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Code of Practice for Grid-connected

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
NOT FOR COMMERCIAL USE OR REPRODUCTION
COPYRIGHT © The IET

Design, specification, installation, commissioning,
operation and maintenance
Version 1.6 :: 15/09/2014
Draft for Comment

Editorial Notes
Text in green: Editor’s Notes / queries
Most diagrams will be redrawn prior to publication

Draft for Comment

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Solar PV CoP :: v1.6 :: Page 1 of 138

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Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Scope and purpose ........................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Document structure ........................................................................................................... 7

1.3 Normative references and definitions ................................................................................ 7
2 Overview of solar PV systems, components and architectures .................................................. 8
2.1 Solar PV Modules .............................................................................................................. 8
2.2 Solar PV cells.................................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Solar PV module standards ............................................................................................... 9
2.4 Inverters .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Inverter types ........................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Key inverter design features ..................................................................................... 11
2.4.3 Inverter standards .................................................................................................... 12
2.5 System architectures ....................................................................................................... 13
Draft for Comment

2.6 Array architectures .......................................................................................................... 14
2.6.1 Single string – single inverter ................................................................................... 14
2.6.2 Multiple inverters ...................................................................................................... 14
2.6.3 Multiple strings – single inverter ............................................................................... 14
2.6.4 Multiple strings – single inverter with multiple MPPT ................................................ 14
2.6.5 Module MPPT tracking ............................................................................................. 14
2.6.6 AC module system ................................................................................................... 14
2.6.7 Central inverter system with sub-arrays .................................................................... 14
Draft for Comment
3 Solar PV array and module operating characteristics and behaviour ...................................... 15

3.1 General ........................................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Solar module ratings ....................................................................................................... 15
3.3 The IV curve .................................................................................................................... 16
3.4 Short circuited modules ................................................................................................... 16
3.5 Irradiation and temperature effects .................................................................................. 17
3.6 Module behaviour when shaded ...................................................................................... 18
3.7 Module reverse currents .................................................................................................. 20
3.8 Potential Induced Degradation......................................................................................... 20
4 System performance ............................................................................................................... 21

4.1 Pitch and orientation ....................................................................................................... 21
4.2 Geographical location ...................................................................................................... 22
4.3 System losses ................................................................................................................. 23
4.4 Daily and annual variation ............................................................................................... 25
4.5 Photovoltaic performance estimation .............................................................................. 26
4.6 Warranties/guarantees .................................................................................................... 26
5 DC system electrical design .................................................................................................... 28
5.1 System voltage and current multipliers ............................................................................ 28
5.1.1 Soaking-in periods ................................................................................................... 28
5.2 DC system: voltage considerations .................................................................................. 28
5.3 DC system: current considerations .................................................................................. 29
5.4 PV array overcurrent protection ....................................................................................... 31

5.4.1 String overcurrent protection .................................................................................... 31
i. Device selection .............................................................................................................. 31
ii. Device location ................................................................................................................... 31
5.4.2 Sub-array overcurrent protection .............................................................................. 31

5.4.3 Array over-current protection .................................................................................... 32
5.5 Isolation and Switching ................................................................................................... 33
5.5.1 DC switch-disconnector requirements ...................................................................... 33
5.5.2 System using micro-inverters ................................................................................... 34
5.6 Combiner boxes .............................................................................................................. 34
5.7 PV array plug and socket connections ............................................................................. 34
5.8 PV array cables ............................................................................................................... 35
Draft for Comment

5.8.1 Cable ratings ............................................................................................................ 35
5.8.2 Cable types .............................................................................................................. 35
5.8.3 Cable labelling ......................................................................................................... 36
5.8.4 Sizing to reduce energy loss .................................................................................... 36
5.9 Protection against the effects of DC isolation faults ......................................................... 36
5.9.1 Earth insulation resistance ....................................................................................... 37
5.9.2 Array residual current monitoring ............................................................................. 38
5.9.3 Earth Fault Alarm ..................................................................................................... 38
Draft for Comment
5.10 PV array functional earthing ............................................................................................ 39

5.11 PV array frame: earthing and bonding arrangements ....................................................... 40
5.11.1 Determining extraneous-conductive-parts ................................................................. 44
5.11.2 Determining exposed-conductive-parts ..................................................................... 44
5.12 Protection against lightning and overvoltage on the DC side ........................................... 45
6 Protection against lightning and overvoltage ........................................................................... 46
6.1 Risk assessment ............................................................................................................. 46
6.2 External LPS ................................................................................................................... 46
6.3 Lightning current and surge arresters .............................................................................. 47
6.4 Data or control circuits .................................................................................................... 47

6.5 Lightning protection zone concept (LPZ) ......................................................................... 48
6.6 Ground-mounted arrays................................................................................................... 50
7 Inverters ................................................................................................................................. 52
7.1 Inverter sizing ................................................................................................................. 52
7.1.1 Inverter MPP voltage range ...................................................................................... 52
7.1.2 Inverter–array power ratio ........................................................................................ 52
7.2 Inverter selection............................................................................................................. 53
7.3 Inverter location .............................................................................................................. 53
7.4 Inverter labelling ............................................................................................................. 54
8 AC system requirements: low voltage ...................................................................................... 55
8.1 Typical connection details ............................................................................................... 55

8.2 General BS 7671 requirements ....................................................................................... 57

8.3 Overcurrent protection ..................................................................................................... 57
8.4 Isolation and switching .................................................................................................... 57
8.5 Cables............................................................................................................................. 58
8.6 Earthing and bonding ...................................................................................................... 58
8.7 Overvoltage and lightning protection .............................................................................. 58

8.8 RCD protection ............................................................................................................... 59
8.9 G59 relay ........................................................................................................................ 59
8.10 Systems integration ......................................................................................................... 60
9 Network connection and DNO approval ................................................................................... 62
9.1 G83: single premises ....................................................................................................... 62
9.2 G83: multiple premises .................................................................................................... 63
9.3 G59 installations ............................................................................................................. 64
9.4 G59 commissioning ......................................................................................................... 64
9.5 Labelling requirements .................................................................................................... 65
9.6 New connections ............................................................................................................. 65
Draft for Comment

9.7 Contestable and non-contestable works .......................................................................... 65
10 High Voltage (HV) systems ................................................................................................. 67
10.1 HV distribution system ..................................................................................................... 67
10.2 HV equipment standards ................................................................................................. 70
10.3 HV equipment locations ................................................................................................... 71
10.4 HV Cables ....................................................................................................................... 71
10.5 HV Switchgear ................................................................................................................ 72
10.5.1 Secure isolation ....................................................................................................... 72
Draft for Comment
10.5.2 Switchgear padlocking ............................................................................................. 73

10.5.3 Switchgear anti-reflex handle ................................................................................... 73
10.6 Transformers ................................................................................................................... 73
10.6.1 Power rating ............................................................................................................. 74
10.6.2 Voltage rating ........................................................................................................... 74
10.6.3 Winding configuration ............................................................................................... 74
10.6.4 Transformer impedance ........................................................................................... 75
10.6.5 Dielectric class ......................................................................................................... 76
10.6.6 Transformer connections .......................................................................................... 77
10.7 Earthing arrangements .................................................................................................... 78

10.7.1 Earthing of HV systems – Network Operator considerations ..................................... 78
10.7.2 Managing hot sites ................................................................................................... 79
10.7.3 Hot substations and internal touch and step voltages ............................................... 83
10.7.4 Substation and HV equipment earth systems............................................................ 83
10.7.5 Low-voltage earth systems associated with an HV substation................................... 85
10.7.6 Integration with array frame earthing ........................................................................ 86
10.7.7 Integration with lightning and surge protection systems ............................................ 86
11 Mechanical and civil design and installation ........................................................................ 87
11.1 PV mounting systems: general requirements ................................................................... 87
11.2 Wind and snow loads ...................................................................................................... 88
11.2.1 Wind loads ............................................................................................................... 88

11.2.2 Snow loads .............................................................................................................. 91

11.2.3 Load calculations ..................................................................................................... 92
11.3 PV systems on buildings ................................................................................................. 94
11.3.1 PV systems on top of pitched roofs .......................................................................... 94
11.3.2 Roof integrated PV systems ..................................................................................... 95
11.3.3 Flat-roof PV systems ................................................................................................ 96

11.3.4 PV Facades ............................................................................................................. 96
11.3.5 PV glazing ................................................................................................................ 97
11.4 PV systems on buildings: fire considerations ................................................................... 98
11.4.1 Preventing PV system fires ...................................................................................... 98
11.4.2 DC arc detection .................................................................................................... 100
11.4.3 Smoke and fire alarms ........................................................................................... 100
11.4.4 Fire: general installation considerations ................................................................. 100
11.4.5 Labels and signs .................................................................................................... 101
11.4.6 Specifying additional fire measures ........................................................................ 102
11.5 Ground mounted PV systems ........................................................................................ 103
Draft for Comment

11.5.1 Array design ........................................................................................................... 103
11.5.2 Tracking systems ................................................................................................... 105
11.5.3 String design .......................................................................................................... 106
11.5.4 Access ................................................................................................................... 106
11.5.5 Security .................................................................................................................. 106
12 System monitoring ............................................................................................................ 108
12.1 Types of monitoring ....................................................................................................... 108
12.1.1 Fault detection and alarms ..................................................................................... 108
Draft for Comment
12.1.2 Generation and export monitoring .......................................................................... 108

12.1.3 Performance monitoring ......................................................................................... 108
12.2 Performance Ratio ........................................................................................................ 108
12.3 Monitoring resolution ..................................................................................................... 109
12.4 Sensors ......................................................................................................................... 109
12.4.1 Irradiance Sensors ................................................................................................. 109
12.4.2 Cell temperature sensors ....................................................................................... 109
12.4.3 Other sensors ........................................................................................................ 110
12.5 Data logging .................................................................................................................. 110
12.6 Displays ........................................................................................................................ 110

13 Battery systems ................................................................................................................ 112
13.1 Application of battery systems ....................................................................................... 112
13.2 System configurations ................................................................................................... 113
13.3 Battery: main overcurrent protection .............................................................................. 114
13.4 Battery isolation ............................................................................................................ 114
13.5 PV array/string overcurrent protection ........................................................................... 115
13.6 DC cables and component ratings ................................................................................. 115
13.7 Battery installation ........................................................................................................ 116
13.8 Isolation and switching for off-grid operation ................................................................. 118
14 Installation ........................................................................................................................ 119
14.1 Planning permission ...................................................................................................... 119

14.2 Building control ............................................................................................................. 121

15 Health and safety .............................................................................................................. 122
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 122
15.2 Construction (design and management) regulations ...................................................... 123
15.3 Electricity at Work Regulations ...................................................................................... 124
15.4 Hazard inventory ........................................................................................................... 125

15.5 Safety management of solar farm installations ............................................................... 126
15.5.1 Principal contractor responsibilities ........................................................................ 126
15.5.2 Solar farm installation: owner/operator responsibilities ........................................... 127
15.5.3 Formal written policy and procedures ..................................................................... 127
15.5.4 Access to substations/switch-rooms ....................................................................... 127
15.5.5 Categories of persons with specific responsibilities under a safety management
system 127
16 System commissioning ..................................................................................................... 129
17 Handover and documentation ........................................................................................... 132
17.1 System handover .......................................................................................................... 132
Draft for Comment

17.2 System documentation .................................................................................................. 132
18 Operation and maintenance .............................................................................................. 135
18.1 Scheduled maintenance ................................................................................................ 135
18.2 Periodic verification ....................................................................................................... 135
18.3 Regular inspections ....................................................................................................... 135
18.4 The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive .............................................. 136
Draft for Comment


1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope and purpose
This Code of Practice sets out the requirements for the design, specification, installation,
commissioning, operation and maintenance of grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) systems
installed in the UK.

The scope of this Code of Practice covers:
• all parts of a grid-connected solar PV system up to, and including, the connection to the AC
mains.
• LV and HV connections and components.
• all scales of application, from small domestic systems to large-scale PV farms.
• building-mounted, building-integrated and ground-mounted systems.
• grid-connected systems with battery storage.
• systems with an open circuit DC voltage of greater than 30VDC and less than 1,500VDC.
NOTE: while this Code of Practice does not cover systems with a voltage of less than 30VDC, many of the parts of this
Code of Practice will apply to such systems.
Draft for Comment

The purpose of this Code of Practice is to provide solar PV system designers and installers with the
information required to ensure that a solar PV system is designed, installed and commissioned to
comply with relevant UK and international standards and good practice recommendations. Its
purpose is also to ensure that the operation and maintenance of solar PV systems is safe and
effective, and complies with the appropriate standards.
This Code of Practice is aimed at ensuring safe, effective and competently installed solar PV
systems. It will also be of interest to a wide range of stakeholders, including customers, owners,
investors, insurers and financiers of solar PV systems.
Draft for Comment

Note: This Code of Practice does not cover off-grid solar PV systems or concentrating solar PV systems, however some
elements of this Code of Practice may apply.
1.2 Document structure

Throughout this Code of Practice, the following format has been adopted:
• Text in blue indicates mandatory and/or broadly recognised requirements (‘shall’).

• Plain text in black indicates explanatory material.
1.3 Normative references and definitions

Editor’s Note: Left blank at this stage; to complete following DPC.

2 Overview of solar PV systems, components and architectures
2.1 Solar PV Modules

A solar PV module is defined as the smallest, complete, environmentally-protected assembly of
interconnected PV cells; however, the term is sometimes taken to mean different things. For the
purposes of this Code of Practice, a PV module is defined as any of the standard building blocks of
PV systems, including those discussed in more detail below.

