1.

Explain Darwin’s observations and inferences:

Observation #1: Members of a population often vary greatly in their traits.
Observation #2: Traits are inherited from parents to offspring.
Observation #3: All species are capable of producing more offspring than the environment can support.
Observation #4: Overproduction leads to competition for food or other resources.
 The individuals best adapted to their environment will survive and reproduce
Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a
given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals.
Inference #2: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of
favorable traits in the population over generations.
Observation #1: Members of a population often vary greatly in their traits.
Observation #2: Traits are inherited from parents to offspring.
Observation #3: All species are capable of producing more offspring than the environment can support.
Observation #4: Overproduction leads to competition for food or other resources.
 The individuals best adapted to their environment will survive and reproduce
Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a
given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals.
Inference #2: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of
favorable traits in the population over generations.

2. Explain why an individual organism cannot evolve

Individuals cannot evolve because natural selection makes a population evolve over a long period of time. A
single individual can not evolve because
 they won’t inherit any more traits
 they wouldn't live long enough
 they retain the same genes throughout their life
Populations evolve, not individuals. To understand evolution, it is necessary to view populations as a collection
of individuals, each harboring a different set of traits. A single organism is never typical of an entire population
unless there is no variation within that population. Individuals won’t inherit any more traits plus they wouldn't
live long enough. Individual organisms do not evolve, they retain the same genes throughout their life. When a
population is evolving, the ratio of different genetic types is changing -- each individual organism within a
population does not change.
Common definitions of evolution are either change in genetic variation or a change in allele frequencies in a
population over time. Strictly speaking, these are things that can occur in an individual. Random mutations can
occur in the cells of an individual and could potentially create a new allele. However, for such a mutation really
express itself, it has to occur in the germline, in the cells that produce egg or sperm cells. If that happens, then
the offspring could potentially inherit the mutation and then express that mutation in every cell. So, for animals
like humans, you might say that lasting evolutionary change is something expressed across generations and not
 in individuals. Also, you generally need larger timescales (several/many generations) in order to see a
pronounced difference between two populations that have become isolated from eachother.
Example: English moth – attach pics - in the example, the frequency of black moths increased; the moths did
not turn from light to gray to dark in concert.
The English moth, Biston betularia, is a frequently cited example of observed evolution. In this moth there are
two color moths, light and dark. H. Kettlewell found that dark moths constituted less than 2% of the population
prior to 1848. Then, the frequency of the dark moth began to increase. By 1898, the 95% of the moths in
Manchester and other highly industrialized areas were of the dark type, their frequency was less in rural areas.
The moths' color was primarily determined by a single gene.
=>The increase in relative abundance of the dark type was due to natural selection. The late eighteen hundreds
(1800) was the time of England's industrial revolution. Soot from factories darkened the birch trees the moths
landed on. Against a sooty background, birds could see the lighter colored moths better and ate more of them.
As a result, more dark moths survived until reproductive age and left offspring. The greater number of offspring
left by dark moths is what caused their increase in frequency.

3. Describe evidence for evolution by natural selection

Physical Evidence:
 Anatomy: Species may share similar physical features because the feature was present in a common
ancestor
Anatomy is the study of the similarities and differences in the structures of different 
species. Similar body parts may be homologous structures or analogous structures. Both provide 
evidence for evolution.
Homologous features: are structures that are similar in related organisms because they were inherited from a
common ancestor. These structures may or may not have the same function in the descendants. 
 If two or more species share unique physical properties such as complex bone structure or body plan, they may
all inherit those properties from a common ancestor. Physical characteristics shared based on evolutionary
history (common ancestor) are considered homologous
Ex : The similarity between the human arm, the dolphin's flipper, the bat's wing, and the bird's wing

Analogous
structures are
 structures that are similar in unrelated organisms. The structures are similar because they evolved to do the
same job, not because they were inherited from a common ancestor.
Ex: bird’s wings and bat’s wings
Analogous structures are structures that are similar in unrelated organisms. The structures are similar because
they evolved to do the same job, not because they were inherited from a common ancestor.
Ex: bird’s wings and bat’s wings

 Fossils : Fossils document the existence of now-extinct past species that are related to present-day species.
Fossil provides solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as those found today, and fossils
show a progression of evolution. Scientists determine the age of fossils and categorize them from all over the
world to determine when the organisms lived relative to each other. Unfortunately, fossil records are not
completed. Most organisms do not petrify, and even petrifying organisms are rarely found by humans.
Nevertheless, human-collected fossils provide unique insights into long-term evolution
 Direct observation : We can directly observe small-scale evolution in organisms with short lifecycles (e.g.,
pesticide-resistant insects)
Ex : In the 1950s, there was a worldwide effort to eradicate malaria by eliminating its carriers (certain types of
mosquitos). However, over time, the DDT became less and less effective, and more and more mosquitoes
survived. This was because the mosquito population evolved resistance to the pesticide.

