2021-2.0 Vehicle Dynamics - Upload

2.
0 Vehicle Dynamics
Ashok jhunjhunwala [email protected]
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 1

Driving an ICE or Electric Vehicle
How much Power is required to drive a vehicle?
How much Energy is required to carry out a road-trip?
◦ What is the composite mass of the vehicle (including passenger and goods): Gross Vehicle
Weight (GVW)
◦ What is the condition of the roads (rolling resistance)
◦ What is the aerodynamics of the vehicle (Aerodynamic drag)
◦ What is the incline that it needs to traverse? (Gradient Resistance)
◦ What are the velocities and accelerations at different points of time (Drive Cycle)
◦ What is the maximum speed and maximum acceleration of the vehicle?

What does tractive force overcomes?
◦ Aerodynamic Drag
◦ Rolling Resistance
◦ Uphill Resistance
◦ Acceleration
Aerodynamic
drag 𝟏
Aerodynamic Drag = *ρ*CD*A*v2
𝟐
◦ v = velocity (m/sec)
Rolling ◦ Air density @27°C = ρ = 1.2 (kg/m3)
Resistance ◦ Vehicle Frontal Area or Projected Area =A (sq. m)
θ
◦ Drag coefficient = CD
mg

Forces acting on a vehicle in motion
Aerodynamic
drag
Rolling Resistance = m*g*μ*cosθ
◦ Permissible load = m (kg)
◦ Weight = mg (newton or kg.m/s²), where g
= 9.80665 m/s²
Rolling
Resistance p ◦ μ = rolling coefficient
θ
b Uphill Resistance or Climbing Force =
mg mg sinθ
◦ Maximum grade = θ° = θ*π/180 radians
Grade/Inclination:
Height of grade p
Grade in % = *100 % = *100 %
Base of the grade b
𝑝 Tractive force created by power-train first overcomes
Grade in Degree = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏
these resistances and then provides acceleration
Assignment 2.1
Compute Forces due to drag, rolling resistance and gradient for the following
vehicles assuming ρ = 1.2 (kg/m3) and θ = 8°. For the three vehicles given in
the table, find Aerodynamic drag at velocity v1 and v2; also find rolling
resistance at two velocities.
Vehicle GVW (kg) CD Area(sqm)  v1(kmph) v2(kmph) Tyre radius

(m)
2-wheeler 200 0.9 0.6 0.015 30 80 0.28
3-wheeler 600 0.45 1.6 0.015 30 80 0.2
4-wheeler 1500 0.3 2.5 0.015 30 80 0.3

Solution to Assignment 2.1 (a)
1
For (a), Drag (N) = 2*ρ*CD*A*v2 = 0.5* 1.2 (kg/m3) * A (m2) * CD *v2 (m/sec)2
= 0.5*1.2* 0.6*0.9 * (30*1000/3600)2 = 0.5*1.2*0.6*0.9* (30/3.6)2 = 22.5 N
Drag at 80 kmph = 22.5* (8/3)2 = 160 N
Rolling Resistance = m*g*μ*cosθ = 200(kg) * 9.81 (m/s2) * 0.015 * cos (8*π/180) =29.4N
Climbing force = m*g*sin θ = 200*9.81*sin (8* π/180) = 200*9.81*sin (0.139rad) = 273 N
Note
◦ Units of Drag = Kg*m/sec2 = Newton
◦ 1 kmph = (1000/3600) m/sec = (1/3.6) m/sec

Ptrac applied to vehicle to move
Vehicle needs Traction Power, Ptrac (in Watts), applied for it to move and
accelerate
◦ Traction power in Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) comes from petrol / diesel engine
◦ Traction power in EVs comes from Battery through motors and its controllers
The traction power creates a Force Ftrac on the vehicle to move forward
◦ Ptrac = Ftrac * v, where v is velocity (in m/sec) of the vehicle
The resulting Torque T (in Nm) on the vehicle wheel created by the force is
◦ T = Ftrac * rwheel, where rwheel is radius of the vehicle in meters
Torque and Speed (referred to as rpm) are the fundamental parameters of a

motor or an engine, and vehicle rpm is obtained from v = rpm* 2*π* rwheel /60

v (m/sec) = rpm* 2*π* rwheel /60
v in kmph = v(m/s)* 3600/1000 = (3.6*2 * π /60) * rpm * rwheel
◦ Or v in kmph = 0.377 rpm * rwheel
◦ For example, for a 2-wheeker, if rpm is 7500 and rwheel is 0.28 m, Velocity (kmph) is 790 km
◦ If gear ratio is 9, the vehicle can go to about 89 kmph
◦ The Torque will now gets multiplied by 9

Thus Traction Force is given by
◦ Ftrac = Acceleration Force + Aerodynamic Drag + Rolling Resistance + Climbing Force
𝟏
= m* a + *ρ*CD*A*v2 + m*g*μ + mg sinθ, where a is the acceleration and is dv/dt
𝟐
The energy consumed by vehicle in motion is the integration of Traction Power

◦ 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = ‫ 𝒕𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒕𝑷 ׬‬in Watt-sec and is converted to kWh by dividing by 3.6
◦ Vehicle may have regeneration, which converts deceleration of vehicle while climbing
down or otherwise applying brakes (using Regenerative Braking) into Regenerative Energy
◦ Thus net energy consumed is R * Energy, where R is regeneration efficiency
◦ As Regeneration factor is typically 15% to 30%, R is (1-RegenFactor) or typically 0.85 to 0.70

2.2 Aerodynamic drag, Rolling
Resistance and uphill Resistance

Aerodynamic Drag
𝟏 For a 2-wheeler with velocity of 50 kmph
Aerodynamic Drag = *ρ*CD*A*v2
𝟐 or (50/3.6) m/s, CD= 0.9 and A = 0.5
Vehicle CD A (sq m) ◦ FD = 0.5*1.2*0.9*0.5*(50/3.6)2 = 52.1N
2-wheeler 0.9 0.5 to 0.9 ◦ Reduces to 13N at 25 kmph and 2N for 10kmph
3-wheeler rickshaw 0.44 1.6 to 2
Open Convertible 0.5 to 0.7 1.7 to 2.0 Power required to overcome drag =
Limousine 0.22 to 0.4 1.7 to 2.5 FD(Newton)*v (m/sec) or FD*v (Watts)
Coach 0.4 to 0.8 6 to 10 ◦ For a 2-wheeler at 50 kmph, it is 52.1*(50/3.6)
Truck without trailer 0.45 to 0.8 6 to 10 or 723.6 W
Truck with trailer 0.55 to 1 6 to 10
Articulated Vehicle 0.5 to 0.9 6 to 10 1 Watt = 1 newton meter/second [Nm/s]