2.1.1 Standard PV modules
Standard modules are the mass-produced items seen in most PV systems. They are formed from
an assembly of interconnected crystalline silicon PV cells, encapsulated in a thin layer of resin and
laminated between a glass front and a plastic rear sheet. The laminate is then mounted in a rigid
aluminium frame.
The electrical connection to the module is provided by a pair of connecting cables that exit via a
junction box that is mounted on the laminate rear surface. Polarised plug and socket connectors
are fixed onto the cable ends.
Draft for Comment

NOTE: the construction of standard modules using other cell technologies can vary, for example, thin film modules
formed of two layers of glass.
2.1.2 PV roof tiles
A PV roof tile is designed to replace conventional roofing materials. While similar in many ways to
a standard module, PV roof tiles typically vary in their size and framing details.
The frame of a PV roof tile is designed to allow units to interlock and provide a weather-tight seal.
A variety of materials are used for PV tile frames, including plastics and aluminium.
Draft for Comment
PV roof tiles are also typically much smaller than standard modules, with the size selected to suit

the application or to match the general dimensions of the roof materials they will be replacing.
2.1.3 Bespoke building integrated PV (BBIPV)
BBIPV is a generic term that describes any module that is used to replace a standard part of a
building envelope, such as a facade or an area of glazing.
The construction of a BBIPV module will depend on the function it is intended to perform,
however, common variations from the design of a standard module include:
• a glass rear sheet: this allows the module to be transparent.

• the lack of frame: many BIPV modules are supplied as an unframed laminate.
• bespoke sizes: BBIPV modules can be much larger (and smaller) than a standard module.
• bespoke shapes: while most modules are rectangular, BBIPV shapes can vary.
• cable details: for example, cables may exit from module edges.
• additional layers: for example, BBIPV may be built into double glazed units.

2.2 Solar PV cells

A solar cell is a device that exhibits the photovoltaic effect, capturing light energy (photons) from
the sun and converting it into electricity.
A number of solar cells are wired in series to achieve the desired output voltage of the PV module.
To achieve the desired output current, a number of these series-connected strings of cells may

also be wired in parallel.
The majority of PV modules are constructed using crystalline silicon PV cells. These cells are
comprised of a thin wafer of crystalline silicon (either mono-crystalline or poly-crystalline) that has
been chemically treated to create an internal structure that can absorb photons and produce the
desired electrical current.
Thin-film PV is an alternative to crystalline silicon cells and is formed by depositing one or more
thin layers of photovoltaic material on a substrate, typically glass. Thin film is a generic phrase
that is used to encompass a number of different technologies including amorphous silicon,
cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and dye-sensitised and
other organic solar cells (OPV).
Draft for Comment

2.3 Solar PV module standards
Various IEC standards are in place to provide safety and performance tests for solar PV modules.
Systems shall use modules that have been certified to the following IEC standards:
Design qualification
PV Module type Safety standard
and type approval
Crystalline PV modules IEC 61215
IEC 61730
Thin-film PV modules IEC 61646
Draft for Comment

Modules shall also carry a CE mark.
The module safety standard IEC 61730 defines module application classes and sets out the
relevant safety requirements and necessary tests that need to be performed to verify the
conformance to the requirements of that application class. Three classes are defined:
• Class A module: commonly available ‘standard’ modules. Modules are considered to meet the
requirements for safety class II.
• Class B module: considered to meet the requirements for safety class 0.
• Class C module: considered to meet the requirements for safety class III.
The use of Class B modules is not permitted.

See section 5.2 for the permitted use of Class A and Class C modules.
NOTE: Safety classes are defined in EN 61140
Additional certification requirements may be relevant to modules installed in particular environments:
• For modules installed in coastal areas: IEC 61701 Salt mist corrosion testing of photovoltaic (PV)
modules.
• For modules installed in wet, highly corrosive agricultural atmospheres: IEC 62716 Photovoltaic (PV)

modules - Ammonia corrosion testing
2.4 Inverters
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC).
As the output of a PV module is DC and the UK electricity network is AC, an inverter forms a key
component of a grid-connected PV system.

As well as the basic DC-AC conversion, a typical grid-connected inverter performs a number of
other functions including:
(a) additional AC functions:

• synchronising its output voltage and frequency with the AC mains (grid).
• monitoring the grid and temporarily switching off (disconnecting) if any problems or ‘out-
of-bounds’ conditions are detected.
• ensuring that the output waveform is within specified harmonic and flicker limits.
Draft for Comment

(b) additional DC functions:
• ensuring that the maximum energy is extracted from the PV array – typically achieved by
maximum-power point tracking (adjusting the PV array operating voltage).
• monitoring of faults on the DC side (earth and isolation faults).
2.4.1 Inverter types

Inverters come in a number of different sizes and configurations. The common variations are
described below.
Draft for Comment

i. Domestic string inverters
Domestic-sized string inverters are designed to connect directly to PV strings and typically have
the facility for connecting between one to three separate strings. They are generally single-phase
units with ratings of up to around 4kW.
ii. Commercial string inverters
Commercial-sized string inverters are larger than their domestic counterparts with the facility to
directly connect a larger number of strings. They are generally 3-phase units and come in sizes of
up to around 15kW.
iii. Central Inverters
Central inverters are large, 3-phase units that are designed to be connected to the PV array via a
series of remote combiner boxes (that combine and interconnect the PV strings). Central inverters
range from filing-cabinet sized inverters of a few tens of kW to shipping-container sized MW scale
units. Large central inverters may include an HV transformer to facilitate connection to the HV
grid.
iv. Micro-inverters
At the other end of the scale are micro inverters – small units that are designed to interface with
only one or two PV modules. Micro inverters are typically mounted directly on the rear of the
module and may even be built into the module junction box.
v. DC optimisers
DC optimisers provide module-level maximum-power point tracking, with the units mounted on
the rear of the PV modules or incorporated into the module junction box. A DC optimiser system
requires a separate inverter to enable the grid connection. There are two distinct architectures:
those that are designed to add on, and work with, another manufacturer’s string inverter, and

those that are designed to work with a dedicated inverter that works only with the optimizers.
Some DC optimizers will work with one module each and others will work with pairs of modules.
DC optimisers can also provide module-level performance monitoring.
2.4.2 Key inverter design features

To enable the system design process, there are a number of key inverter design features that need
to be determined,
i. Isolated and non-isolated inverters

While inverter topologies vary, the inverter isolation category needs to be understood as it can
influence system design. There are two types of inverter:
Draft for Comment

(a) an inverter with at least simple separation between the AC and DC sides; and
(b) an inverter without at least simple separation between the AC and DC sides (commonly
referred to as a ‘transformer-less inverter’).
The difference between the two inverter types depends on the electrical separation between the
main power output circuits and PV circuits (the AC and DC sides). Inverter requirements are as set
out in IEC 62109-2.
NOTE: The electrical separation may be either integral to the inverter or provided externally, for example, an inverter
with an external isolation transformer.
Draft for Comment

ii. Single vs multiple maximum-power point (MPP)
It is important to understand whether an inverter has a single or multiple MPP tracking circuit(s)
on its DC input.
An inverter with a single MPPT tracker is simpler and less expensive, but the PV system must be
designed so that all the strings possess both the same numbers of modules and the same electrical
characteristics.
An inverter with multiple MPP trackers (multiple MPP inputs) can enable strings with a different
number or type of modules to be connected to the same inverter. Arrays with multiple
orientations or sizes (for example, two adjoining roofs) can benefit from an inverter with multiple
MPP trackers. It is also good practice to use an inverter with multiple MPP trackers (or separate
inverters) to minimize the effect of shading, by installing modules that are suffering the most
shading onto a different MPP tracker than those of the unshaded modules.
The use of microinverters or DC optimizers provides each PV module with their own individual
MPPT tracker. This allows the installation of PV modules over several roof aspects and shading
conditions, and the mixing and matching of module types, even on the same string.
Many string inverters will have a number of string connections available to the installer. It is
important to understand whether these are all interconnected (single MPP) or if they feed
different MPP trackers.

iii. Installation requirements

It is important to know the rules for the physical location of the inverter. This will include the IP
rating of the device and any rules to enable sufficient ventilation etc.
2.4.3 Inverter standards

Inverters shall comply with the requirements of IEC 62109.

Inverters shall carry a CE mark.
Depending on the type and scale of the system, the inverter may also need to be type tested to
Engineering Recommendation ER G83 or G59. See Section 9 for more details.
Draft for Comment

Draft for Comment


2.5 System architectures

Editor’s Note: May move these into AC section (?); to complete following DPC.
Typical supply and earthing arrangments


Typical domestic installation
MCB
+
L
PV
ARRAY INVERTER N
-
Main earthing terminal
Array frame bonding
Draft for Comment

Typical commercial installation
MCB
+ L1
L2
PV L3
ARRAY INVERTER
-
N Main earthing terminal
Array frame bonding
+
Draft for Comment
PV
INVERTER MCB
ARRAY
L1

- L2
L3
Typical solar farm (central inverter) installation
+
PV
ARRAY INVERTER 11kV
NOTE: For simplicity, all schematics exclude:
• Any detail of PV array design, interconnection, isolation, switching and fusing

• AC circuit isolators
• Metering arrangements
• G59 relays (if required)
• Provision (if required) for surge / overvoltage systems

2.6 Array architectures

Editor’s Note: A series of circuit diagrams (only array side – no AC parts); to complete following
DPC.
2.6.1 Single string – single inverter

2.6.2 Multiple inverters
2.6.3 Multiple strings – single inverter
Draft for Comment

2.6.4 Multiple strings – single inverter with multiple MPPT
Draft for Comment

2.6.5 Module MPPT tracking
2.6.6 AC module system

2.6.7 Central inverter system with sub-arrays

3 Solar PV array and module operating characteristics and behaviour
3.1 General
While there are many factors to consider in designing a grid-connected solar PV system, the design
of the DC side requires an understanding of three key characteristics of a PV module/array:
(a) A PV array does not have a fixed voltage and current output.

Unlike most conventional circuits, the output voltage and current of a PV array varies
considerably under different operating conditions (light levels and temperature).
It is therefore important to determine the maximum current and voltage that may occur in
order to select suitably rated system components and configurations.
(b) A PV module is a current-limiting device
Unlike most conventional circuits, the short-circuit current of a PV array is not much greater
than its operating current.
Draft for Comment

This lack of a significant ‘fault current’ means that a PV array requires a slightly different
approach when designing suitable fault protection.
(c) PV modules cannot be switched off
Under daylight, the output of a PV module is always live. This, combined with the current-
limiting nature that makes clearing or detecting faults more complicated, means that
particular care needs to be taken to mitigate shock and fire hazards during installation,
operation and maintenance.
Draft for Comment
3.2 Solar module ratings

Manufacturers supply data on a PV module both on datasheets and also on the module label (the
module ‘nameplate’). The following module ratings are important when designing a PV system:
P MPP Nominal power at maximum-power point (STC)

V MPP Voltage at maximum-power point (STC)
I MPP Current at maximum-power point (STC)
V OC Open-circuit voltage (STC)
I SC Short-circuit current (STC)
V SYS Maximum system voltage
I MOD_MAX_OCPR PV module maximum overcurrent protection rating (IEC61730-2)

NOTE This is often specified by module manufactures as the ‘maximum series fuse rating’
- Voltage temperature coefficient
- Protection class
NOTE: Module data is provided under standard test conditions (STC): Irradiance: 1,000W/m ²; Cell temperature:
25°C; Light spectrum corresponding to an atmospheric air mass (AM) of 1,5

Re-create: Turn into generic label


Draft for Comment
3.3 The IV curve
A plot of a module’s current-voltage characteristic or I-V curve shows the relationship between
the module current and the module voltage.
Draft for Comment

To re-draw
The IV curve showing the relationships between V MPP, I MPP, V OC, I SC and P MPP.
3.4 Short circuited modules

The IV curve above clearly shows how the short-circuit current (I SC ) is only a little greater than the
operating current (I MPP ). In other words, even with a dead short across the output terminals of the
PV module, the current will only rise above the operating value by a small amount.

3.5 Irradiation and temperature effects

The values of Voc and Isc provided by the manufacturer on the module label/datasheet are those
at standard test conditions - irradiance of 1,000 W/m², AM 1.5 and cell temperature of 25°C. The
operation of a module outside of these standard test conditions affects the values of VOC and I SC.
These variations must be taken into consideration when specifying the voltage/current rating of all
components of the DC system.

Irradiance can vary considerably from the STC value of 1,000 W/m². While irradiance below STC
values will be common, a clear atmosphere and cloud enhancement effects can raise the
irradiance above the STC value in the UK.
To re-draw
Draft for Comment

How the IV curve varies with irradience
This chart shows how the module operating and short-circuit currents are affected by changes in
irradinace whereas the open circuit voltage is only weakly affected.
Draft for Comment
Cell temperatures well above and below the STC value of 25°C can be expected in real systems.

Cell temperatures are affected by:
(a) ambient air temperatures;

(b) absorbed heat from the sun;
(c) cooling from the wind; and
(d) the degree of ventilation and air movement behind the modules.
To re-draw
include a -15°C line
How the IV curve varies with cell temperature.
This chart shows how the module’s open-circuit voltage (V OC ) is affected by cell temperature.