Biological Evidence:
 Biogeography: The global distribution of organisms and the unique features of island species reflect
evolution and geological change.
The geographic distribution of organisms on the planet follows patterns that are best explained by evolution in
conjunction with the movement of tectonic plates over geological time
Ex: mammal species in Australia and other areas in the world

Ex : The evolution of unique species on the island is another example of how evolution and geography
intersect. For example, most mammal species in Australia are marsupials (carrying cubs on pouches), while
most mammal species elsewhere in the world are placenta (feeding cubs through the placenta). Australian
marsupials are extremely diverse and play a wide range of ecological roles. Australia has been isolated by water
for millions of years, so these species can evolve without competing (or exchanging) with mammalian species
elsewhere in the world.

 Molecular biology: DNA and the genetic code reflect the shared
ancestry of life. DNA comparisons can show how related
species are.
 The same genetic material (DNA)
 The same, or highly similar, genetic codes
 The same basic process of gene expression (transcription and
translation)
 The same molecular building blocks, such as amino acids

Like anatomical structures, the structures of the molecules of life reflect descent with modification. Evidence of
a common ancestor for all of life is reflected in:
 The same genetic material (DNA)
 The same, or highly similar, genetic codes
 The same basic process of gene expression (transcription and translation)
 The same molecular building blocks, such as amino acids
These shared features suggest that all living things are descended from a common ancestor, and that this
ancestor had DNA as its genetic material, used the genetic code, and expressed its genes by transcription and
translation. Present-day organisms all share these features because they were "inherited" from the ancestor (and
because any big changes in this basic machinery would have broken the basic functionality of cells).

Summary (compare)

Multiple types of evidence support the theory of evolution:

Homologous structures provide evidence for common ancestry, while analogous structures show that similar
selective pressures can produce similar adaptations (beneficial features).

Similarities and differences among biological molecules (e.g., in the DNA sequence of genes) can be used to
determine species' relatedness.

Biogeographical patterns provide clues about how species are related to each other.

The fossil record, though incomplete, provides information about what species existed at particular times of
Earth’s history.

Some populations, like those of microbes and some insects, evolve over relatively short time periods and can
observed directly.

Read above

4. Explain how sexual recombination generates genetic variability

Sexual recombination means that: half of one parent's genes are combined with half of the other parent's
genes in the offspring
 create gene combination that did not previously exist.
Sexual recombination and mutations would
 increase the amount of variation within a group
 constantly generate new variations in the population.
 If it weren't for this, all offspring would be identical to their parents and the only way for diversity to develop
would be through mutations.
 Sexual reproduction can shuffle existing alleles into new combinations. Sexual recombination means that half
of one parent's genes are combined with half of the other parent's genes in the offspring, which results in gene
combination that did not previously exist. Sexual recombination and mutations would increase the amount of
variation within a group. With sexual recombination, you constantly generate new variations in the population.
If it weren't for this, all offspring would be identical to their parents and the only way for diversity to develop
would be through mutations. In organisms that reproduce sexually, recombination of alleles is more important
than mutation in producing the genetic differences that make adaption possible.
Meiosis, which starts by the duplication of the chromosomes, followed by two rounds of cell divisions and
halving of the chromosome number. Gametes have half the chromosome number of other adult
cells of an organism.
A key feature of meiosis is the exchange of chromosome pieces which occurs in the first division of this
process, called recombination or crossing over. Recombination is a very important source of genetic variation
between individuals of sexually reproducing species, and the driving force for the process of natural selection.

5.why natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently produces adaptive change
Evolution can occur through different mechanisms, including gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection. Of
all the factors that can change a gene pool, only natural selection leads to the adaptation of an organism to its
environment.
Genetic flow and genetic drift occur totally randomly.