Aerodynamic Drag (contd.)
For e-rickshaw at 25 kmph [CD= 0.44 and A = 1.6]
◦ FD = 0.5*1.2*0.44*1.6*(25/3.6)2 = 20.37N
◦ Power required to overcome drag = FD*v (Watts) = 20.37* (25/3.6) = 141.4 W
For a car (Limo) at 50 kmph, [CD= 0.35 and A = 2.5]

◦ FD = 0.5*1.2*0.35*2.5*(50/3.6)2 = 101.27N
◦ At 70 kmph it is 198.5N, whereas at 90 kmph Force is 328N
◦ Power required to overcome drag at 50 kmph = 101.3*(50/3.6) or 1.4 kW
◦ Power for drag at 70 kmph = 198.5*(70/3.6) or 3.9 kW and at 90 kmph = 8.2 kW
Aerodynamic drag increases as square of velocity and Power increases as cube of

velocity

Rolling Resistance
Rolling Resistance = m*g*cosθ*μ ≈ m*g*μ
◦ The rolling resistance coefficient, μ, is a function of
◦ tyre material
◦ tyre structure
◦ tyre temperature
◦ tyre inflation pressure
◦ tread geometry
◦ road roughness
◦ road material and presence of absence of liquids on the road
◦ Also μ is a function of velocity: μ ≈ μ0 (1 + v/160) for cars on concrete up to 120 kmph
◦ And μ0 is rolling resistance at zero velocity
* Generally max grades are limited to 12o; (Cos12 = 0.978 ≈1)

Typical values of Rolling Resistance
◦ Car tyre on smooth tarmac road: 0.01
◦ Car tyre on concrete road : 0.011
◦ Car tyre on a rolled gravel road: 0.02
◦ Tar macadam road 0.025
◦ Unpaved road 0.05
◦ Bad earth tracks 0.16
◦ Loose sand 0.15-0.3
◦ Truck tyre (concrete/ asphalt) 0.006-0.01
◦ Wheel on iron rail 0.001-0.002
Force due to rolling resistance is a function of velocity only at high speed

Rolling Resistance (2W and 3W)
Two wheeler: typical m=(vehicle of 90kg + 100kg load), typical μ is 0.013
◦ FR = m*g*μ*cosθ = 190 kg * 9.81 m/s2 * 0.013 = 24.21 N
◦ twice as much as aerodynamic drag at 25 kmph, but half as much at 50 kmph
◦ Power required = FR *v= 168. 3 Watts for 25 kmph or 336.6 W for 50 kmph
E-rickshaw: typical m=(vehicle of 300kg + 380kg load), typical μ is 0.013

◦ FR = 680 kg * 9.81 m/s2 * 0.013 = 87 N
◦ much higher than aerodynamic drag even at 25 kmph
◦ Power required = 602 Watts for 25 kmph

Rolling Resistance for a 4W
Car: typical m = (800 kg + 400 kg), typical μ is 0.013
◦ FR = 1200 kg * 9.81 m/s2 * 0.013 = 153 N
◦ Much higher than aerodynamic drag even at 50 kmph
◦ Power required = 1062W at 25 kmph

= 2125W at 50 kmph
= 2975W at 70 kmph and
= 3825W at 90 kmph
◦ At 70 kmph, drag and rolling resistance power are similar, but rolling resistance becomes
much less at 90 kmph

Gradient resistance
Fg = mg sinθ Let gradient be 5° or 0.0873 radians
◦ For small θ, one can approximate ◦ 2-wheeler (wt=180kg): Fg = 153.9 N
sinθ as (H/L) ◦ 3-wheeler (wt=680kg): Fg = 581.4 N
◦ 4-wheeler (wt=1200kg): Fg = 1026 N
If gradient is 12 degrees, Force increases to

◦ Fg = 367.1 N for 2W, Fg = 1387N for e-rick
and Fg = 2447.5 for 4W
◦ Assuming wheel radius of 0.28m for 2W, 0.2m
for e-rick and 0.31m for 4W,
H ◦ Torque required is 102 Nm for 2W,
θ 277Nm for e-rick and 759 Nm for 4W
mg
L
◦ As seen later designing motor will be tough
◦ Gear will help, but still…

Power required to climb
Climbing Power required is a function of velocity: Pg (W) = Fg (N)*v (m/s)
◦ Climbing is carried out lower speed
◦ Assuming velocity during climbing is a third of peak velocity, Pg = Fg*v/3 watts
At 5° slope
◦ 2w at 25kmph: Pg = 153.9*25/(3.6*3) = 356W
◦ 3w at 50 kmph: Pg = 581*50/(3.6*3) = 2692W
◦ 4w at 50 kmph: Pg = 1026*50/(3.6*3) = 4750W
At 12° slope, it considerably increases

◦ 2w at 25kmph: Pg = 367.1*25/(3.6*3) = 849.8W
◦ 3w at 50 kmph: Pg = 1387*50/(3.6*3) = 6421W
◦ 4w at 50 kmph: Pg = 2447*50/(3.6*3) = 11.3 kW
◦ However climb Power not a concern. Torque required is tough: will require careful motor design