The chart also shows how, at low cell temperatures, the module output voltage can be considerably
above the STC value.
The relationship between module voltage and temperature is dictated by a temperature coefficient.
An example of how this can significantly affect a typical PV array is shown below:

Example PV array calculation
Number of modules: 10
Open Circuit voltage (STC): 37.5V
Temperature coefficient of VOC : -0.32 %/°C
• PV array open-circuit voltage at 25°C (STC) = 37.5 x 10 = 375V
• PV array open-circuit voltage at 0°C (25°C below STC) = 375 + (375 x 0.0032 x 25) = 405V
• PV array-open circuit voltage at -15°C (40°C below STC) = 375 + (375 x 0.0032 x 40) = 423V
Draft for Comment

This example shows that the array’s open-circuit voltage is 48V higher at -15°C
To account for the variations in a module’s voltage and current, a system designer needs to apply a
multiplication factor to the STC values. The values to be used in the UK are explained later in this
Code of Practice (see section 5.1).
3.6 Module behaviour when shaded

Draft for Comment
The behaviour of a PV module when shaded depends on the module construction and also on the
location and extent of the shade across the module. However, even small amounts of shade can

have a significant impact on the performance of the module and the array as a whole.
The current that is generated by a PV cell is proportional to the light that falls on it; hence shading
a cell reduces the output of the cell. Where a string of cells are connected together in a series,
shading any cell in the string results in the output current of the entire string falling to the level of
the shaded cell. In these circumstances, the current from the unshaded cells is driven into the
shaded cell – which, if the current is great enough, becomes reverse biased and starts to dissipate
the current flowing from the other cells. This has the effect of heating up the cell casing a ‘hot
spot’.
Hot spot heating has the potential to cause serious damage to a module and can ultimately result
in fire. To limit the effect of shade and hot spot heating, bypass diodes are connected in parallel
across a group of cells within a module. In normal operation the bypass diode does nothing (the
diode is reverse biased so does not conduct). However, where sufficient shading occurs, the diode
becomes forward biased and conducts the current from all the unshaded cells in the module
string.

Wiring scheme for a typical 60-cell PV module
The module is split into three banks of 20 cells with a bypass

diode connected across each bank
To re-draw

Each cell generates approximately 0.5V, so each sub-string
Make diodes &
wiring clearer generates approximately 10V. Under normal operation there
is -10V across the diode, which does not conduct.
Under shaded conditions, the reverse bias voltage from the

shaded cell(s) forces a positive voltage across the diode, which
starts to conduct. Output power from all the cells in the
shaded sub-string is then lost.
NOTE: The above diagram shows how a faulty bypass diode can result in a drop in module voltage. Bypass diodes can
often fail short-circuited, which results in a loss of output from the cells they are connected across.
Draft for Comment

The above diagram illustrates how shade location influences the overall impact of the shade on the
PV system. For example, it may be better to orientate some modules in landscape when forming
an array of multiple parallel rows. At times of low sun, the shade will form a band across the base
of either the module or the array itself. If laid in portrait, all three cell sub-strings will be affected,
but if laid in landscape only one sub-string is affected.
Draft for Comment

To re-draw
Shade affects all Shade affects only one

three sub-strings sub-string
To re-draw
• Replace red text with: IV curve with shaded cell

• Replace green text with: IV curve of unshaded module

3.7 Module reverse currents

Faults in PV arrays with multiple, parallel connected strings can result in a reverse current flowing
in some of the PV modules. While modules can withstand a small reverse current, where this
current exceeds the modules’ maximum reverse current rating, there is the potential for
significant damage to the modules and a risk of fire.

The ability of a PV module to cope with reverse current is qualified in IEC 61730, which includes a
2-hour reverse-current thermal-withstand test. This test is part of the process that enables the
manufacturer to provide the maximum overcurrent protection rating (I MOD_MAX_OCPR ) - often termed
‘maximum series fuse’.
Fault currents above the maximum series fuse rating present a safety risk and must be addressed
within the system design.
3.8 Potential Induced Degradation
Potential Induced Degradation (PID) reduces the power output of a cell. It occurs when the
voltage between the cell and the ground drives ions from the module glass (and other parts of the
PV laminate) into the semi-conductor material of the solar cell. These ions establish shunt circuits
Draft for Comment

in the semi-conductor and reduce its effectiveness. The process is amplified by increased
humidity, temperature and system voltage.
Certain types of PV modules are more prone to PID and the manufacturers may specify particular
earthing arrangements for the PV system. Some PID effects can be reversed, and the full output of
a module restored, by connecting one of the DC current-carrying conductors to earth (connecting
DC-negative to earth for a p-type module). This is termed ‘functional earthing’ and is covered
later in this Code of Practice (see section 5.10).
Draft for Comment


4 System performance
4.1 Pitch and orientation

The output from a solar PV module is at its greatest when the sun falls perpendicularly on its
surface. When considering the site for static, fixed PV arrays, the movement of the sun across the
sky and the maximum sunlight the array will receive across the year should be taken into account.

In the UK, maximising the annual output from a grid-connected PV array will generally be achieved
by orientating the array due south and at a pitch roughly equal to the site latitude.
However, local conditions may influence array siting, for example:

(a) a site that consistently has cloud at one end of the day may favour an orientation towards the
more sunny part of the day.
(b) a site with hills, buildings or other obstacles that obscure the sun at one end of the day may
favour an orientation away from the obstacles.
(c) a site with poor summers or cloudy winters may favour an array with a shallower tilt angle (to
maximise the summer production).
Similarly, financial calculations may influence the array pitch and orientation. For example,
Draft for Comment

decreasing the pitch of parallel rows of PV modules will allow the module rows to be spaced closer
together and permit a larger system to be installed within a particular site boundary (such as on a
flat roof or within a field). Such an increase in the density of the module layout, while slightly
reducing the system performance, allows a larger system to be installed and may yield a better
return for the investor.
To re-draw
Draft for Comment

Other factors that may influence the choice of array pitch include:
(a) an increased pitch may be preferable on a site subject to regular snowfall to ensure that the
snow is shed effectively.
(b) an increased pitch will improve the self-cleaning of modules by rainfall - a minimum pitch of
15° is recommended for self-cleaning to be effective. This becomes particularly significant for
sites subject to considerable dust and dirt build-up.
(c) a flatter pitch will maximise summer generation, a steeper pitch winter generation. Certain
systems / applications may need to optimise for winter or summer generation.
NOTE: off-grid systems often install arrays with a steeper pitch to maximise winter production – a time of the year
when electricity demand may be at its highest and the sun low in the sky.
Mounting frames that track the sun can be installed to maximise the output from a PV array. Both
single-axis and dual-axis (pitch and orientation) trackers are available. While beneficial, the
increased output of a solar-tracking array has to be balanced against the increased initial cost and
subsequent maintenance requirements. Tracking systems generally only prove financially viable
for sites with wide horizons and very little shade. Alternatively, some sites may opt for the use of
adjustable mounting systems that allow for seasonal adjustments of array pitch. A typical
seasonally adjustable system would typically pitch the array at 15° less than the site latitude for
summer and 15° more than the latitude during winter.
Table xx
Effect of orientation and pitch on array performance (% of ideal)

Vert. 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Horiz.
EAST 58 65 70 76 80 84 86 88 90 90
SE 69 77 84 89 93 96 96 96 94 90
SOUTH 71 80 87 93 97 100 100 98 96 90
SW 67 75 82 87 92 95 96 96 94 90
WEST 56 63 69 74 78 82 86 87 89 90
NOTE: when using a compass to orientate a PV array, it is important to allow for magnetic variation – the array needs
Draft for Comment

to be facing due (geographic) south rather than magnetic south.
4.2 Geographical location

The following chart is taken from data from the met office and shows how both latitude and site
geography influence the irradiance levels found across the UK. While irradiance levels are strongly
influenced by latitude (sites closer to the equator get more sun), it can be seen from the chart that
coastal sites are also generally better than those further inland. Coastal sites tend to be sunnier
due to lower cloud levels. The effect of increased cloud levels can also be seen by the lower
irradiance levels generally seen over more hilly or mountainous areas.
Draft for Comment

Need to get met office

approval to use this

4.3 System losses
The conversion of sunlight into electricity in a grid-connected PV system is affected by a number of

losses throughout the conversion process, as shown in the diagram below.

To re-draw – simpler & without
any numbers or specific %s
Refer to headings as below
Draft for Comment

4.3.1 Dirt or soiling
Any dirt or soiling on an array will reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the PV cells and so
reduce the system output.
Draft for Comment
As noted previously, a pitch of 15° is generally considered to be the minimum requirement for a PV

array to be self-cleaning through rainfall. However, in particularly dirty or dusty sites, cleaning
regimes may be necessary to maintain a good system output. Sites near the coast may also need
additional cleaning to remove salt and sand deposits.
Soiling from birds can be a problem in some areas. Deterrent measures such as the use of hawk
sirens may need to be implemented on some problem sites. Suspending netting or strings above
the array is sometimes suggested, but the increased shading from such measures may not justify
the benefit from reduced soiling.
4.3.2 Far shading

Far shading occurs due to the sun being obscured by hills or other objects away from the
immediate vicinity of the array. The effect of far shading is to reduce the number of hours that an
array receives ‘direct beam’ radiation from the sun. Far shading is typically worse during the
winter months when the sun is low in the sky. There is generally very little that can be done to
influence the impact of far shading at a given site.
4.3.3 Near shading

Near shading is the result of obstacles in the immediate vicinity of the PV array. As the sun moves
across the sky, the shade from a near shade object traverses a site in the same way that the shade
from the pointer on a sundial moves. While the size of the shade zone may be small, the effect
can be significant – as noted in the shading section earlier in this Code of Practice. Depending on
relative locations of the array and the shade object, the shade impact can also last for a
considerable part of the day.

Much can be done to lessen the effect of near shading. The most significant benefits can be
obtained by siting arrays away from locations affected by near shade. Removing or relocating
shade objects are also often good solutions for many sites (for example, objects such as TV aerials
are usually easy to move).
System design can also impact on the losses due to near shading. The string design of a PV array
should always consider the presence of any near shade objects. Where possible, the array should

be configured such that the shade only affects one string (or the minimum number of strings) at a
time. An alternative approach is to use a system design that uses module-level maximum-power
point trackers – either by the use of micro-inverters or DC optimizers. This latter approach is
particularly beneficial on sites where near shading can’t be avoided and affects a large part of the
array.
4.3.4 Cell temperature losses

This models the times when output is reduced due the increased temperature of the PV cells. This
effect was discussed earlier in this Code of Practice.
4.3.5 Module quality losses

Module quality loss categorises any discrepancy between the nominal rating and the performance
Draft for Comment

of a module and that of the real modules installed on site.
Manufacturers provide modules with a power rating subject to a plus or minus tolerance. The
selection of modules with a tight tolerance band or modules subject only to positive tolerance
variations will reduce the impact of module quality losses.
4.3.6 Mismatch losses

Module mismatch loss models the impact of the small variations in electrical characteristics
between nominal identical modules. While two nominally identical modules may have the same
maximum-power rating, they may achieve this with slightly different combinations of voltage and
Draft for Comment
current.

4.3.7 DC wiring losses
DC wiring losses occur in the cables of a PV array. This effect can be minimised by the careful
selection of cables and by minimising the length of any DC cable runs. Good design practice for a
PV system is to achieve no more than 3% losses in the DC cables of a PV array.
4.3.8 Inverter losses

Inverter losses can generally be divided into four parts:
(a) Efficiency loss: this depends on the efficiency of the inverter (varies at different power levels).
(b) Over-power loss: these are losses that occur at times when the array is generating more power
than the inverter can handle. At such times the inverter will generally limit its power output to
its upper threshold.
Note: it is common practice to design a system with an inverter that has a power rating lower
than the rating of the array (see section 7.1.2).
(c) Under-power loss: occurs during periods of low irradiance when the array is generating
insufficient power for the inverter to operate.
(d) MPP voltage range losses: this occurs when the array has a voltage that falls outside of the
MPP voltage window of the inverter. For a well-designed and specified system, this should be
a rare occurrence.
4.3.9 AC wiring losses

AC wiring losses occur in the AC cables between the inverter and the grid. This effect can be
minimised by the careful selection of cables and by minimising the length of any AC cable runs.
Good design practice for a PV system is to achieve no more than 3% losses in the AC cables of a PV
array.
4.3.10 AC connection losses

This models losses due to times when the system is shut down because of a problem with the AC
supply to the site. This is commonly due to a power cut, but occasionally may be due to the

system switching off if it has detected a problem with the quality of the supply (for example, low
voltage).
4.3.11 Equipment failure losses
This models losses that occur due to times where the system cannot operate due to equipment
failure.
4.4 Daily and annual variation

The output of a PV varies throughout the day and across the year. The following graphs show
typical generation profiles for a static (non-tracking), south-facing PV array.
Draft for Comment

Daily output from a PV
system showing reduced
output due to clouds in the
Draft for Comment
afternoon.

Annual output from a PV
system showing how the
majority of the system power
is generated during the
summer months.