 However, natural selection will

 allow the genomes that are a good adaptation to the environment pass on to the next generation
 cause the genomes that aren't good adaptations die out.
Evolution is defined as a change in the gene pool of a group of organisms over time. This means that the genetic
composition of a population or species changes as it evolves. Evolution can occur through different
mechanisms, including gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection. Natural selection only acts on the
population’s heritable traits: selecting for beneficial alleles and, thus, increasing their frequency in the
population, while selecting against deleterious alleles and, thereby, decreasing their frequency. This process is
known as adaptive evolution. Natural selection does not act on individual alleles, however, but on entire
organisms. An individual may carry a very beneficial genotype with a resulting phenotype that, for example,
increases the ability to reproduce (fecundity), but if that same individual also carries an allele that results in a
fatal childhood disease, that fecundity phenotype will not be passed on to the next generation because the
individual will not live to reach reproductive age. Natural selection acts at the level of the individual; it selects
 for individuals with greater contributions to the gene pool of the next generation, known as an organism’s
evolutionary fitness.
Although gene flow and genetic drift can increase frequency of advantageous alleles in a population, Gene
flow and Gene Drift tend to randomly reduce genetic variation through losses of alleles. However, natural
selection will allow the genomes that are a good adaptation to the environment pass on to the next
generation and cause the genomes that aren't good adaptations die out. Therefore, Natural Selection is the
only mechanism that consistently produces adaptive change.
 The terms struggle for existence and survival of the fittest are misleading because they suggest that
individuals compete directly in contests.

 In some animal species, males do compete directly for mates.

 Reproductive success is generally more subtle, however, and depends on factors other than the battle for
mates.
 The terms struggle for existence and survival of the fittest are misleading because they suggest that
individuals compete directly in contests.

 In some animal species, males do compete directly for mates.

 Reproductive success is generally more subtle, however, and depends on factors other than the battle for
mates.

Ex: a barnacle, A moth

 For example, a barnacle may produce more eggs than its neighbors because it is more efficient at filtering food
from the water. A moth may have more offspring than its competitors because its body colors conceal it from
predators, allowing it to survive long enough to reproduce.
 • These examples illustrate how adaptive advantage can lead to greater relative fitness: the contribution an
individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals.
6. Explain the role of population size in genetic drift

Genetic drift is the process of change in the genetic composition of a population due to chance or random
events
 changes in allele frequencies over time.
If a population is small, there is is less variation between the organisms.
If a catastrophe occurs, the population will not be able to recover as quickly because the alleles will not be as
diverse
Genetic drift is the process of change in the genetic composition of a population due to chance or random
events rather than by natural selection, resulting in changes in allele frequencies over time. Typically, genetic
drift occurs in small populations, where infrequently occurring alleles face a greater chance of being lost.
Once it begins, genetic drift will continue until the involved allele is either lost by a population or until it is the
only allele present in a population at a particular locus. If a catastrophe occurs, the population will not be able
to recover as quickly because the alleles will not be as diverse. Both possibilities decrease the genetic diversity
of a population. Genetic drift is common after population bottlenecks, which are events that drastically decrease
the size of a population. In these cases, genetic drift can result in the loss of rare alleles and decrease the
gene pool. Genetic drift can cause a new population to be genetically distinct from its original population and
make harmful alleles to become fixed.
 Ex: the Phytophthora infestans pathogen that causes late blight of potatoes
An extreme example of genetic drift due to a bottleneck is the population of the Phytophthora
infestans pathogen that causes late blight of potatoes. It appears that the original global pandemic was caused by
a single clone that escaped out of Mexico and into North America, was introduced into Europe (causing the
Irish potato famine) and then was transported around the world because of human commerce (Goodwin et al.
1994).
7.Apply the Hardy-Weinberg equation to a population genetics problem
The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes
 the frequencies of genotypes in a population based on the frequency of occurrence of alleles in the population
that is in a state of genetic
The Hardy-Weinberg principle, also known as the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, is a set of five assumptions
that can be realized to determine the frequency of alleles and genotypes in a population. These frequencies will
remain constant for future generations.
The Hardy-Weinberg principle applies to individual genes with two alleles, a dominant allele and a recessive
allele. A population with such a gene can be described in terms of its genotype numbers - the number of
individuals with each of the three resulting genotypes - or in terms of the three genotype frequencies. The
frequency of each genotype is the number of individuals in the population with that genotype divided by the
total number of individuals in the population. There are two simple formulas that can be used to estimate the
frequency of alleles and genotypes in a particular population.

p+q=1

The first Hardy-Weinberg equation (p + q = 1) concerns estimating the frequency of alleles in a population.
Each gene usually has two alleles (diploid organism), one from each parent.These alleles are denoted as the
dominant (A) and recessive (a) forms. These are represented as ‘p‘ and ‘q‘ is the equation below.
• p = freq[A] = the frequency of occurrence of the A-allele in the population
• q = freq[a] = the frequency of occurrence of the a-allele in the population
In a population, the combined frequency of both the alleles must equal 1 (100%).