2.3 Power and Torque to accelerate

Power required for acceleration (pick-up)
What is the Force required to reach maximum
speed vf in T seconds?
◦ Depends on how acceleration takes place
◦ Assuming constant linear acceleration
◦ Acceleration a = vf (meter/sec)/T(sec) = vf/T
◦ Fa (Newtons) = m (kg)* a (meter/sec2)
◦ Acceleration distance s = 0.5*a*T2
◦ Work during acceleration W = Fa * s = 0.5*m* vf2
◦ Avg. Acceleration Power = W/T = 0.5*m* vf2/T
◦ Peak power required = m* vf2/T
if a vehicle accelerates at a rate “a1” for first T/2 time and at a rate “a1/2” from T/2 to T
◦ vf-v0 = a1*T/2 + (a1/2)*T/2 = (3/4)*a1*T; in other words, or a1 = (vf-v0)*(4/3T)
◦ As seen in assignment (1.2), the power required at time T is 0.667 of that for linear acceleration case

Average Power required for acceleration
Reach max speed in T = 20 seconds
2-wheeler (25 kmph or 6.95 m/s):
◦ Fa = mvf/T= 190*6.95/20 = 66N; Torque required assuming wheel-radius = 0.28m is 18.5 Nm
◦ Avg Power req = 0.5* m*vf2/T =0.5*190*(6.95)2/20 = 229W
◦ Peak Power required (will be at 25 kmph) = m*vf2/T = 458W
◦ Torque can be reduced by faster acceleration in the beginning and slower later on
◦ At 50 kmph, Torque required will go up to 37 Nm and peak power required would be 1.83kW
◦ Note that this is due to acceleration alone
E-rickshaw (25kmph or 6.95 m/s)

◦ Fa = 680 *(25/3.6)/20 = 236.1 N; Torque required assuming wheel-radius = 0.2m is 47 Nm
◦ Average Power required = 820 Watts and Peak power required = 1.64kW
◦ At 50kmph, peak power required is 6.5 kW

Power for pick-up acceleration alone
Car (50 kmph or 13.9 m/s)
◦ Fa = 1200*(50/3.6)/20 = 833 N; Torque required assuming wheel-radius = 0.31m is 258Nm
◦ Will require proper gear-ratio to bring it down as motor unlikely to give such torque
◦ Avg. Power to accelerate = 5.79 kW, and peak power in linear acceleration is 11.58kW
◦ At 70 kmph, average power required is 11.3 kW and peak power is 23 kW
◦ At 90 kmph, average power is 18.7 kW and peak power is 37 kW
◦ avoid doubling of the peak power by reducing acceleration as speed increases
What about deceleration and climbing down?

◦ EV can regenerate power and push it to the battery?
◦ Regeneration efficiency = 20% to 30% or even less

Assignment 2.2
a) For the three vehicles given below, compute total traction force assuming
pick-up from 0 to 50 kmph in 20 sec, Power and Torque at the 30 kmph, 50
kmph and 80 kmph. Assume linear acceleration and zero slope.
Vehicle GVW (kg) CD Area(sqm)  v1(kmph) v2(kmph) Tyre radius

(m)
2-wheeler 200 0.9 0.6 0.015 30 80 0.28
3-wheeler 600 0.45 1.6 0.015 30 80 0.2
4-wheeler 1500 0.3 2.5 0.015 30 80 0.3

Assignment 2.2
b) Assume vehicle acceleration is some value for first ten seconds, and half as
much for next ten seconds to still reach 50 kmph in 20 seconds. Now again
compute traction force, Power and Torque at 50 kmph.
c) To reach maximum speed vf in T seconds, if a vehicle accelerates at a rate
“a” for first T/2 time and at a rate “a/2” from T/2 to T. It therefore gives (vf-
v0) = a*T/2 + (a/2)*T/2 = (3/4)*aT and a = (vf-v0)* (4/3T). Find the average
power during acceleration and the power required at the end of time T.
Compare it if there was linear acceleration.

2.4 Putting it up all together

Comparing Force and Power: 2-wheeler
Force for a 2-wheeler with 20 sec pick-up
Power (W) vs velocity (kmph)
250.00
4500.00
Fa 4000.00
200.00
Pd
3500.00
Fg
3000.00 Pa
150.00
Force (N)
Powe (W)
Fd 2500.00
100.00 2000.00
1500.00 Pg
50.00 1000.00
Frr
500.00 Prr
0.00 0.00
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
velocity (kmph) velocity (kmph)
 = 1.2 kg/m3, CD = 0.9, A= 0.5 sqm,  = 0.013, weight = 180 Kg, Gradient of 5°

2-wheeler
Power Speeds below 25 kmph
◦ Gradient and Acceleration not required ◦ 500 Watts motor will be enough
together
◦ Gradient never done at high speed: Climbing
5° slope at 15 kmph will require about 700 W With 20 sec pick-up to 50 kmph
◦ Acceleration (pick-up) power is small at 25 ◦ Acceleration Power reqd. itself is 1 kW
kmph; and only 1000 W even at 50 kmph ◦ Drag is also considerable: Power reqd. 2 kW
◦ Rolling resistance on decent roads is small and
higher than others only at very low speed
◦ Drag power is only 700W even at 50 kmph, Power required is 6 kW at 80kmph and
but can become very high at higher speed 9kW at 90 kmph
Force related to Torque: Only gradient or ◦ For slower pick-up, a 5 kW drive will just
about be ok for up to 90 kmph
acceleration torque matters at all speeds
◦ T req = 44.8 Nm (Rwheel = 0.28m) at 60 kmph

E-rickshaw: Power/ Force components
Force (N) for e-rickshaw with 20 sec pick-up Power for e-rickshaw
700.00
5000.00
Fg
600.00 4500.00 Pa
4000.00
500.00
Fa 3500.00 Pg
Power (Watts)
400.00
Force (N)
3000.00
2500.00
300.00 Pd
2000.00
200.00
1500.00
Prr
Frr 1000.00
100.00
Fd 500.00
0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Velocity (kmph)
Velocity (kmph)