4.5 Photovoltaic performance estimation

A number of different tools and procedures are available for estimating the performance to be
expected from a grid-connected PV system. While it is beyond the scope of this Code of Practice
to proscribe a particular method, there are a number of general rules that apply:
(a) Any PV evaluation presented to a client shall include information on the design assumptions

used in calculating the result, including:
• nominal array power used in calculations;
• array orientation and pitch used in calculations;
• site location assumed in calculations;
• details on the irradiation files used (including the source of the data and the geographic
location the irradiation data is based on).
(b) A statement of the shade situation on the array – to include both near and far shade. Where
shade losses have been allowed for, the method used to calculate the effect of the shade shall
be shown. The estimated reduction in annual output due to shade shall also be stated.
Draft for Comment

(c) Where an estimate includes payback or other financial calculations, the financial assumptions
used in compiling the report (such as interest rates) shall be declared.
NOTE: systems installed under the Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS) will need to use the MCS
performance estimation procedure to estimate the system performance.
4.6 Warranties/guarantees
When evaluating the performance of a grid-connected PV system, a number of
warranties/guaranties need to considered, including:
Draft for Comment

4.6.1 Module performance warranty
This provides a written guarantee promising to repair or replace the PV module if it does not
perform as promised over the warranty period. Most module performance warranties run for a
period of either 20 or 25 years. The performance is typically declared as either a percentage of
the rated power after a number of years or as a ‘linear warranty’ – where the performance over
time is declared by the use of a (linear) graph.
To re-draw – remove company name
Linear vs standard warranty

4.6.2 Inverter warranty

This provides a written guarantee promising to repair or replace the inverter if it does not perform
as promised over the warranty period. Most standard inverter warranties run for a period of
between two to five years, though some manufacturers offer longer periods either as standard or
as an optional extra.

Manufacturers of larger inverters may also include a guarantee of operational time (often termed
an ‘up-time guarantee’). This sets out the number of days a year the manufacturer will guarantee
that the inverter will be operational and provides a framework of compensation payments should
the inverter fail to meet this value.
4.6.3 Performance guarantee

This is a guarantee that a system will produce a certain amount of electricity each year, coupled to
a framework of compensation payments to be paid where the agreed performance is not
delivered. As system performance is influenced by weather, performance guarantees may only
address a certain percentage of the expected production (for example, only triggered below 90%
of predicted output) or may be linked to a minimum performance ratio (the power delivered
Draft for Comment

related to the irradiance level during the year).
4.6.4 Installation warranty

The installation warranty is provided by the system installer and covers, for defined periods, the
materials and workmanship provided.
Draft for Comment


5 DC system electrical design
5.1 System voltage and current multipliers

In the design of a PV system and the selection of components, it is necessary to account for the
potential peaks in module voltage and current due to variations in environmental conditions (for
example, temperature, irradiance, etc).

To account for these variations, before performing any other system calculations a multiplier
needs to be applied to the STC module parameters. For PV systems in the UK:
Systems using crystalline silicon modules:

o Voltage: Voc(STC) x 1.15
o Current: Isc(STC) x 1.25
For example, the following calculations show the minimum voltage and current ratings for the
components in a specific PV string:
String data: Number of modules in series = 10; Module Isc = 4.3A; Module Voc = 35.0V
Draft for Comment

Min Voltage rating = 10 x 35.0 x 1.15 = 402.5V
Min Current rating= 4.3 x 1.25 = 5.375A
Due to their differing characteristics, it is not possible to provide a simple pair of multipliers to
apply to modules that are not constructed using crystalline silicon cells. For such modules
installed in the UK, individual calculations need to be performed as follows:
Systems with other module types:

Draft for Comment
Using manufacturer’s data, the values of Voc and Isc shall be calculated assuming a minimum
temperature of -15°C and a maximum irradiance of 1,250 W/m2.

5.1.1 Soaking-in periods
Some types of modules exhibit increased voltage and current characteristics during their initial
operation. The length of this period and the extent of the impact on module parameters will be
provided by the manufacturer and can be very significant. This characteristic is typically found in
some types of thin-film modules.
When calculating system component ratings, any increase to module voltage and current due to an
initial soaking-in period shall be allowed for in calculations. This shall be applied first (and in
addition to) any other calculations, such as the temperature/irradiance calculation shown above.
NOTE: in some circumstance, the initial increase to array output parameters may be in excess of what the system
inverter is able to accept. In such cases, the array can be left disconnected for the soaking-in period.
5.2 DC system: voltage considerations

The DC voltage encountered in a PV array is set by the voltage of the modules and the number of
modules connected in series. The scope of this Code of Practice addresses systems with an open
circuit voltage (V OC STC ) between 30V and 1,500V.
V OC STC between 30V and 1,500V
Module class
Class A modules shall be used
(IEC 61730)
Cables shall be selected and erected so as to minimise the risk of earth faults
DC cables and short-circuits.
NOTE: this is commonly achieved using reinforced or double-insulated cables.
DC connectors Shall be class II


Isolation
Required (see section xxx)
monitoring
NOTE: this table describes PV systems in the voltage range of 30-1,500VDC. Systems outside this band can have
different requirements.
5.3 DC system: current considerations

The DC current encountered in a PV array is set by the current of the modules and the number of
PV strings connected in parallel.
In the subsequent calculations, the following symbols are used:
Draft for Comment

(a) I SC_MOD : the module short-circuit current at STC.
(b) I SC_SUB_ARRAY : the sub-array short-circuit current at STC.
(c) I SC_ARRAY : the array short-circuit current at STC.
(d) N: the number of strings connected in parallel in an array (or sub-array).
(e) I N _ STRING : the current rating of the string overcurrent protection device.
(f) I N _ SUB_ARRAY : the current rating of the sub-array overcurrent protection device.
Draft for Comment


The following tables set out the current-carrying capacity required for the DC circuit (cables,
isolators, switchgear and connectors) for a system formed of standard crystalline silicon modules:
A) Array formed of single PV string

System part Minimum current rating required

All parts of DC circuit I SC_MOD x 1.25
B) Single array formed of multiple PV strings – no fuses

System Part Minimum current rating required
All parts of PV string circuit I SC_MOD x 1.25 x (N-1)
All parts of PV array circuit I SC_MOD x 1.25 x N
C) Single array formed of multiple PV strings – with string fuses
Draft for Comment

All parts of PV string circuit I N_STRING
All parts of PV array circuit I SC_ARRAY x 1.25
D) System with sub-arrays – with string and sub-array fuses

Draft for Comment

All parts of PV string circuit I N_STRING
All parts of PV sub-array circuit I N_SUB_ARRAY
All parts of PV array circuit I N_SUB_ARRAY #1 + I N_SUB_ARRAY #2 + …
For other module types the 1.25 multiplier used above shall be replaced by the figure calculated for
that module type (see section 5.1).
NOTE: for systems with module power optimisers – see clause xxx.

5.4 PV array overcurrent protection

This section relates to a system where the PV array provides the only source of fault current. For
systems with batteries see section xxx.
In the subsequent calculations, the following symbols are used:
(a) I SC_MOD : the module short circuit current at STC.


(b) N: the number of strings connected in parallel in an array (or sub-array).
(c) I MOD_MAX_OCPR : the module maximum overcurrent protection rating.
Where the overcurrent protection device is a fuse, it shall be of a type gPV (in accordance with IEC
60269-6).
Where the overcurrent protection device is a circuit breaker, it shall be xxx (TBA).
The overcurrent protective device shall be rated for the maximum system voltage (as calculated in
section 5.2).
Where fitted, string overcurrent protection devices shall:
(a) for systems with a functional earth, be placed in all unearthed conductors.
(b) for systems without a functional earth, be placed in one of the active conductors.
Draft for Comment

5.4.1 String overcurrent protection
String overcurrent protection shall be fitted to all PV arrays (and sub-arrays) where:
(N -1) x I SC_MOD > 1.35 x I MOD_MAX_OCPR
i. Device selection
Draft for Comment
The string overcurrent protective device shall be selected with an operating current (I N ) such that:

I N > 1.5 x I SC_MOD
I N < 2.4 x I SC_MOD
I N ≤ I MOD_MAX_OCPR
ii. Device location

String overcurrent protection devices shall be located in the in the string combiner box.
5.4.2 Sub-array overcurrent protection

Sub-array over-current protection shall be provided if more than two sub-arrays are connected to a
single inverter.
i. Device selection
The sub-array over-current protective device shall be selected with an operating current (I N ) such
that:
I N > 1.25 x I SC_SUB_ARRAY

I N < 2.4 x I SC_SUB_ARRAY
NOTE: the sub-array multiplier (1.25) is lower than the string multiplier (1.5) to allow for design flexibility. However, this approach may
result in nuisance tripping and should be avoided for sites with high irradiance levels.
ii. Device location

Sub-array over-current protection devices shall be located in the sub-array combiner box.

5.4.3 Array over-current protection

Array over-current protection is only required for battery systems or where there is another source
of fault current other than the PV array.
i. Device selection
The array over-current protective device shall be selected with an operating current (I N ) such that:

I N > 1.25 x I SC_SUB_ARRAY
I N < 2.4 x I SC_SUB_ARRAY
NOTE: the array multiplier (1.25) is lower than the string multiplier (1.5) to allow for design flexibility. However, this approach may
result in nuisance tripping and should be avoided for sites with high irradiance levels.
The array over-current protective device shall be selected to have a sufficient interrupt rating for the
maximum prospective fault current from the battery, or other fault current source.
ii. Device location

Array over-current protection devices shall be located where the array connects to the source of the
fault current – i.e. at the battery connection in battery systems.
Draft for Comment

Draft for Comment


5.5 Isolation and Switching
The PV array shall be equipped with devices for isolation and switching according to the following
table:
Minimum
Notes on application and means of isolation

Circuit
requirement
• Small systems: isolation is typically achieved by the use of

Readily
suitably located plug and socket connectors.
accessible
PV string
means of
isolation
• Larger systems: isolation is typically achieved by the use of
removable string fuses in the array combiner box
Readily • Small systems: N/A (no sub-arrays)

accessible
Sub-array
means of • Larger systems: isolation is typically achieved by the use of a
Draft for Comment

isolation removable sub-array fuse or by the use of a switch-disconnector.
• Isolation is typically achieved by a switch built into the inverter

Readily or a switch mounted adjacent to the inverter.
accessible
Array
switch- • Larger systems: isolation is typically achieved by the use of a
disconnector switch-disconnector or a suitable rated circuit breaker that may be
incorporated into the inverter housing.
Draft for Comment

NOTE: isolation is provided to isolate all or part of an installation from every source of electrical energy. A switch-
disconnector provides both load-break-switching functions and isolation.
5.5.1 DC switch-disconnector requirements

The DC switch-disconnector shall be rated for DC operation at the voltage and current maxima calculated
for the circuit (see sections 5.2 and 5.3).
The DC switch-disconnector shall be tested to BS EN 60947-1 and BS EN 60947-3 and have a switching
mechanism with a ‘snap’ action (independent manual operation). DC switch-disconnectors shall not be
polarity sensitive.
NOTE 1: the switching action of the device is of importance, because when switch contacts open a circuit under load,
there is inevitably at least a short-lived arc that must be extinguished. Excessive arcing can lead to high resistance
faults in the device. Sprung, snap action devices minimise the duration of the arc.
NOTE 2: devices must not be polarity sensitive as fault currents can flow in either direction in a PV array.
The DC switch-disconnector must isolate all live conductors.
The switch-disconnector shall be labelled: “PV array DC isolator” with the ON and OFF positions clearly
indicated. The switch enclosure shall also be labelled: “Danger contains live parts during daylight”.
Where the DC switch-disconnector is built into the inverter, it shall permit the array to be safely isolated
from the inverter (for inverter maintenance/repair) by complying with one of the following:

(a) a switch-disconnector that is mechanically connected to the inverter chassis in a manner that
allows the rest of the inverter to be removed from the switch chassis without risk of electrical
hazards.
(b) a switch-disconnector arrangement that only permits access to the serviceable section of the
inverter when the switch is in the open (off) position.

(c) a switch-disconnector built into the inverter that incorporates a secondary means of array
isolation. The means of array isolation can only be operated with a tool and must be labelled
"Do not disconnect under load”.
NOTE: these options are provided to ensure that a system using an inverter with a built-in switch-disconnector retains
some means of array isolation to permit safe inverter repair or maintenance. Smaller inverters are typically removed
for replacement and repair - in such cases the array must be safely isolated while the inverter is removed (for
example, connecting the array to the inverter by suitable plug and socket connectors) . For larger inverters, repair is
usually done by replacing internal components – in such cases the array must be safely isolated from the serviceable
portion of the inverter during works.
5.5.2 System using micro-inverters

Where a system is installed using micro-inverters, the requirement for a DC switch-disconnector
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for each inverter can be relaxed in certain circumstances (see BS 7671).
A system installed using micro-inverters can omit the installation of a DC switch-disconnector

providing all of the following requirements are met:
(a) the micro-inverter connects directly to one module;

(b) the micro-inverter and PV module interconnect directly using the factory-fitted cables and
plug and socket connections (no jumper cable or modifications permitted); and
(c) the electrical installation certificate for the installation notes the departure from BS 7671.
Draft for Comment
5.6 Combiner boxes

String or sub-array combiner boxes need to be selected and erected to maintain the insulation
class afforded by the rest of the circuit. The design of the box also needs to take into
consideration segregation between positive and negative parts, so as to permit safe installation
and maintenance and to minimise the risks of arcs.
Combiner boxes shall be rated for the voltage and current maxima calculated for the circuit (see
sections 5.2 and 5.3).
Combiner boxes shall have an IP rating suitable for their location.

The combiner box shall be labelled “PV array combiner box, Danger contains live parts during
daylight”.
Combiner box photo
5.7 PV array plug and socket connections

Correctly selected and erected plug and socket connections provide a quick, safe and durable means of
interconnecting PV string circuits. The majority of standard modules come with a plug and socket
connection. Many smaller inverters also come with plug and socket connections as standard.
Where plug and sockets are mated together in any part of the PV array circuit, they shall be of the
same model and from the same manufacturer.