p2 + 2 pq+ q2

- p2 : frequency of homozygous dominant genotypes

 - 2 pq : frequency of heterozygous genotypes

- q2 : frequency of homozygous recessive genotypes

In order for equilibrium to remain in effect (i.e. that no evolution is occurring) then the following five
conditions must be met:
–No mutations
– Random mating
– No natural selection
– Extremely large population
– No gene flow
In order for equilibrium to remain in effect (i.e. that no evolution is occurring) then the following five
conditions must be met:

1. No natural selection: There are no evolutionary pressures which may favor a particular allele.
2. Random mating: Each individual in a population mates randomly so that mating with an individual carrying a
particular allele is not favored.
3. No mutations: There are no DNA mutations occurring for the alleles which may affect their function.
4. A closed population: Individuals within the population do not leave and new individuals are not introduced to
the population.
5. Large population size: The population is considered large enough, at best infinite, so that major changes in
allele frequencies do not cause a genetic drift.
8.Define and discuss the limitations of the four species concepts
(Make table)
- The biological species concept states that a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential
to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; they do not breed successfully with other
populations. Biological species concept cannot be applied to asexual organisms , such as prokaryotes, fossils,
and organisms where little is known about their reproduction. Furthermore, in the biological species concept,
species are designated by the absence of gene flow.
- The biological species concept states that a species is a group of populations whose members have the
potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; but do not produce viable, fertile
offspring with members of other such groups. For example, all human beings, belong to the same species. A
businesswoman in Manhattan may be unlikely to meet a dairy farmer in Mongolia, but if the two should happen
to meet and mate, they could have viable babies who develop into fertile adults. In contrast, humans and
chimpanzees remain distinct biological species even where they live in the same region, because many factors
keep them from interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. However, the number of species to which this
concept can be usefully applied is limited. Biological species concept cannot be applied to asexual organisms,
such as prokaryotes, fossils, and organisms where little is known about their reproduction. Furthermore, in the
biological species concept, species are designated by the absence of gene flow.

 Morphological species concept : distinguishes a species by body shape and other structural features. The
morphological species concept can be applied to asexual and sexual organisms, and it can be useful even
without information on the extent of gene flow. . In practice, scientists often distinguish species using
 morphological criteria. A disadvantage of this approach, however, is that it relies on subjective criteria;
researchers may disagree on which structural features distinguish a species.
Morphological species concept : distinguishes a species by body shape and other structural features. The
morphological species concept can be applied to asexual and sexual organisms, and it can be useful even
without information on the extent of gene flow. . In practice, scientists often distinguish species using
morphological criteria. A disadvantage of this approach, however, is that it relies on subjective criteria;
researchers may disagree on which structural features distinguish a species.
 The ecological species concept views a species in terms of its ecological niche; how the nonliving and living
parts of the environment interact. It emphasizes unique roles in specific environments. Unlike the biological
species concept, the ecological species concept can accommodate asexual as well as sexual species. It also
emphasizes the role of disruptive natural selection as organisms adapt to different environments.
The ecological species concept defines a species in terms of its ecological niche, the sum of how members of
the species interact with the nonliving and living parts of their environment. For example, two species of oak
trees might differ in their size or in their ability to tolerate dry conditions, yet still occasionally interbreed.
Because they occupy different ecological niches, these oaks would be considered separate species even though
they are connected by some gene flow. Unlike the biological species concept, the ecological species concept can
accommodate asexual as well as sexual species. It also emphasizes the role of disruptive natural selection as
organisms adapt to different environments.
- Phylogenetic Species Concept: deems a species as the smallest exclusive monophyletic group of common
ancestry; usually defines more species than other concepts. Focused on the history of each- group or pattern
rather than the processes. the difficulty with this species concept is determining the degree of difference
required to indicate separate species.
- Phylogenetic Species Concept: deems a species as the smallest exclusive monophyletic group of common
ancestry; usually defines more species than other concepts. Focused on the history of each- group or pattern
rather than the processes. the difficulty with this species concept is determining the degree of difference
required to indicate separate species.
9.Describe and provide examples of prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive barriers.

(Add table slide 68 of Dr. Thuy PDF)

Prezygotic reproductive isolation is a mechanism of reproductive isolation that prevents the fertilization of the
eggs. If a sperm cell from one species overcomes prezygotic barriers and fertilizes an ovum from another
species, a variety of postzygotic barriers may appear. Postzygotic is another mechanism of reproductive
isolation that prevents the formation of viable or fertile offspring even though the fertilization is completed.
There are different categories of prezygotic barriers and postzygotic barriers.
They are habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, , gametic isolation,
hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility, hybrid breakdown
(cut picture in Campbell for example, write the name of animal below the picture, lúc hiện ảnh example
vẫn thấy đc cái nd của nó bên hình slide 68)