E-rickshaw (25 kmph)
Power Force related to Torque
◦ Gradient 5°: at 15 kmph requires 1.5kW ◦ As (Rwheel = 0.2m), climbing Torque required
(including RR and drag) is 581*0.2 Nm or 116 Nm (Gradient 5°)
◦ 1.5 kW drive will just be able to also carry ◦ Vehicle Torque at 25 kmph due to Acc + RR
out acceleration in addition to drag and RR + Drag = 340*0.2 Nm or 68Nm
◦ Aa speed max of 30 kmph, will require ◦ E-rickshaw not allowed to ply on highways
2.5 kW drive for pick-up or climb flyovers and the key culprit is high
◦ Rolling resistance and drag at 25 kmph adds gross vehicle weight (GVW) of 680 kg
only 600W
Gears (ratio=GR) in vehicles to increase motor-torque by GR, decrease rpm by 1/GR
Fixed gear in EV, whereas changeable gear in ICE vehicles
GR of 10 decreases required climbing torque to 12Nm

4W Compact Sedan: Force and Power
Power for a small car
Force for a small Car with 20 sec pickup
1600.00 20000.00
18000.00
1400.00 Fa
16000.00
1200.00
Pa
Fg 14000.00
1000.00
Power (Watts)
12000.00
Force (N)
800.00 10000.00
600.00 8000.00 Pg
6000.00
Pd
400.00 Fd
4000.00 Prr
Frr
200.00
2000.00
0.00 0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
velocity (kmph) velocity (kmph)

Sedan: Torque and Power
Torque and Force Speed of 70 kmph
◦ Acceleration (20 sec pick-up) and Gradient ◦ 18.5 kW required for pick-up
Force dominates ◦ 15 kW may be enough with slower pick-up
◦ Torque required will be high at even 5° or at
60 kmph : 300Nm plus (Rwheel = 0.31m) Speed of 80 kmph
◦ 25 kW required for full pick-up
Speed of 50 kmph ◦ 15 kW may be enough with slower pick-up
◦ A 10 kW drive enough: will give pick-up
Speed of 90 kmph
Speed of 60 kmph ◦ 30 kW required for full pick-up
◦ A 13kW required for pick-up
◦ 20 kW will give slower-pick up, but will
◦ A 10 kW enough, with slower pick-up handle cruising / gradient
◦ At 65 kmph: Pd same as Prr

Drive-train Design
A drive-train is to be designed to provide
◦ Adequate force / Torque at different speeds to overcome drag, rolling resistance, gradient
resistance and also provide the right acceleration (pick-up) at different speeds
◦ Adequate power and speeds for different kinds of drives
Next Task
◦ Optimise the energy that it requires for a travel
◦ What is the voltage used for drive-train?
◦ How much current will it draw form a battery?
◦ What are the losses in each sub-system?

Assignment 2.3
1. For a 2-wheeler, e-rickshaw and sedan given below, compute total traction
force, Power and Torque required at 30 kmph and 80 kmph. What would be
the power and torque required if the 4-wheeler sedan goes to 160 kmph.
Assume slope to be zero and the pickup time to be 20 sec.
Vehicle  (kg/m3) CD A  weight Tyre radius

(m2) (kg) (m)
2-wheeler 1.2 0.9 0.5 0.013 180 0.28
e-rickshaw 1.2 0.44 1.6 0.013 680 0.20
Sedan 1.2 0.35 2.5 0.013 1200 0.31

Assignment 2.3
2. Assume the sedan is stuck on a climb 12° slope. It needs to start and have a
acceleration of 0.5 m/sec2. What is the starting Torque required?

(m2) (kg) (m)
Sedan 1.2 0.35 2.5 0.013 1200 0.31

2.5 Concept of a Drive-cycle

Drive Cycle
How much energy will a vehicle take per km?
◦ Concept of Energy-efficiency of a vehicle: Wh/km
◦ Depends upon how the vehicle travels and how much energy it takes
◦ Energy required will depend upon Speed, Acceleration, idling, Deceleration
Definition of a Drive-cycle
◦ A definition of how the vehicle is typically driven
◦ Vehicles tested as per a Standard Drive-cycle, against which its performance is measured
and compared for similar vehicles
◦ How long it travels at what speed and how long and when it is accelerated decelerated?

For example
A sedan, as given in slide 28, is travelling at constant speed of 50 kmph on a
flat road for five minutes. What is the distance travelled and energy used.
◦ Fdrag ≈ 150N (from figure) and Frr ≈ 190 Nat 50 kmph. Therefore, traction Force is 340N
◦ Power consumed is 340* (50/3.6) or 4.72 kW
◦ Energy used in 5 minutes = 4.72* 300/3600 kWh or 393 Wh

◦ Distance travelled = (50/3.6)* 300 meters or 4.16 km
◦ Energy used per km ≈ 393/4.16 or 94 Wh/km

Assignment 2.4
a) A sedan, accelerates from 0 to 50 kmph in 20 seconds. It then travels at
constant speed of 50 kmph for five minutes. It then decelerates to 0 kmph
in 20 seconds. Compute the energy used, assuming R=1 and R =0.3 and the
distance travelled. What is Wh/km? Consider the gradient as 0°.

(m2) (kg) (m)
Sedan 1.2 0.35 2.5 0.013 1200 0.31

Assignment 2.4
b) The sedan now goes from 0 to 25 kmph in 15 seconds, travel at 25 kmph for
2 minutes, speeds up to 50 kmph in another 15 seconds, travel for 4
minutes at 50 kmph and then decelerates to 0 kmph in 20 seconds.
Compute the energy used, assuming R=1 and R =0.3 and the distance
travelled. What is Wh/km? Consider the gradient as 0°.