Plug and sockets shall be certified in accordance with BS EN 50521.
The plug and sockets shall be rated for the voltage and current maxima calculated for the circuit
(see sections 5.2 and 5.3).
Unless installed in an area with access that is restricted to trained and authorised personnel, all

plug and socket connectors shall be of the locking type, requiring a tool to separate them.
Unless installed in an area with access that is restricted to trained and authorised personnel, all
plug and socket connectors shall be labelled: “Do not disconnect under load”.
Plug and sockets fixed to cable ends on site shall be assembled in accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions using designated crimp and assembly tools.
NOTE: the use of an incorrect crimp or assembly tool can have a devastating effect on the effectiveness of a PV
connector and can cause overheating and fire issues.
5.8 PV array cables
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5.8.1 Cable ratings
All cables within the DC circuits of a PV array shall comply with the following basic requirements:
Voltage Rating
(a) PV array cables shall be rated for the DC voltage maxima calculated for the circuit (section 5.2).
Current rating
(a) PV array cables shall have a DC current-carrying capacity (CCC) of greater than the current
maxima calculated for the circuit (section 5.3).
(b) The cable CCC shall be calculated to include any relevant de-rating factors (installation
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method, bundling etc) applied in accordance with BS 7671.

Environment rating
(a) Cables shall be selected to ensure that they are rated for the environment in which they will be
installed (temperature, UV, water resistance etc).
(b) Cables routed behind a PV array shall have a temperature rating of at least 80°C.
5.8.2 Cable types

In addition to the generic requirements listed above, the cables used to interconnect PV modules
into a string require additional measures:
PV string cables shall comply with the requirements of IEC xxx (not yet published).
As discussed earlier in this Code of Practice, the particular nature of PV circuits (current limiting)
means that additional protective measures need to be applied to provide for fire and shock
protection.
All systems shall have cables selected and erected to minimise the risk of earth faults and short
circuits. All cables shall be provided with basic and reinforced insulation.
Common methods for providing basic and reinforced insulation are shown in the table:

+ Single conductor
cable - both insulated For example, PV cables to IEC xxx
and sheathed
+ - Steel wire armour

Commonly used for PV array/sub-
array cables between a combiner box
(SWA) cable

and a central inverter
+ -
Single conductor
+ - cable in Uncommon
conduit/trunking
Cables installed within buildings may need to meet additional requirements, such as use of LSF
(Low Smoke and Fume) cable types.
Standard PV cables (cables to IEC xxx) shall not be buried in walls or otherwise hidden in the
building structure. Where this cannot be avoided conductors shall be suitably protected from
mechanical damage. Suitable methods of protection may include the use of metallic trunking or
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metallic conduit.
Where cables are buried in walls, a plan showing cable locations shall be provided in the system
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) manual.
NOTE: standard PV cables are not suitable for direct burial in walls as mechanical damage would be very difficult to
detect and could lead to a fire risk.
5.8.3 Cable labelling

The DC cables in a PV array remain live during daylight and much of the DC circuit will stay live
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even after DC isolators have been operated. As a result, DC cables need to be clearly identified.

DC cables shall be labelled “PV array cable – live during daylight”.
Labelling every 5-10m is generally considered sufficient on straight cable runs. Where cable routes
are more complicated, additional labels may be required.
5.8.4 Sizing to reduce energy loss

To maximise the output of the solar PV system, losses in the PV array cables need to be minimised.
With smaller systems and relatively short cable runs, it is cost effective to increase cable sizes so
that the losses remain small. On larger systems, however, cable sizes may need to be influenced
by the financial return calculations.
For systems of up to 50kWp, cables shall be sized such that the energy loss at the rated power
(Vmpp, Impp) is less than 3%.
5.9 Protection against the effects of DC isolation faults

Isolation faults within a PV array can result in potentially hazardous shock voltages and provide a
path for fault currents that can lead to system failures and thermal effects. Isolation faults can be
the result of a wide variety of causes, including:
(a) water ingress into junction boxes or PV laminates;

(b) rodent or abrasion damage to cables;
(c) insulation damage due to thermal or wind cycling of cables or other components; and
(d) impact or storm damage.
While proper selection and erection of system components will minimize the likelihood of such
problems developing, it is necessary to implement isolation fault-detection measures to detect any
problems that may develop over time. These measures will typically be included within the
inverter for most systems. However, larger systems with central inverters will often use separate

devices to achieve the same result.
Both Earth Insulation Resistance and Residual Current Monitoring systems are used to detect
developing isolation faults. These measures need to be implemented together and tailored to suit
the system type.
5.9.1 Earth insulation resistance
A PV array needs to have an insulation resistance sufficiently high enough to minimise the extent
of earth leakage currents. Earth leakage currents will naturally occur in all PV arrays, primarily
from the PV modules but also from other parts such as the cabling. The purpose of the ongoing
insulation resistance measurement is to detect and prevent any significant earth leakage currents
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above which are expected to occur.
NOTE: the extent of naturally occurring leakage currents is determined largely by the size of the PV array (the larger
the surface area, the lower the insulation resistance).
Earth insulation resistance is calculated by applying a voltage between the array and earth and
measuring the amount of current that flows. The insulation resistance can then be determined
using Ohms law.
 All PV arrays shall have a system that measures the insulation resistance from the PV array to
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earth. Measurements shall be performed before starting operation and at least once in every

24-hour period.
 The earth insulation fault thresholds shall be determined according to the following table:
System size (kW) Minimum resistance
≤20 30kΩ
>20 to ≤30 20kΩ
>30 to ≤50 15kΩ
>50 to ≤100 10kΩ
>100 to ≤200 7kΩ
>200 to ≤400 4kΩ
≥400k 3kΩ
 On detecting a fault, the system shall trigger the Earth Fault Alarm (see section 0).
 Systems using inverters with at least simple separation: when a fault is detected, the inverter
can continue to operate.
 Systems using inverters without at least simple separation: when a fault is detected, the
inverter shall shut down and isolate the PV array from the grid.

While smaller PV systems will rely on the insulation resistance measurement systems built into the
inverter, larger systems will typically use a stand-alone device. Such devices permit the fault
threshold to be manually set during system commissioning. These devices can also be distributed
around the array, such as at combiner boxes (rather than at the inverter) to provide improved
fault discrimination.
Where stand-alone insulation monitoring devices are used, the fault thresholds shown in the table
above should be considered as minimum values and it is recommended that increasing the
thresholds be considered. A higher value will increase system safety by detecting potential faults

earlier.
5.9.2 Array residual current monitoring
A residual current monitoring device (RCM) monitors the current on the two cables that supply a
circuit. In an ideal fault-free system, the sum of the two currents should be zero.
For PV arrays, two types of RCM systems are implemented. The first looks for a continuous and
excessively high residual current; the second looks for a sudden or step change and is designed to
protect against fire due to the onset of a fault.
 PV arrays shall have an RCM system on the DC side if either:
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(a) the system has a functional earth; or
(b) the system uses an inverter without at least simple separation.
NOTE: installation of an RCM is not required for systems using an inverter with at least simple separation and
where there is no functional earth.
 The RCM shall incorporate both continuous and step-change monitoring, with fault thresholds
determined according to the following table:
RCM Trip setting Response time
Draft for Comment
Systems ≤30 KVA 300mA

Continuous residual current 0.3s
Systems >30 kVA 10mA per kVA of inverter
Step change residual current Sudden increase of >100mA 0.5s
 The RCM shall measure the total RMS current (so as to include AC and DC components).
 On detecting a fault, the system shall trigger the Earth Fault Alarm (see section 0).
 Systems using inverters with at least simple separation: when a fault is detected, the inverter
can continue to operate. Any functional earth connections shall be automatically

disconnected.
 Systems using inverters without at least simple separation: when a fault is detected, the
inverter shall shut down and isolate the PV array from the grid
Like the measures to implement insulation resistance monitoring, many larger systems will use a
stand-alone RCM device. Similarly, these devices can be distributed around the array, such as at
combiner boxes, to provide improved fault discrimination.
5.9.3 Earth Fault Alarm

The earth fault alarm can be triggered by either the insulation resistance or the residual current monitors.

In either case, the alarm shall function as shown below.
The Earth fault alarm shall:
(a) continue to operate until the system is switched off or the fault is corrected;
(b) be of a type that can’t be missed (for example, visible/audible signal in a public area, or SMS

message); and
(c) be accompanied with instructions to the system operator on the need to immediately
investigate the fault.
NOTE: early earth fault alarms relied solely on a flashing light on an inverter – this is not considered an effective
solution as many inverter locations mean that such warning lights can be easily missed. Consequently, the IEC inverter
standard (IEC 62019) now requires that inverters have both a local indicator and a means of remote signalling.
5.10 PV array functional earthing

A functionally earthed PV array has one of the DC current-carrying conductors intentionally connected to
earth for purposes other than safety.
Draft for Comment

The installation of functional earthing is not generally recommended. However, functional earthing may
need to be installed to meet the requirements of a module manufacturer, for example, to mitigate the
effects of PID.
NOTE: the main reason functional earthing is not generally recommended is that when fitted it only takes one earth
fault to enable a fault current to flow (with an un-earthed or ‘floating’ DC system, two faults are needed before an
earth fault current can flow).
A system with functional earthing shall be specified to meet the following requirements:
•
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a functional earth shall only be installed on systems that include at least simple separation
between the AC and DC sides. Simple separation can be provided by a transformer within the

inverter or by the use of a separate external transformer.
• the inverter shall be compatible with a functionally earthed system.
• the functional earth connection shall be made at one point only and as close as possible to the
DC terminals of the inverter (or within the inverter).
• the functional earth connection shall be connected to the main earthing terminal of the
electrical installation.
With a floating system, the inverter can detect an earth fault and signal an alarm before any further
problems occur. With a functionally earthed system, fault currents will flow immediately. To mitigate the
potential effect of this, two solutions can be adopted: connect the functional earth either via a resistor (to
limit the potential fault current) or via an overcurrent protective device (which should trip if a significant
fault current then flows).
The functional earth connection shall be either via a resistor or via an overcurrent protective device.
 Where the connection is via a resistor the resistance value shall be the highest value allowable under
the module manufacturer’s instructions. The system shall also incorporate measures for insulation
monitoring as set out in section 5.9.
 Where the connection is via an overcurrent protective device, the device shall meet the general DC
overcurrent protective device requirements as set out in section 5.4.
When the functional earth interrupter operates, the system shall trigger the Earth Fault Alarm (see
section 0).
The rating of this device shall be selected according to the following table:
PV array power Rated current


0 – 25 kWp ≤ 1A
>25 – 50 kWp ≤ 2A
>50 – 100 kWp ≤ 3A
>100 – 250 kWp ≤ 4A
>250 kWp ≤ 5A
5.11 PV array frame: earthing and bonding arrangements

When designing the earthing and bonding arrangements of a PV array frame it is important to understand
various terms, in order to ensure that the correct measures are installed.
(a) Protective equipotential bonding is is defined in BS 7671 as an electrical connection that maintains
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various exposed and extraneous conductive parts at the same potential.
(b) Earthing is defined in BS 7671 as “the connection of the exposed-conductive-parts of an installation to

the main earthing terminal of an installation”. Earthing is required on safety Class I devices to enable
the protective measure of the automatic disconnection of supply to operate (tripping an overcurrent
protective device) should the basic insulation of the Class I device fail.
(c) Earthing for lightning protection is a connection to earth as part of lightning protection system (LPS).
(d) Array frame functional earthing is the connection of the array frame to earth to enable a part of the PV
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system to function correctly. In general, array frame functional earthing is specified to ensure that the

array isolation measures, detailed in section 5.9, perform correctly.
As shown in the diagram below, it is necessary to determine if the array frame needs:
(a) protective equipotential bonding;

(b) earthing; and/or
(c) integration into a lightning protection system.
Where more than one of these requirements apply, the most onerous requirement needs to be
applied. Where none of these requirements apply, a functional earth connection is required.
The following diagram shall be used to determine the requirements for array frame earthing and bonding
arrangement.

Array frame
protective
equipotential
a) Is the array frame an
bonding
extraneous conductive part?
Connect to earth

according to
BS 7671 Section 544
or
Array frame
Earthing
APPLY THE
b) Is the array frame an MOST
Connect to earth
exposed conductive part? ONEROUS
according to
REQUIREMENT
BS 7671
Section 543
or
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Earthing for
lightning protection
c) Is lightning protection
required or is the array adjacent Connect to earth
to an LPS system? according to
BS EN 62305
Draft for Comment

Array frame
functional earthing
d) All other systems
Connect to earth
according to section
5.11 of this Code of
Practice
NOTE: some type of connection between the array frame and earth will be required in all installations.
T he requirements described in this diagram apply only to PV arrays constructed using electrically
conducting and interconnected metallic frames. The following mounting structures do not require array
frame earthing:
• array mounting structures that are comprised wholly of non-conducting materials (for example, plastic,
wood etc).
• array mounting assemblies that use discrete metallic elements (for example, brackets, bolts) in such a
manner that there is no electrical path from the frame of one module to another.
Where a functional earth connection is provided:
(a) the cable shall have a cross-sectional area of not less than 2.5mm² if sheathed or otherwise provided
with mechanical protection, or 4mm² if mechanical protection is not provided.
(b) it shall be connected to any suitable earthing terminal, such as the buildings main earthing terminal or
an earthing terminal within the device that provides the DC isolation fault detection (typically the
inverter).
(c) it shall link to each electro-mechanically interconnected array block (typically a row of modules on a
pair of aluminium mounting rails) such that all parts of the PV array frame are connected to earth.
(d) the cable shall be laid in parallel to, and in as close contact as possible with, the DC array cables

Draft for Comment
Earth
connection
Each array block to be connected to earth
NOTE: in the above diagram it is assumed that a sufficient electrical connection exists between the array mounting rail
and the PV module. In some circumstances (for example, where rubber washers are used to provide galvanic isolation
between dissimilar metals), additional earth cables may be required.
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Where the PV system is connected to an installation with a TN-C-S (PME) supply AND where the PV array is
generally accessible (for example, ground mounted), a local earth electrode shall be provided at the array
location. The electrode shall be provided in accordance with BS 7671 section 542.2. The electrode shall be
bonded to the buildings main earthing terminal and also connected to the PV array frame earth.
NOTE: ground-mounted arrays that use a metal frame embedded into the ground are likely to provide a sufficient
connection to earth without the need of an additional earth electrode.