Habitat isolation: Two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different
habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers.
Example: Two species of garter snakes in the genus Thamnophis occur in the same geographic areas, but one
lives mainly in water while the other is primarily terrestrial.
Temporal Isolation: Species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot
mix their gametes.
In North America, the geographic ranges of the eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) and the western
spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis) overlap, but S. putorius mates in late winter and S. gracilis mates in late
summer.
Behavioral isolation: Courtship rituals that attract mates and other behaviors unique to a species are effective
reproductive barriers, even between closely related species. Such behavioral rituals enable mate recognition—a
way to identify potential mates of the same species.
Ex: Blue-footed boobies, inhabitants of the Galápagos, mate only after a courtship display unique to their
species. Part of the “script” calls for the male to high-step , a behavior that calls the female’s attention to his
bright blue feet.
Mechanical isolation: Mating is attempted, but morphological differences prevent its successful completion.
Example: The shells of two species of snails in the genus Bradybaena spiral in different directions: Moving
inward to the center, one spirals in a counterclockwise direction (f, left), the other in a clockwise direction (f,
right). As a result, the snails’ genital openings (indicated by arrows) are not aligned, and mating cannot be
completed.
Gametic isolation: Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another species. For instance,
sperm may not be able to survive in the reproductive tract of females of the other species, or biochemical
mechanisms may prevent the sperm from penetrating the membrane surrounding the other species’ eggs.
Example: Gametic isolation separates certain closely related species of aquatic animals, such as sea urchins (g).
Sea urchins release their sperm and eggs into the surrounding water, where they fuse and form zygotes. It is
difficult for gametes of different species, such as the red and purple urchins shown here, to fuse because
proteins on the surfaces of the eggs and sperm bind very poorly to each other.
– postzygotic barriers – reproductive isolation after fertilization has occurred.
Postzygotic barriers prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult:
– Reduced hybrid viability -- weak offspring: The genes of different parent species may interact in ways that
impair the hybrid’s development or survival in its environment.
Example: Some salamander subspecies of the genus Ensatina live in the same regions and habitats, where they
may occasionally hybridize. But most of the hybrids do not complete development, and those that do are frail .
– Reduced hybrid fertility -- sterile offspring: Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile. If the
chromosomes of the two parent species differ in number or structure, meiosis in the hybrids may fail to produce
normal gametes. Since the infertile hybrids cannot produce offspring when they mate with either parent species,
genes cannot flow freely between the species.
Example: The hybrid offspring of a male donkey and a female horse is a mule, which is robust but sterile. A
“hinny” (not shown), the offspring of a female donkey and a male horse, is also sterile.
– Hybrid breakdown: Some first-generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but when they mate with one
another or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile.
Example: Strains of cultivated rice have accumulated different mutant recessive alleles at two loci in the course
of their divergence from a common ancestor. Hybrids between them are vigorous and fertile, but plants in the
next generation that carry too many of these recessive alleles are small and sterile. Although these rice strains
are not yet considered different species, they have begun to be separated by postzygotic barriers.
10.Explain how polyploidy can cause reproductive isolation
Polyploidyis the presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division

Polyploidyis the presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division . By definition,
polyploidy just means that a cell or organism contains more than 2 pairs of homologous chromosomes (or is
more than 2n). This is more common in plants than it is in animals. The plant, as shown below, undergoes failed
meiosis, which means that the diploid (2n) cells never become haploid (n). As a result, a plant ends up with
more than 2n when it self-polinates. The shown result is tetraploidy (4n), but there are other possible results (3n,
5n, etc).

Polyploidy aids in reproductive isolation because an organism with more than two sets of chromosomes
cannot always produce offspring.

An autopolyploid is an individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from a single
species. In plants, for example, a failure of cell division could double a cell’s chromosome number from the
original number (2n) to a tetraploid number (4n). A tetraploid can produce fertile tetraploid offspring by self-
pollinating or by mating with other tetraploids. In addition, the tetraploids are reproductively isolated from 2n
plants of the original population, because the triploid (3n) offspring of such unions have reduced fertility. Thus,
in just one generation, autopolyploidy can generate reproductive isolation without any geographic separation.
A second form of polyploidy can occur when two different species interbreed and produce hybrid offspring.
Most such hybrids are sterile because the set of chromosomes from one species cannot pair during meiosis
with the set of chromosomes from the other species. However, an infertile hybrid may be able to propagate
itself asexually (as many plants can do). In subsequent generations, various mechanisms can change a sterile
hybrid into a fertile polyploid called an allopolyploid . The allopolyploids are fertile when mating with each
other but cannot interbreed with either parent species; thus, they represent a new biological species.