Standard Drive Cycle
A drive cycle is standardised, so that different vehicles can be tested and
compared
◦ Each vehicle type (two-wheeler / small car / bus) may have its own drive-cycle
◦ Each city / town may have its own drive-cycle
◦ Usually climbing a slope and coming down a slope not a part of drive-cycle
◦ A hill-terrain drive cycle should include it: their own drive-cycles
Different countries have different drive-cycles, based on how the vehicles are
driven in the country
Drive-cycle defined for a limited time: tests repeat this several times
◦ Measurements taken over multiple cycles

2-wheeler / Auto No. of operation
Acceleration
(m2/sec )
Speed
(Km/h)
Duration of each Cumulative
operation (S) time( s)
India Drive Cycle (IDC) 1

2
3
Idling
Acceleration
Acceleration
--
0.65
0.56
---
0-14
14-22
16
6
4
16
22
26
4 Deceleration -0.63 22-13 4 30
5 Steady speed -- 13 2 32
6 Acceleration 0.56 13-23 5 37
7 Acceleration 0.44 23-31 5 42
8 Deceleration -0.56 31-25 3 45
10 Deceleration -0.56 25-21 2 51
11 Acceleration 0.45 21-34 8 59
12 Acceleration 0.32 34-42 7 66
13 Deceleration -0.46 42-37 3 69
15 Deceleration -0.42 37-34 2 78
16 Acceleration 0.32 34-42 7 85
17 Deceleration -0.46 42-27 9 94
18 Deceleration -0.52 27-14 7 101
19 Deceleration -0.56 14-0 7 108
BREAK DOWN OF OPERATING CYCLE USED FOR THE TYPE ITEST

A: BREAK DOWN BY PHASES
Sr. No. Particulars Time(s) Percentage
1 Idling 16 14.81
2 Steady speed periods 13 12.04
3 Accelerations 42 38.89
4 Deceleration’s 37 34.26
108 100
B: AVERAGE SPEED DURING TEST : 21.93 Km/h
C: THEORETICAL DISTANCE COVERED PER CYCLE : 0.658 Km.
D: EQUIVALENT DISTANCE FOR THE TEST (6 cycles) : 3.948 Km.

Compute Distance and Energy
for the full drive-cycle
Take velocity at every small interval ΔT
(say 1 second or even lower) and ◦ Traction Force Ftrac = Fa +Fr + FD (Newtons)
compute in a spread-sheet ◦ Traction Torque (Nm) =
Ftrac * wheel radius (m)
◦ distance: Vel (m/sec) * ΔT (sec) at each
point ◦ Ptrac(Watts) = Ftrac* V (Nm/sec)
◦ Acceleration = ΔVel / ΔT in m/sec2 ◦ and Ptrac(Watts) = (R * Ftrac) * V with
◦ Acceleration Force Fa = M * Acceleration Regeneration Efficiency R, when Ftrac is –ve
(Newtons)
◦ Rolling Resistance Force Fr = M*g*μ ◦ Energy (Wh) = Ptrac * ΔT
◦ Drag Force FD = 0.5* Cd * ρ* A * v2 ◦ Integrate to give drive-cycle energy

Low-end 2-wheeler
Uses India Drive Cycle
Mass (kg): M 155 ◦ Compute velocity, distance travelled and
g (m/s2) 9.81 acceleration every 1 second
Rolling Resist: μ (kN/kN) 0.013 ◦ Compute each component of traction force (drag,
Cd (Drag Coefficient) 0.9 rolling resistance and acceleration)
ρ (kg/m3) 1.2 ◦ Compute total traction force, Torque and Power
A (m2) (Projected Area) 0.5 consumed
Drive cycle IDC-2W ◦ Integrate to compute Energy consumed
wheel radius(m) 0.28 ◦ Use regeneration efficiency to compute energy
restored to the battery
regen eff factor R 0.5
◦ Only when deceleration is taking place

Spread-sheet for a typical 2-wheeler
time(s) vel(km/h) dist (meters) vel (m/s) dv/dt
0 0 0
16 0 0 0 0 velocity and incremental distance travelled
every second
17 2.3333 0.6481 0.6481 0.6481
45
18 4.6666 1.2962 1.2962 0.6481 40
19 7 1.9444 1.9444 0.6481 35
20 9.3333 2.5925 2.5925 0.6481 30

25
21 11.6666 3.2407 3.2407 0.6481 20
22 14 3.8888 3.8888 0.6481 15
23 16 4.4444 4.4444 0.5555 10
5
24 18 5 5 0.5555
0
25 20 5.5555 5.5555 0.5555
0
19
23
27
31
35
39
43
47
51
55
59
63
67
71
75
79
83
87
91
95
99
103
107
105 6 1.6666 1.6666 -0.5555 vel(km/h) dist (meters)
106 4 1.1111 1.1111 -0.5555
107 2 0.5555 0.5555 -0.5555 (total distance = 658 m)
108 0 0 0 -0.5555

100% regenartaion efficiency
Energy with 100%
Fa (N) Frr (N) Fd (N) Ftrac (N) Torque (Nm) Ptrac (kW) regen (Wh)
Mdv/dt Mgμ 0.5ρCdAv2 Fa+FR+Fd Ftrac*r Ftrac*v Ptrac*dt
100.4630 19.7672 0.4537 120.6838 33.7915 0.1173 0.0000 0.0434
100.4630 19.7672 1.0208 121.2509 33.9503 0.1965 0.0001 0.0980
100.4630 19.7672 1.8148 122.0449 34.1726 0.2769 0.0001 0.1749
100.4630 19.7672 2.8356 123.0658 34.4584 0.3589 0.0001 0.2746
100.4630 19.7672 4.0833 124.3134 34.8078 0.4432 0.0001 0.3977
86.1111 19.7672 5.3333 111.2116 31.1392 0.4634 0.0001 0.5264 Total Energy decreases
86.1111 19.7672 6.7500 112.6283 31.5359 0.5319 0.0001 0.6742 when Power is negative
86.1111 19.7672 8.3333 114.2116 31.9792 0.6028 0.0002 0.8416
86.1111 19.7672 10.0833 115.9616 32.4692 0.6764 0.0002 1.0295
-96.8750 19.7672 8.1263 -68.9815 -19.3148 -0.4000 -0.0001 0.9184
-96.8750 19.7672 6.3802 -70.7276 -19.8037 -0.3659 -0.0001 0.8168
Total Energy (Wh) with 100% Regen
10.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 17.5208 -48.8231 -13.6705 -0.4069 -0.0001 2.4647 9.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 15.1875 -51.1565 -14.3238 -0.3979 -0.0001 2.3541 8.0000
7.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 13.0208 -53.3231 -14.9305 -0.3851 -0.0001 2.2472 6.0000
5.0000
4.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 0.3333 -66.0106 -18.4830 -0.0917 0.0000 7.4619 3.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 0.0833 -66.2606 -18.5530 -0.0552 0.0000 7.4466 2.0000
1.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 0.0000 -66.3440 -18.5763 -0.0184 0.0000 7.4415
0.0000
0
19
23
27
31
35
39
43
47
51
55
59
63
67
71
75
79
83
87
91
95
99
103
107
Energy with 100% regen (Wh)