Earth
connection
Draft for Comment

Timber frame steel frame
with earth electrode (earthed via frame)
Typical functional earthing arrangements for ground mounted systems connected to a TN-C-S (PME) supply).
CHANGE FROM PREVIOUS APPROACHES IN THE UK

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This Code of Practice requires that the PV array frame is connected to earth in all circumstances. This
differs to the approach taken in some previous UK guidance documents.
The arguments for and against earthing an array frame are relatively complex and cannot be described in
detail within this Code of Practice. However, the approach whereby PV array frames are earthed in all
circumstances has the advantages of:
(a) allowing the DC isolation fault detection systems that are now provided within inverters to operate
correctly (earth insulation resistance; residual current monitoring);
(b) removing the shock risk due to leakage currents on systems with transformer-less inverters; and
(c) bringing the UK in line with the approach taken in most other countries around the world (and IEC
standards/documents).
In some circumstances an installer may need to work on or inspect a system installed to a previous
standard that did not require array frame earthing:
(a) where an old inverter is being replaced by a modern device that includes DC isolation fault measures, it
is recommended that, where practical, the installation of an array frame earth be included as part of
the replacement works.
(b) where an installer is performing an inspection test on an older system, it is recommended that the lack
of an array frame earth be noted on the condition report.

5.11.1 Determining extraneous-conductive-parts

An extraneous-conductive-part is defined in BS 7671 as “a conductive part liable to introduce a potential,
generally Earth potential, and not forming part of the electrical installation”. Isolated metal objects (such
as door handles) are unlikely to be extraneous conductive parts.
IET Guidance Note 8 Earthing and Bonding contains details on how to test a part to determine if it should

be considered an extraneous conductive part. In summary, the test requires the use of an insulation
continuity tester that measures the resistance across the part and the main earthing terminal of the
installation. Where the results show a resistance value in excess of 22kΩ and an inspection shows that this
value is unlikely to deteriorate, the part can reasonably be considered not to be an exposed conductive
part.
NOTE: while the resistance test method may be practical on domestic installations, due to the distance to the main
earthing terminal, it may be impractical on larger commercial insulations. Refer to Guidance Note 8 for further
information.
Examples
Array frame unlikely to be an extraneous Array frame likely to be an extraneous
conductive part conductive part
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• Array on domestic property, wooden roof • Array bolted to a steel building frame on a
structure. commercial flat roof.
• Array fixed to a commercial steel sheet roof.
Where the array frame is directly fixed to a metallic structural part of the building that is in itself bonded,
providing a good electrical contact is made between the array frame and the metallic building part, an
additional bonding cable to the array frame may not be required.
Draft for Comment
5.11.2 Determining exposed-conductive-parts

An exposed-conductive-part is defined in BS 7671 as “a conductive part of equipment which is not normally
live, but which can become live under fault conditions”.
As described in Section 2.3, systems using Class B modules are not permitted by (and are out of the scope
of) this Code of Practice. Consequently, all PV arrays will use either Type A or Type C modules and be
considered either Class II or Class III devices – which, by definition, are not considered exposed conductive
parts.
In some circumstance, inverters or other electrical apparatus may be bolted directly to the PV array frame.
Where any of these pieces of equipment are Class I, the array frame needs to be considered as an exposed
conductive part.

5.12 Protection against lightning and overvoltage on the DC side
The measures that should be adopted on the DC side of a PV system to protect the system against lightning
and overvoltage is discussed in Section 6 of this Code of Practice. However, in addition, the following
installation practices need to be addressed when specifying and installing the DC circuits:

To protect DC systems against the effect of induced voltage surges, the following wiring measures shall be
adopted:
(a) DC cable runs shall be kept as short as practical;

(b) positive and negative cables shall be run alongside each other to prevent the formation of loops;
(c) PV array bonding conductors shall be run alongside the PV array conductors; and
(d) longer cables shall be of a screened type (for example, armoured cable) or installed in earthed metal
conduit/trunking.
Cable laying to avoid creation of loops

To re-draw
Draft for Comment

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6 Protection against lightning and overvoltage
When a new structure or system is installed, consideration has to be given to the possible effects
caused by either a direct or indirect lightning strike. The safety and the protection of both life and
reliance on the uninterrupted operation of electrical and electronic systems need to be assured.
To achieve these goals it is recommended that the design, installation and testing of the lightning
and surge protection systems be carried out by a suitably qualified specialist.

A safe and effective system is dependent on a correct risk assessment being carried out followed
by a fully co-ordination design and installation. This should take into account the requirements of
other disciplines working on the project, especially with regard to the different types of earthing
systems that may be specified.
BS EN 62305 is the UK’s Lightning Protection standard. The complete Standard consists of four
separate documents.
(a) BS EN 62305-1:2011 General Principles

(b) BS EN 62305-2:2012 Risk Management
(c) BS EN 62305-3:2011 Physical Damage to Structures and Life Hazard
(d) BS EN 62305-4:2011 Electrical and Electronic Systems within structures
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6.1 Risk assessment
The assessment within the Standard is used to calculate the actual risk of the system being
considered.
The actual risk (R) is compared with the tolerable risk level (R T ), contained within the Standard to
determine if a problem exists with the specific risk being considered. Should the actual risk be
higher than the tolerable risk, the degree to which the actual risk is higher will determine the level
of solution required.
Draft for Comment

Action may be required to bring this risk down to an acceptable level. This may require the fitting
of an external lightning protection system (LPS), lightning current or surge arresters or a
combination of both.
In many cases (for example, for a typical domestic PV installation), there will be no requirement
for a dedicated LPS or for any additional surge protection device (SPD) to be fitted. Where it is
considered that SPD protection is required, the presence and type of any SPD factory fitted within
an inverter should be checked, as these may prove sufficient.
NOTE: some inverters have the facility for an installer to install an additional SPD within the device.
Solar PV installations on tall or exposed buildings, or on buildings that already have an LPS fitted,
will need particular scrutiny. Installations in open fields and/or with long cable runs will similarly
require close scrutiny.
6.2 External LPS

An external LPS consists of an air termination network, down conductors and earthing system.
Depending on the specific requirements of other aspects on the project, either an equipotentially
bonded or an isolated lightning protection system may be specified.
An isolated lightning protection system keeps lightning currents out of the structure or the system
being protected. Separation distances need to be calculated and maintained between the lightning
protection system, structure and metallic services. An isolated design can be applied to the whole
structure or parts of the structure, thus making it an ideal system for roof-mounted PV systems,
etc.
6.3 Lightning current and surge arresters

If the risk assessment highlights the need for lightning current and surge protection, Document 4
of the Lightning Protection Standard refers to the correct type and positioning of the devices

required. BS EN 62305-4 cross refers to IEC 61643, which outlines the requirements and testing
methods for surge protection devices connected to low voltage power distribution systems.
An SPD operates by diverting or limiting potentially harmful surge currents. Two types of SPD
generally need to be considered:
(a) Type 1: a device designed to discharge very high levels of current. Only installed where an LPS
is present
(b) Type 2: a device intended to divert induced lightning currents and used to protect particular
components or parts of a system.
Only an SPD with a suitable rating to meet the circuit it is being installed upon (voltage rating,
Draft for Comment

AC/DC, etc) shall be selected. SPDs installed on a PV circuit shall be done so in accordance with
BS EN 61643-31.
Editor’s Note: BS EN 61643-31 is currently a draft – need to look at publication dates
NOTE: SPDs designed specifically for the installation on DC PV circuits are readily available. Many commercially
available PV combiner boxes come with SPDs pre-fitted.
6.4 Data or control circuits

Draft for Comment
Any data or control circuits that form part of the PV system also need to be considered as part of

the overall lightning and surge protection design.
NOTE: SPDs specifically designed for data lines are readily available.

6.5 Lightning protection zone concept (LPZ)

To help with the correct selection and positioning of the protection device the structure or system
is divided into different zones, the zones being determined by factors such as location,
vulnerability and immunity of electrical and electronic equipment and systems, cable runs, etc.
The definition for each zone is shown below:

Draft for Comment
Outer zones: LPZ 0
Draft for Comment
LPZ 0 Systems in unprotected external areas or structures. The internal systems may be

A subjected to full lightning surge currents.
LPZ 0 Systems in external areas, but protected against direct lightning strikes. The internal
B systems may be subjected to partial
Inner zones (protected against direct lightning flashes):
Zone where the surge current is limited by current sharing and isolating interfaces
LPZ 1 and/or by SPDs at the boundary. Spatial shielding may attenuate the lightning
electromagnetic field.
Further Zones where the surge current may be further limited by current sharing,
LPZ 2 ..n
additional SPDs and spatial shielding.
The lightning current or surge arrester specification would be selected as a suitable means of
meeting the requirements of the zonal interface being protected as defined above.

Typical examples
When installing a PV system, a distinction is made between buildings with and without external
lightning protection.

Building without external lightning protection
system, but where lightning risk assessment
indicates SPD protection is required.
No external lightning protection system is

installed, so Type 2 surge protective devices to
be used.
For protection on the DC and AC sides:

 Type 2 device at positions 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Draft for Comment

Building with external lightning protection
system and sufficient separation distance.
The PV modules must be located in the

protected zone of the isolated air-termination
system and the separation distance(s) must be
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maintained.

 Type 2 device at positions 1, 2 and 3.
 Type 1 device at position 4.
Building with external lightning protection

system and insufficient separation distance
If the separation distance(s) cannot be

maintained, for example, in the case of a metal
roof, lightning equipotential bonding must be
implemented.
 Type 1 device at positions 1, 2, 3 and 4.

6.6 Ground-mounted arrays

Dependent upon the requirements, or limitations, of other earthing systems used within the
complete system design, either a cross-bonded or isolated external LPS would be fitted. The
lightning protection level required must be determined as a result of the risk assessment.
The correct type and mounting position of the surge protection devices are largely dependent

upon the inverter location and cable lengths between the mounting locations.
For HV connected systems, the design of any lightning protection scheme will need to be specified
in close co-ordination with the HV system design and its associated earthing scheme.
Typical examples
Where a lightning risk assessment indicates that protective measures need to be implemented, the
following provide examples of typical schemes:
Ground-mounted system: string inverters
 Type 1 devices at positions 5 and 6.

 Type 2 device at position 4.
Draft for Comment

Draft for Comment


Ground-mounted system: central inverter
Type 1 devices at positions 3 and 5.


Draft for Comment
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7 Inverters
7.1 Inverter sizing

Two important factors influence the sizing a grid-connected inverter:
(a) the MPP voltage range of the inverter; and

(b) the desired inverter-array power ratio.

Inverter matching is generally performed using the software packages that each inverter
manufacturer makes available. For any combination of modules and inverter, the software allows
the system designer to ensure that the array will remain within the inverter’s peak and MPP
voltage ranges for a pre-set range of conditions – including, most significantly, the cell
temperature range (which will affect the array voltage considerably).
7.1.1 Inverter MPP voltage range

To ensure an effective system, an inverter needs to be selected so that the PV array stays within
the MPP voltage range of the inverter under normal operating conditions. When the array moves
outside of this voltage range, losses will occur.
Draft for Comment

It is acceptable for a system designer to assume that normal operating cell temperatures are
generally less than the worst case conditions. A typical normal operating cell temperature range
for use in inverter sizing software is -10°C to 70°C. However, this may need to be adjusted for
certain installations – for example, a building-integrated module can be expected to reach higher
cell temperatures than a module mounted on an open frame in a field.
NOTE: worst case cell temperature values for the UK are generally taken to be -15°C to 80°C
7.1.2 Inverter–array power ratio

Draft for Comment
Typical power ratios for the UK are in the range of 80-110% (for example, for a 1kWp array, an

inverter size of between 0.8kW to 1.1kW). However, most systems in the UK are specified with
an inverter power that is smaller than the rated array power, i.e. undersized.
When considering the most appropriately inverter size, the following oversizing/undersizing
considerations should be considered.
Why undersize the inverter:

(a) PV modules in the UK operate for much of the time below the nominal rated power. Nominal
rated power is the output of the module under STC - a condition reached relatively
infrequently in the UK. Consequently, inverters will spend much of their time operating at
power levels below the nominal array rating.
(b) Inverter efficiency is generally lower when operating at low power levels. With a degree of
inverter undersizing, it is possible to take the normal operating regime higher up the efficiency
curve – and hence decrease inverter losses at times of normal irradiance levels.
(c) The array is located in a sub-optimal location, orientation or pitch and as such is expected to
produce a lower than normal output.
(d) When a grid-connection limit is imposed on a site it may be beneficial to considerably overrun
the inverter to gain maximum generation. An example may be a domestic inverter of 3.68kW
with a 6kW array connected so as to produce more power when in sub-optimal conditions.
Manufacturers will provide guidance on the maximum undersizing possible.
(e) While a larger inverter may provide a system with a higher output power, the increased annual
yield may not be justified by the extra cost (i.e. the system has a lower IRR).

