S. Colzato is supported by a Veni grant of the NWO (Netherlands Organization for Scientific
Research). We thank Nico van Zon, Marco, and Jacquelien de Jager for their enthusiasm and invaluable
assistance in recruiting and testing the participants of this study. 
(https://w
Footnote
1. ^One might object that some degree of memory search (and “jumping”) is involved in both the AUT and the RAT
because, in the RAT people need to frequently check candidate items against the three constraining concepts.
Indeed, both tasks comprise of convergent components (as the search must be goal-directed) and divergent
components (as even in the RAT people are likely to consider multiple answers), and it would be misleading to
consider them as pure measures of convergent and divergent thinking, respectively (Hommel, 2012).
Nevertheless, it is fair to say that the convergent component is more important in the RAT than in the AUT while
for the divergent component the opposite holds. It is these relative differences that our hypotheses are based on,
but we do not exclude that the two tasks are also sharing a couple of aspects. Importantly, this latter possibility
works against (rather than for) our hypotheses and makes the empirical test rather conservative.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
References
Abstract
Introduction
Akbari Chermahini, S., Hickendorff, M., and Hommel, B. (in press). Development and validity of a Dutch version of the Remote Associate Task: an
item response
Materials and theory approach. Think. Skills Creativity. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2012.02.003. [Epub ahead of print].
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Akbari Chermahini, S., and Hommel, B. (2010). The (b)link between creativity and dopamine: spontaneous eye blink rates predict and dissociate
divergent
Conflict ofand convergent thinking. Cognition 115, 458–465.
Interest
Statement
Akbari Chermahini, S., and Hommel, B. (in press). Creative mood swings: divergent and convergent thinking affect mood in opposite ways.
Psychol. Res. doi: 10.1007/s00426-011-0358z. [Epub ahead of print].
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Ball, O. E. (1980). The Effect of TM and the TM-Sidhi Program on Verbal and Figural Creativity (TTCT), Auditory Creativity (S and I), and
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Keywords: meditation, creativity, divergent thinking, convergent thinking, open-monitoring, focused-attention
Citation: Colzato LS, Ozturk A and Hommel B (2012) Meditate to create: the impact of focused-attention and open-monitoring training on convergent
and divergent thinking. Front. Psychology 3:116. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00116
Received: 27 January 2012; Accepted: 30 March 2012;
Published online: 18 April 2012.
Edited by:
Anna M. Borghi (http://www.frontiersin.org/Community/WhosWhoActivity.aspx?sname=AnnaBorghi_1&UID=8484), University of Bologna, Rome,
Italy
Reviewed by:
Anna M Borghi (http://www.frontiersin.org/Community/WhosWhoActivity.aspx?sname=AnnaBorghi_1&UID=8484), University of Bologna, Rome,
Italy
Thomas Kleinsorge (http://www.frontiersin.org/Community/WhosWhoActivity.aspx?sname=ThomasKleinsorge&UID=10532), Leibniz Research

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*Correspondence: Lorenza S. Colzato, Cognitive Psychology Unit, Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK Leiden,
Netherlands. e-mail: [email protected]
Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or
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