Consider Regeneration Efficiency R = 0.5
◦ Ptrac (Watts) = (Fr+FD+Fa)*R*V, whenever Ftrac is negative, else R is taken as 1
◦ Regeneration Efficiency R is fraction of energy recovered
◦ Energy (Wh) = Ptrac * ΔT
◦ Regeneration recovers only part of the energy generated
◦ Total distance = 658 m 10.0000
Energy (Wh) 9.0000
Energy Used per km 8.9348 8.0000

7.0000
8.9024
◦ Eff = Total Energy / Distance (km) 8.8707 6.0000
5.0000
◦ = 8.78 Wh / 0.658 km = 13.34 Wh/km 8.8434
4.0000
8.8208
◦ With 100% regeneration 8.8031
3.0000
2.0000
◦ Eff = 7.44 Wh / 0.658 km = 11.31 Wh/km 8.7904 1.0000
8.7827
◦ Without regeneration, it is 15.38 Wh/km 0.0000
0
19
23
27
31
35
39
43
47
51
55
59
63
67
71
75
79
83
87
91
95
99
103
107
8.7802
Energy with R% regen (Wh) Energy with 100% regen (Wh)

Assignment 2.5
1. Prepare a spread sheet for 2-wheeler IDC using data given in slide 2-
wheeler/Auto Indian Drive Cycle (IDC). Obtain the traction Force, traction
Power, and the torque required every second. Compute the total energy
consumed and the distance travelled. Obtain Wh/km for the vehicle.
Assume R=0.3 and gradient 0°.
Mass (kg): M 190
g (m/s2) 9.81
Rolling Resist: μ (kN/kN) 0.013
Wheel radius(m) 0.28
Cd (Drag Coefficient) 0.9
ρ (kg/m3) 1.2 Regen eff factor R 0.3
A (m2) (Projected Area) 0.5
Drive cycle IDC-2W

Assignment 2.5
2. Now assume that at 100 seconds in the drive cycle, the vehicle moves at
constant speed, but climbs a slope of 5° for 10 seconds. The vehicle then
goes to zero speed in the next eight second, just like it does from 100 sec to
108 sec in IDC. Now compute energy required, distance travelled and
Wh/km, again assuming R=0.3

To Sum Up
A low-end two-wheeler consumes only 15.38 Wh per km (without taking into
account any regeneration)
◦ With 50% regeneration, energy consumed goes down to 13.34 Wh per km
◦ Can travel about 70 kms with just 1 kWh of available battery energy (Using about 1.25 kWh
of battery)
The computation assumes every element of drive-train to be ideal

◦ Inefficiencies may take up to 20% or more toll

2.6 Drive Cycles and Energy
used per km
E-auto, e-rickshaw and Compact Sedan

Electric Auto
Widely Used in India
Mass (kg) 600
g (m/s2) 9.81 Drive Cycle used is same as that for
Roll Res μ 0.013 two-wheelers: India Drive cycle (IDC)
Cd (Drag) 0.44 ◦ Much higher weight as compared to a
Dens ρ (kg/m3) 1.2 two-wheeler
Proj Area A (m2) 1.6

Drive cycle IDC-auto
wheel radius(m) 0.2

E-auto: velocity, distance and acceleration
time(s) vel(km/h) dist (meters) vel (m/s) dv/dt
0 0.0000 0.0000
16 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
17 2.3333 0.6481 0.6481 0.6481 velocity and incremental distance travelled
18 4.6667 1.2963 1.2963 0.6481 every second
45.0000
19 7.0000 1.9444 1.9444 0.6481
40.0000
20 9.3333 2.5926 2.5926 0.6481 35.0000
25 20.0000 5.5556 5.5556 0.5556 30.0000
26 22.0000 6.1111 6.1111 0.5556 25.0000
27 19.7500 5.4861 5.4861 -0.6250 20.0000

15.0000
28 17.5000 4.8611 4.8611 -0.6250
10.0000
29 15.2500 4.2361 4.2361 -0.6250 5.0000
105 6.0000 1.6667 1.6667 -0.5556 0.0000
0
19
23
27
31
35
39
43
47
51
55
59
63
67
71
75
79
83
87
91
95
99
103
107
106 4.0000 1.1111 1.1111 -0.5556
vel(km/h) dist (meters)
107 2.0000 0.5556 0.5556 -0.5556
108 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 -0.5556 (total distance = 658 m)

Energy per km of e-auto with R = 0.5
Energy with 100% Energy with R%
Time(s) regen (Wh) regen (Wh) 35.0
105 20.1523 26.7312

30.0
106 20.0534 26.6817
107 19.9940 26.6520 25.0
108 19.9742 26.6421
20.0
Distance travelled in a cycle is 658m 15.0
10.0
◦ Eff = Total Energy / Distance (km)
5.0
◦ = 26.64 Wh / 0.658 km = 40.49 Wh/km
◦ With 100% regeneration 0.0
0
19
23
27
31
35
39
43
47
51
55
59
63
67
71
75
79
83
87
91
95
99
103
107
◦ Eff = 19.97 Wh / 0.658 km = 30.36 Wh/km Energy with R% regen (Wh) Energy with 100% regen (Wh)
◦ Without regeneration, it is 50.63 Wh/km

e-auto Summary
E-autos with much higher weight as compared to a low-end two-wheeler
◦ Will consume between 40 Wh/km to 50 Wh/km
◦ Inefficiencies in motor and Controller will add up to the energy consumed
◦ Driving at higher speeds would consume much larger energy
◦ Similarly Overloading will add significantly to energy consumed
◦ And climbing slopes will add further if regeneration is not good
◦ Hilly road energy consumed in much higher
Note that when a battery becomes older, its capacity reduces