Why oversize the inverter:

(a) Limited inverter selection.
(b) A system with an inverter smaller than the array will, on occasions of high irradiance, have the
output clipped – the inverter will simply not be able to deliver all the available power to the
grid. Oversizing the inverter prevents this happening.

(c) May increase inverter life.
(d) The array is expected to produce significant power – for example, an array on a solar tracker or located
in a very sunny location
7.2 Inverter selection

As well as the inverter sizing factors described above, the choice of inverter will be affected by a
range of factors including connection voltage, cost, warranty, in-built isolators, monitoring options
and personal preference.
In addition to these, the inverter will need to comply with the relevant inverter standards
described earlier in this Code of Practice.
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Like all parts of the DC circuit:
• An inverter shall be rated for the voltage and current maxima calculated for the circuit to
which it is connected (see sections 5.2 and 5.3).
NOTE: this can be verified from the inverter data sheet and/or by ensuring that the manufacturer’s software is set up
for a cell temperature of down to -15°C.
Inverters shall also be selected to meet the phase balancing requirements of ER G59.
NOTE: engineering recommendation ER G59 states a maximum imbalance of 16A between the highest and lowest
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phases.

For systems using DC optimisers:
• The optimisers shall be rated for the voltage and current maxima of both the module and the
string into which they are assembled.
7.3 Inverter location
Inverters shall be installed in a location that is suitable to their design and the manufacturer’s
specifications.
The following factors will typically need to be considered:
(a) Indoor or outdoor location: usually dictated by the inverter IP rating, however, specific
manufacturer’s instructions can sometimes also influence location.
(b) Ventilation requirements: inverters generate heat during operation. Boxing in of inverters or
placing a number of inverters in a small unventilated room can lead to thermal shutdown on
sunny days. In some cases air-conditioning may be required.
(c) Clearance distances: most manufacturers will specify minimum clearance distances from the
front, side, top and bottom of the inverter. These clearances are required to enable good air
flow over heat sinks as well as to allow sufficient access for installation and servicing.

(d) Cabling requirements: the inverter location needs to be considered with respect to the DC and
AC cable runs required. For installations within buildings, it is generally considered good
practice to minimise the length of any DC cables within the building envelope (see fire section
for further information – section 11.4). Consequently, an inverter location immediately
adjacent to the array may be most suitable.
(e) Access requirements: safe access for installation and subsequent maintenance needs to be

considered. The location should permit a safe environment for both installation and
maintenance work.
(f) Orientation: for wall mounted inverters, some manufacturers will specify orientation
limitations.
(g) Weight: the weight of the inverter needs to be considered, both in terms of the fixings used to
mount an inverter to a wall and for lifting an inverter into its intended location.
(h) Adjacent materials: some wall-mounted inverter manufacturers specify flammability

requirements for the surface on which the inverter is mounted. In some cases a fire-proof
backing board may be required between the inverter and the wall.
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Central inverters
Central inverters are ground mounted and may not require any additional enclosure or housing for
installation. The design of the inverter base must be suitable for the weight of the inverter
assembly and may need to include ducting to allow for cable entries. Where installed within
buildings, care is needed to ensure that the inverter room provides sufficient access around the
inverter and adequate ventilation.
Larger central inverters are typically installed within a purpose-built walk-in container that is
supplied pre-installed with all the necessary switchgear and wiring assemblies. For open-field
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arrays the location of the inverter will need to be selected to suit AC cable routes and at a location

to minimise DC cable runs. Due to the size of large central inverters, the location will also need to
be chosen to prevent shade from the inverter falling onto the array.
7.4 Inverter labelling

Inverters shall be labelled: “Inverter: isolate DC and AC supplies before carrying out work”.

8 AC system requirements: low voltage
8.1 Typical connection details

Editor’s Note: Diagrams showing AC circuits for typical domestic and commercial ccts

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DOMESTIC
To re-draw
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• Remove label references

• Remove display unit
• Add supply fuse
• Remove grey boxes & labels?

NOT FOR COMMERCIAL USE OR REPRODUCTION Please send comments – see details on page 1

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COMMERCIAL
To re-draw
• Remove label references

• Remove display unit
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• Add main distribution board &

supply details right back to
supply fuse
• Show more detail on G59
sense supply
• Remove grey boxes & labels?

8.2 General BS 7671 requirements

The AC circuit that feeds the inverter(s) in a grid-connected PV system shall be designed and
installed so as to comply with the requirements of BS 7671.
The PV system shall be installed on to a dedicated circuit that is connected to no other current
using equipment (other than any PV system data-logger or similar equipment).

8.3 Overcurrent protection
The circuit(s) that feed the inverters in a grid-connected PV system shall be protected against
overcurrent by an overcurrent protective device located at the (mains) supply end of the circuit.
The overcurrent protective device shall be selected and erected according to the requirements of
BS 7671.
The overcurrent protective device shall also be selected in accordance with the inverter
manufacturer’s instructions. Where the device protects a circuit that feeds more than one
inverter, the device should be selected such that it is acceptable to all the inverters on that circuit.
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NOTE: some inverter manufacturers specify a maximum protective device rating. Where there are multiple inverters
on one circuit, that circuit will require a larger protective device – however, this must not be larger than any of the
individual inverters will permit.
8.4 Isolation and switching

All grid-connected PV systems shall include a main isolation switch that:
(a) isolates all inverters;
(b) isolates all phase and neutral cables to each inverter;
(c) is located in an accessible location; and
(d) can be secured (locked) in the off position.
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The main isolator shall be labelled “PV system main isolator”.
When installing isolators in the AC circuit that feeds the inverters, cables should be connected
such that the isolator terminals labelled ‘supply’ are connected to the cables from the mains and
the terminals labelled ‘load’ are connected to the cables from the inverter(s).
Where the inverter is installed in a different room to the main isolator, a local isolator shall be
mounted adjacent to the inverter to facilitate maintenance of the inverter.

8.5 Cables
The cables used for the AC circuit that feeds the inverter(s) in a grid-connected PV system shall be
selected and erected so as to comply with the requirements of BS 7671.
The cables used for the AC circuit that feeds the inverter(s) shall be sized so as to minimise voltage
drop and power loss.

Cables are sized to minimise voltage drop so as to ensure that the voltage at the inverter terminals
is close to that at the mains connection point (the voltage at the inverter will always be higher
than the mains connection point due to the voltage drop along the circuit). If the voltage
difference is too large, the inverter may be prone to nuisance tripping at times where the grid
voltage is high (while the grid voltage may be within statutory limits, the voltage seen at the
inverter terminals may be above the trip point).
For the majority of domestic installations, a maximum voltage drop of 1% is recommended.

However, for larger or more complex installations with long AC cable runs, a voltage drop above
1% may be economically justified.
NOTE: voltage drop limits are also stated within BS 7671.
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Sizing AC cables to minimise power loss is required to ensure that system performance is
optimised. AC cables power losses are typically calculated as part of a detailed system
performance evaluation.
8.6 Earthing and bonding

Earthing and bonding of the circuit and equipment on the AC side of a PV installation should be
performed in accordance with BS 7671.
Where an installation is constructed using pre-assembled cable harnesses (for example, the cable
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systems provided with some micro-inverter products), it is important to ensure that the cable

system is suitable for use in the UK and meets the requirements of BS 7671. Some products may
require additional earth conductors to be installed.
8.7 Overvoltage and lightning protection

The measures that should be adopted on the AC side of a PV system to protect the system against lightning
and overvoltage is discussed in Section 6 of this Code of Practice.

8.8 RCD protection

In a grid-connected PV system, there is no fundamental requirement to fit an RCD to the circuits
that feed the inverters. However, an RCD may be required by BS 7671 due to the nature of the
circuit (for example, where cables are buried within a wall). In such a case, the selection of the
RCD needs to take into account the inverter.

Where an RCD is fitted to a circuit that feeds an inverter, the RCD shall be selected as follows:
Scenario Inverter and circuit conditions RCD selection
All inverters in circuit include at least simple separation between

1 RCD selection
the AC and DC sides.
need not take
All inverters in the circuit include at least simple separation or the into account the
2 inverters by construction are not able to feed DC fault currents inverter.
into the electrical installation.
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An inverter in the circuit does not include simple separation and is Type B RCD
3
able to feed DC fault currents. required
An inverter that does not include simple separation (often referred to as a ‘transformer-less
inverter’) may be able to feed a DC fault current into the AC side. This DC element may not be
picked up by a conventional RCD and may also hinder its normal operation. A Type B RCD is, by
construction, able to handle and detect both AC and DC residual currents.
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Solar PV systems must not be installed to the load side of any 30mA RCD that is shared with load
or distribution circuits that are fed from the RCD.
NOTE: this is necessary to ensure the continued safe operation of the RCD, prevent the possibility of a fault on a
circuit continuing to be fed by the inverter for up to five seconds after an RCD has tripped, and prevent nuisance
tripping.
8.9 G59 relay
A G59 relay is a monitoring device that controls a contactor that sits between the PV system and
the connection to the grid. The G59 relay monitors the grid voltage and frequency – and, if it
detects a fault, it de-energises the contactor, disconnecting the PV system from the grid.
A typical connection scheme for a G59 relay is shown in the diagram below. Important features to
note are:
(a) the sense connection should always be on the mains (grid) side of the main contactor; and
(b) auxiliary contacts on the main contactor are recommended to facilitate timing of the contactor
operation during commissioning tests.


To re-draw
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The G59 relay duplicates the protection functions within an inverter. The relay will disconnect if:
(a) the grid voltage is too high/low;

(b) the grid frequency is too high/low;
(c) a step change in frequency/vector shift is detected; or
(d) a loss of mains occurs.
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For each of the protection settings, G59 sets out a response time (trip-delay time) that the relay

must follow. Two stages of under- or over-voltage and frequency are defined with different trip
times for each stage. During commissioning a series of tests are performed to ensure that the
relay is triggered at the correct voltage/current values and that it operates at the times
proscribed.
The requirements for the design, installation and testing of a G59 relay are set out in Engineering
Recommendation G59 – see Section 9.3 of this Code of Practice for more information
8.10 Systems integration

The design of the AC connection also needs to take into account other electrical apparatus
installed within the facility.
Installations with a back-up generator, UPS or other back-up system
Where a PV system is to be connected to an installation that includes a back-up generator, care

needs to be taken to ensure that the PV system cannot back-feed the generator when it is in
operation. The design of the interface will need to suit the particular application, but it is typically
achieved by one of the following methods:
(a) an automatic point of isolation on the inverter AC cable that is de-energised when the genset is
brought into operation (for example, via an auxiliary set of contacts on the genset changeover
switch).
(b) for installations that include additional G59 relay protection, isolating the G59 relay at times
when the genset is in operation (with no power to the G59 relay, the main contactor on the PV
system feed will be in the open position).
(c) connecting the PV system to the distribution board that supplies the non-essential side of any
installation (the circuits that are all automatically isolated when a genset is running).

(d) installations with voltage optimisation units installed.
Where a PV system is to be connected to an electrical installation that includes a voltage

optimisation unit, the PV system shall be connected on the grid side of the voltage optimiser unit.
NOTE: this is necessary to ensure correct functioning of the inverter and to enable the G83/G59 protection settings to
function correctly.
Installations with power factor correction units installed
Where a PV system is to be connected to an installation that includes any power factor correction
devices, the PV system shall be connected on the grid side of the power factor correction devices.
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9 Network connection and DNO approval
Published by the Energy Networks Association, Engineering Recommendations G59 and G83 set
out the construction and commissioning requirementsfor connecting a PV system to UK
distribution networks. The following flowchart describes the process for identifying the
appropriate procedure:

Total inverter capacity at any single premises
>16A per phase?
(a) single phase systems >3.68kW

(b) three phase systems >11.04kW YES
NO G59
YES
Connection voltage
>230V – single phase systems
>400V – three phase systems
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NO
G83
>1 multiple premises
Number of premises
Multiple systems to be installed in close

geographical proximity?
1 G83
single premises
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9.1 G83: single premises
The process for installing a single system under Engineering Recommendation G83 is a very
straightforward ‘fit and inform’ procedure, with DNO notification only required after the
installation has occurred.
System checked to Notification to

System installed &
ensure it falls DNO within 28
commissioned
within G83 days (G83 form)
To comply with the simple G83 fit and inform process, the system should:
(a) have a total inverter capacity of less than 16A/phase;

(b) be a single installation on a single property;
(c) use G83 type approved inverters;
(d) be installed in line with the construction and commissioning requirements of Engineering
Recommendation G83; and
(e) be notified to the DNO within 28 days using the Engineering Recommendation G83
commissioning form.