No of Operation Operation Cumulative (s) Speed (km/h)
1 Idling 5.0 0
2 Acceleration 9.4 8
3 Steadyspeed 18.4 8
4 Deceleration 21.4 0
e-rickshaw: IDC 5
6
7
Idling
Acceleration
Acceleration
26.4
30.9
36.4
0
8
16
11 Idling 60.3 0
Maximum Speed limited to 25 kmph 12 Acceleration 64.8 8
20 Idling 111.1 0
31 Idle 203.8 0

e-rickshaw
Vehicle velocity and incremental distance travelled
Specifications e-rickshaw every second
Mass (kg) 680 30
g (m/s2) 9.81
25
Roll Res μ 0.013
Cd (Drag) 0.44 20
Dens ρ (kg/m3) 1.2
Proj Area A (m2) 1.6 15
Drive cycle IDC-erick

10
wheel radius(m) 0.2

5
0
time(s)
6
13
20
27
34
41
48
55
62
69
76
83
90
97
104
111
118
125
132
139
146
153
160
167
174
181
188
195
velocity distance
(total distance = 727 m)

Energy Efficiency of e-rickshaw (R=50%)
Distance travelled in a drive- 35.00000
cycle is 727m 30.00000
25.00000
◦ Eff = Total Energy / Distance (km) 20.00000
◦ = 24.53 Wh / 0.727 km = 33.7 Wh/km 15.00000
◦ With 100% regeneration, Efficiency 10.00000
◦ 19.93 Wh / 0.727 km = 27.36 Wh/km

5.00000
0.00000
◦ Without regeneration, it is
time(s)
5
11
17
23
29
35
41
47
53
59
65
71
77
83
89
95
101
107
113
119
125
131
137
143
149
155
161
167
173
179
185
191
40.04 Wh/km Energy with 100% regen (Wh) Energy with R% regen (Wh)

E-rickshaw Summary
Even with higher weight, the energy efficiency is below 35 Wh/km with 50%
regeneration efficiency
◦ A 2.5 kWh battery will easily give over 50 km range, even taking into account
◦ Inefficiencies of motors and controllers
◦ Usage capacity of the battery of 85% of actual battery capacity
◦ Reduction in battery capacity with time
◦ But overloading and over-speeding will end-up consuming more energy, reducing range
◦ Motors need to be designed to give high efficiencies even at lower speeds

4-Wheelers: Modified Indian Drive Cycle
(MIDC)
MIDC (20 minutes) Distance 10.7km
100.00 12000.0
90.00
10000.0
80.00
70.00
8000.0
Speed (km/h)
Distance (m)
60.00
50.00 6000.0
40.00
30.00 4000.0
20.00
10.00 2000.0
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0.0
Time (s) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (s)

Electric compact-Sedan
GVW of Sedan much higher than that Vehicle Specifications
for 2-wheelers and 3-wheelers Mass (kg) 1400
◦ Tyres are much better: lower rolling g (m/s2) 9.81
resistance Roll Res μ 0.006
◦ Vehicle goes up to 90 kmph Cd (Drag) 0.40
◦ Special attention to drag-coefficient as well as Dens ρ (kg/m3) 1.2
for projected area Proj Area A (m2) 1.9
wheel Rad (m) 0.31
Regen Eff 0.5

Compact Sedan Energy Efficiency
Traction Energy (Wh)
900.000
800.000 Distance travelled in a drive-cycle is
700.000
10.70km
600.000
500.000
400.000 ◦ Eff = Total Energy / Distance (km)
300.000 ◦ = 815.9 Wh / 10.7 km = 76.3 Wh/km
200.000
100.000
◦ With 100% regeneration, Efficiency
0.000 ◦ 650.23 Wh / 10.7 km = 60.8 Wh/km
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (s) ◦ Without regeneration, it is 91.8 Wh/km
Energy with 100% regen (Wh) Energy with R% regen (Wh) Highly dependent on drag
◦ If Cd reduced to 0.33, Eff is 69.8 Wh/km

4-wheeler Summary
Most energy consumed between 800 seconds and 1200 seconds of drive-
cycle, when vehicle speeds goes to 70 kmph and 90 kmph
◦ Yet 80 Wh/km to 90 Wh/km is very good
◦ Energy consumed may be significantly increased by motor and controller inefficiencies

◦ If motors designed for higher efficiencies at higher speeds (70kmph to 80 kmph), efficiencies would
be very poor at lower speeds
◦ unless motor is designed to have relatively flat efficiencies over speeds
◦ Typical induction motor based vehicle gives 125 Wh/km
◦ Motors have to be also designed to have high torque for rapid pick-up and for climbing
slopes

2.7 Low-end Electric Trucks

Delivery Truck Specs
GVW of Truck is high
◦ Tyres are good: lower rolling resistance Vehicle Specifications
◦ Vehicle goes up to 90 kmph Mass (kg) 3500
◦ Special attention to drag-coefficient as well as g (m/s2) 9.81
for projected area Roll Res μ 0.0077
◦ MIDC Drive Cycle Cd (Drag) 0.66
◦ Acceleration requirement: 0 to 59 in 15 Sec and Dens ρ (kg/m3) 1.2
59 to 89 in subsequent 25 sec. Proj Area A (m2) 3.7
◦ Gradeability: 12% at 30kmph wheel Rad (m) 0.399
◦ Startability: 20% Gradient at 0.2 m/s2 Regen Eff 0.5
acceleration
◦ Auxiliary System Load: 20%

Trucks: Modified Indian Drive Cycle (MIDC)
MIDC (20 minutes) Distance 10.7km
100.00 12000.0
90.00
10000.0
80.00
70.00
8000.0
Speed (km/h)
Distance (m)
60.00
50.00 6000.0
40.00
30.00 4000.0
20.00
10.00 2000.0
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0.0
Time (s) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (s)

Traction Energy used for a drive-cycle
◦ Almost 2.6 kWh energy used for 10.7 km
Traction Energy (Wh) drive-range with 30% regeneration
3000.000 ◦ Energy per km = 2603/10.7 or 243 Wh/km
2500.000 ◦ With 100% regeneration it goes down to 191
2000.000
Wh/km
1500.000
◦ For 12% slope (6.85°), the Force required is
1000.000
4kN and Torque is 1630 Nm
◦ Motor will require high gear-ratio to deliver
500.000
torque
0.000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 ◦ For Starting at 20% slope (11.3°), Torque is
Time (s) 2690 Nm
◦ Plus even 0.2m/s acceleration requires 700 Nm
Energy with 100% regen (Wh) Energy with 30% regen (Wh)

Summary of the pick-up truck
As vehicle weight increases, the energy consumption per km goes up
◦ A 200 km range will require about 50 kWh battery
◦ As only 85% of battery can be useable and battery capacity can go down to 80% with use,
as discussed later
◦ Battery required will be close to 75 kWh, which itself will add 400 kg weight
◦ Computations carried out without taking motor and controller inefficiencies (losses), which
could add another 15% size and weight
The torque requirement is close to 3000 Nm for vehicle-start at 20% slope

◦ Single gear may be difficult (to be discussed later in chapter 3)

2.8 Vehicle Dynamics Conclusion
Some Considerations

Drag and Rolling Resistance dependence
Eff(Wh/km) as Cd varies with μ=0.006 of Energy required per km for a
90.000
80.000
compact Sedan (assuming R of 0.5)
70.000 ◦ Dependent strongly on aerodynamics
60.000
50.000
◦ Varies strongly with drag coefficient Cd
40.000 ◦ Better aero-dynamics of vehicle will help
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Cd
◦ Also depends on rolling resistance μ

Eff(Wh/km) as μ varies with Cd=0.4
100 ◦ Better tyres could help
90
80
70 ◦ For Cd of 0.3 and μ of 0.009, energy
60 efficiency with R of 0.5 is 77.9 Wh/km
50
0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01 ◦ With 100% regeneration, it is 62.8Wh/km
μ

Torque as well as Power Requirement
Largely driven by the pick-up time (ACCELEARTION)
◦ will require high Torque
and the slope: Again requiring high Torque

Power required will be high for higher speeds
◦ Not significant for speeds up to 60 kmph
◦ 100 kmph or 130 kmph speeds (or even 150 kmph speeds on highways) would need large
Power: Power is proportional a cube of velocity
Besides Torque and Power, vehicle speed (rpm) is a major parameter

◦ Right gear ratio has to be chosen to optimise Torque and Speed
◦ Should one use multiple gear or single gear: EV trend is for single gear

Energy Required per km and its impact
The Design Computation here did not consider inefficiencies of Motors and
controllers
◦ They will play a major role in power consumption
◦ and will push-up battery size to cater for higher Energy Requirement
◦ Will require batteries with higher Power capacity (C-rate) to cater to peak Power Requirement
Motors and Controller have to be defined for a certain output power and
torque, rather than input power based on efficiencies
◦ Inefficiencies will cause higher power dissipation as heat: Thermal design require to cater
to that
Have not considered Auxiliary Power and Energy Requirements

We also need to consider
Drive-train Voltage to be used: derived form Battery voltage
◦ 48V or 72V for small vehicles
◦ 2-wheelers, three-wheelers and small four-wheelers (a few hundred Watts to up to 15 kW)
◦ As current increases, the losses in motor conductors will increase: will need thicker conductors
◦ 350V for larger cars and pick-ups

◦ Motors up to 75 kW
◦ 750V for motors for buses and trucks

◦ 80 kW to 300 kW
Use of Distributed motors could reduce power required

What we did in the Chapter and why?
An Electric Vehicle would need to have
◦ Motor and Controller to drive the vehicle as per the drive-train requirement
◦ And also the torque requirement
◦ Battery with sufficient Energy to drive the vehicle for specific range
◦ Also should be able to give enough power even when battery gets old and have less capacity
We have learned to compute what does different vehicles require for a drive
◦ Power, Energy, Torque
◦ We have learned the impact of various parameters like rolling-resistance, aerodynamic
coefficients, Vehicle frontal Area, weight, slope, pick-up or acceleration, Regeneration
required on Power, Energy and Torque
◦ Now we look at how to design an Electric Vehicle to meet the requirement

Finally
A good understanding of vehicle-dynamics (common for ICE and Electric
Vehicles) prepares ground for EV subsystem Designs
◦ EV Drive-train Requirement comes form this
◦ Power, Torque, Speed and Energy Considerations

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2.

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 1

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 2

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 3

Vehicle GVW (kg) CD Area(sqm)  v1(kmph) v2(kmph) Tyre radius

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 5

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 6

Torque and Speed (referred to as rpm) are the fundamental parameters of a

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 7

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 8

The energy consumed by vehicle in motion is the integration of Traction Power

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 9

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 10

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 11

For a car (Limo) at 50 kmph, [CD= 0.35 and A = 2.5]

Aerodynamic drag increases as square of velocity and Power increases as cube of

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 12

* Generally max grades are limited to 12o; (Cos12 = 0.978 ≈1)

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 13

Force due to rolling resistance is a function of velocity only at high speed

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 14

E-rickshaw: typical m=(vehicle of 300kg + 380kg load), typical μ is 0.013

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 15

◦ Power required = 1062W at 25 kmph

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 16

If gradient is 12 degrees, Force increases to

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 17

At 12° slope, it considerably increases

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 18

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 19

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 20

E-rickshaw (25kmph or 6.95 m/s)

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 21

What about deceleration and climbing down?

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 22

Vehicle GVW (kg) CD Area(sqm)  v1(kmph) v2(kmph) Tyre radius

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 23

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 24

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 25

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 26

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 27

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 28

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 29

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 30

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 31

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 32

Vehicle  (kg/m3) CD A  weight Tyre radius

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 33

Vehicle  (kg/m3) CD A  weight Tyre radius

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 34

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 35

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 36

◦ Energy used in 5 minutes = 4.72* 300/3600 kWh or 393 Wh

◦ Energy used per km ≈ 393/4.16 or 94 Wh/km

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 37

Vehicle  (kg/m3) CD A  weight Tyre radius

Sedan 1.2 0.35 2.5 0.013 1200 0.31

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 38

Chapter 2.0 Vehicle Dynamics 39