9.2 G83: multiple premises
Due to the potentially larger impact on the electricity network, when installing multiple PV systems within a
close geographic region, approval from the DNO is required before installation proceeds:
Notification to

G83 multiple System
DNO grants DNO within
site application installed &
approval 28 days
form to DNO commissioned
(G83 form)
Within Engineering Recommendation G83, the definition of close geographical proximity is taken
to be where the postcode, excluding the last two letters, is the same (for example, CA11 0xx); or
where any two planned installations are within 500m of each other.
As with the single G83 process, each individual PV system should:
(a) have a total inverter capacity of less than 16A/phase;
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(b) use Engineering Recommendation G83 approved inverters;
(c) be installed in line with the construction and commissioning requirements of Engineering
Recommendation G83; and
(d) be notified to the DNO within 28 days of using the Engineering Recommendation G83
commissioning form.
NOTE: for systems less than 16A/phase there are no requirements to balance systems across phases. However, for
multiple installation projects, such as those on housing estates, agreement on phase balancing will need to be agreed
with the DNO.
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9.3 G59 installations

Systems of over 16A per phase need to follow the process that is set out in Engineering Recommendation
G59. The procedure is slightly different depending on the size and type of the system:
Inverter capacity All other systems >16A/phase


≤ 50kW (three phase)
≤ 17kW (single phase)
+ Inverters G59 type tested Design & planning phase
+ Connection requires minimum Discussions with DNO

amount of network extension
Contestable and non-contestable work
split agreed with DNO
Discussion with DNO G59 application form to DNO
G59 application form to DNO
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Connection offer from DNO
Connection offer from DNO Connection accepted by client
Connection accepted by client
Installation
Installation & commissioning

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Commissioning

Witnessed by DNO if requested
G59 commissioning confirmation form

supplied to DNO with 28 days
G59 commissioning confirmation form
supplied to DNO with 28 days
While both G59 procedures are similar, with both requiring DNO approval before proceeding, the process is
simpler for smaller systems using G59 type tested inverters. The use of type-tested inverters simplifies
installation and commissioning and generally means that DNO witnessed commissioning tests are not
required.
9.4 G59 commissioning
For larger systems, the DNO will typically require the installation of a stand-alone G59 relay, the design of
which is covered earlier in this Code of Practice. The G59 relay is normally commissioned by a series of
tests that simulate grid out-of-bounds conditions (under- and over-voltage etc). For the duration of the
tests, the sense circuits on the G59 relay are temporarily disconnected from the grid and connected to a
test set with a variable voltage and frequency output. Commissioning then involves cycling the relay
through each of the G59 voltage and frequency settings and timing the response to ensure that the relay
meets the prescribed G59 values and reaction times.
9.5 Labelling requirements

System labels and signs shall be installed in accordance with the requirements of Engineering
Recommendations G83 and G59. Labelling shall include:
(a) identification of main AC isolator (point of emergency isolation).
(b) system schematic displayed at point of interconnection with the Network Operators

distribution system. The diagram shall include: information on the owner and operator of the
system; summary of protection settings
(c) dual supply label at the service termination, meter position and all points of isolation between
the PV system and the main incoming supply.
9.6 New connections

The process for getting a new connection made to the electricity network is broadly similar to that of
getting connection approval in accordance with Engineering Recommendation G59. The steps for gaining
a new connection to a DNO’s network are as follows:
(a) notify the DNO within a reasonable time of the details of the scheme to be connected, the time the
connection is required and the maximum capacity (import and export) needed from the connection.
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(b) the DNO will provide a quotation for the costs of connecting to its distribution system. NB: when
providing a quotation it is common practice for the DNO to advise the customer that it needs to
nominate a supplier before the connection can be made and preferably before accepting the quotation.
(c) connection offer accepted and connection agreement signed.
(d) connection made - the DNO maintains the connection.
Alternatively, a developer may choose to approach an Independent Connection Provider (ICP) to arrange
and provide the connection. The ICP must be registered and approved by the DNO to which the connection
will be made. While the ICP may carry out the connection to the DNO network, they do not have
distribution licences, so will not be licensed to operate the connection once it is installed (the DNO will
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adopt the asset on completion).

9.7 Contestable and non-contestable works
The works to connect to the grid is often made up of two types:
(a) contestable: work, typically on new infrastructure, that either the DNO or an independent company can
provide.
(b) non-contestable: work performed by the DNO on existing network equipment owned by the DNO.
Contestable work is done to the DNO’s specifications but may be tendered to allow for the most financially
competitive solution. Contestable work typically includes:
(a) the design for the network extension and any contestable reinforcement of the existing network;
(b) procurement of equipment and materials to the DNO’s current specification for the extension;
(c) trenching and other preparation of the site;
(d) constructing the network extension and any contestable reinforcement and diversions;
(e) drawings and site records;
(f) reinstatement works; and
(g) making provision for the installation of metering equipment.
The non-contestable elements of work that can only be provided by the DNO include:
(a) determining the point of connection to the distribution system;
(b) approving contestable designs for new connections/reinforcements;
(c) planning, designing, specifying and carrying out any non-contestable works;
(d) removing or repositioning existing electrical plants and electric lines;
(e) connection to the distribution system; and
(f) operating, repairing and maintaining the electrical plant.


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10 High Voltage (HV) systems
High Voltage connections, substations and the associated earthing schemes need to be specified
by a competent person with sufficient technical expertise. This Section, together with the HV
aspects of the health and safety in Section 15, outlines some of the considerations for the design
of an HV connection to a solar PV plant. However, this Code of Practice does not attempt to
provide comprehensive guidance. Detailed design will require a suitably competent person and

will need to be tailored to the site in question.
HV connection arrangements
Within the UK, the connection arrangement for a large-scale PV installation is normally via a tee
into a nearby high-voltage network, which can be an 11kV, 33kV, 66kV or 132kV HV system. While
a PV system developer may identify a possible location for the connection into the HV network,
the design and assessment of the connection will be performed primarily by the relevant Network
Operator and is out of the scope of this Code of Practice. This work will include specifying any
extension or reinforcement works (upgrading cables, switchgear, protection etc) that the existing
network may require.
NOTE: due to the intermittent nature of the generation of power from a solar power plant, the Network Operator will
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typically classify the generation facility as ‘non-firm’, which means that in most instances the site can be a teed
connection. However, in certain circumstances the Network Operator may, for operational reasons, require the supply
to be a looped connection.
10.1 HV distribution system

A primary objective of HV system design is the safety of the system and the individuals who will be
working at different stages from installation to operation and maintenance. Safety needs to be a
key consideration in the design and specification of the HV system, together with the reliability,
maintainability and the economics of the system.
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There are a number of common types of HV system topologies used in large-scale solar systems;

these are based on radial and ring circuits (sometimes referred to in the UK as ‘teed’ or ‘looped’
supplies, respectively).


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Radial (teed) systems

A radial circuit requires less HV cabling, which makes it cheaper and simpler to install. However,
because there is only one path between the PV system and the Network Operator substation, it is
less reliable than a ring configuration – the failure of certain equipment in the main HV circuit path
may result in a continued post-fault shutdown in parts of the downstream circuit.
Radial circuits need to be rated for the sum of all generation units and issues, such as reliability of

protection and adequate backup protection systems, must be considered.
NOTE: as an alternative to multiple connections onto a single radial circuit, a dedicated HV circuit for each individual
PV substation can be implemented. This is a reliable and safe option, but will be costly. Alternatively, generation
units can be grouped onto a number of separate radial circuits.
Ring (looped) systems

A ring system is more expensive to build than a radial system, but is more reliable. In a ring
system, circuit breakers with automated protection and control functions should section out the
ring on both sides of each distribution transformer connected to the ring. As a result,
maintenance in one of the feeders will not cause the loss of supply from the PV systems to the
Network Operator connection.
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In the case of ring circuits the ring can be operated in either a closed or open mode. The
protection requirements ensure that faults can be safely removed under either of the operating
configurations. In particular, solar developers should consider incorporating and installing
adequate back-up protection for both open and closed configurations.
NOTE: ring circuits can be energised from both ends in a closed configuration and while this might be more secure it is
not recommended for a number of reasons, i.e. Network Operator systems can operate with reduced fault levels;
there will be additional complexity and costs to ensure discriminating protection and adequate backup protection for
generator step-up transformer LV side faults; and measures may be required to minimise risks from failure of an
HV/LV transformer protection and fault isolation systems.
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Site constraints
The physical shape of the solar farm and the relative inverter locations within the solar plant may
also influence the choice between a radial or ring HV circuit (for example, a ring circuit in a long,
narrow site will require more cable and will cost more than one in a square site).
While the previous diagrams show an HV distribution circuit using central inverters, the same
design principles can still apply for a system using string inverters:

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10.2 HV equipment standards
Certain BS EN standards will be applicable to all utility solar PV installations for both HV switchgear and
earthing systems in the UK. These will be supplemented by any additional UK legislative and statutory
provisions including secure isolation and safe systems of working (high voltage safety rules).
Substations and/or assets installed by solar developers/contractors to be adopted by the Network

Operators under the provisions of competition in connection (CiC) and Engineering Recommendation G81
provisions must therefore be designed and utilise specified equipment from nominated suppliers. They
must also have individual design approval, be witnessed, installed and tested to the satisfaction of the
relevant individual Network Operator.
The requirements specified within the provisions of Engineering Recommendation G81 do vary between
Network Operators. Additionally, Network Operators’ requirements are continuously being updated both in
terms of design requirements and specified equipment suppliers.
The Network Operator requirements may have a direct impact on the design, system interface and the
operational requirements of the PV system (for example, earthing and protection).
Note: while standards have no stand-alone legal status, an enforcing authority or court may apply and recognise
standards as evidence of good practice in applying the principle of ALARP (as low as reasonably practicable) to a
particular risk or activity.

10.3 HV equipment locations

There are a number of standards that apply to HV equipment locations; the most relevant are
shown in the table below:
Reference Title
BS EN 61936:2010 Power installations exceeding 1kV AC

CIBSE Guide K Electricity in buildings
HSE HSG230 Keeping electrical switchgear safe
HSE INDG372 Electrical switchgear and safety: a concise guide for users
The location of the HV plant should consider issues of earthing, operational safety, electrical losses
and design costs. In challenging earthing situations, the location of equipment must consider third
party safety and potential damage.
The location of HV transformers and switchgear will in part be dictated by the physical constraints
of the solar site. When assessing physical constraints, consideration should be given to:
(a) access routes for plant transportation (both during and after construction);
(b) the location of the PV arrays;
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(c) the location of the inverters; and
(d) any limitations imposed by cabling routes and earthing requirements.
The location of other underground/overhead services around the site may also influence
equipment locations.
In general the location of the HV plant should allow for safe, 24-hour vehicular access, with
restricted access to the general public and at locations not prone to flooding or other
environmental impacts. Most Network Operators will also insist that access to their incoming
substation should be direct from the highway or a public right of way.
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10.4 HV Cables
There are a number of standards that apply to the selection and erection of HV cables; the most
relevant are shown in the table below. In the case of adopted assets, the relevant Engineering
Recommendation G81 requirements must be followed.
Reference Title
Guidelines on the Positioning and Colour Coding of Underground Utilities’
NJUG
Apparatus
CIBSE Guide K Electricity in buildings
ENA TS 12-23 Polythene protection tape for buried electricity supply cable
ENA TS 12-24 Plastic ducts for buried electric cables
ENA TS 97-1 Special backfill materials for cable installations
Framework for design and planning, materials specification, installation and
ENA ER G81 record for low voltage housing development installations and associated new
HV/LV distribution substations.
The majority of HV cables for PV installations will be laid in the ground. When planning
underground cable routes, the type of use, or foreseeable use, to which the land is or may be put
needs to be considered. Routes should avoid locations where excavation may be predicted (for
example, for gates or fence posts). In some circumstances, the burial depth may need to be
increased to keep the cable well below future land use (for example, clearing drainage ditches).

10.5 HV Switchgear
There are a number of standards that apply to high-voltage equipment and, in particular, HV
switchgear. The most relevant are shown in the table below:
Reference Title
High-voltage switchgear and control gear – Part 200: AC metal-enclosed

EN 62271-200:2012 switchgear and control gear for rated voltages above 1kV and up to and
including 52kV
Code of Practice for maintenance of electrical switchgear and control gear
BS 6626:2010
for voltages above 11kV and up to and including 36kV
Distribution Switchgear For Service Up To 36kV (Cable Connected And
ENA TS 41-36
Overhead Connected)
ENA TS 41 -37 Distribution Switchgear for Service up to 66kV 132kV
All high-voltage switchgear incorporated and installed in solar PV systems shall comply with BS EN
62271-200:2012. In addition, the switchgear must enable the achievement of secure isolation and
compliance with HV safety rules (see Section 10.5.1).
For new installations, a solar designer should consider specifying remote-operated HV
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switchgear so as not to require the operator to stand in front of the switchgear in order to operate
it.
It is regarded as good industry practice for switchgear to endeavour to meet the design safety and
operational requirements of ENA TS 41-36 or TS 41-37. Certification to ENA standards is regarded
as an optional protocol that duty holders may choose to perform to demonstrate additional
confidence in assurance arrangements.
10.5.1 Secure isolation

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It should be noted that standard IEC-certificated switchgear will not automatically be capable of achieving

the above requirements and may need to be modified to fully comply with UK statutory requirements
HSE publication HSR25 (Memorandum of guidance on the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989: Guidance
on Regulations) gives guidance on isolation. Paragraphs 183 and 184 are reproduced here (with
permission):
Extract from HSR25 (paragraphs 183 and 184):
183. Whereas Regulation 12(1)(a) requires means to be provided whereby the supply of electrical energy
can be switched off, 12(1)(b) requires that there will be available suitable means of ensuring that the supply
will remain switched off and inadvertent reconnection prevented. This is isolation. This provision, in
conjunction with safe working practices, will enable work to be carried out on electrical equipment without
risk of it becoming live during the course of that work, for example if the work is to be done under the terms
of regulation 13.
184. In some cases the equipment used to perform the requirement under regulation 12(1)(a) may also
serve to perform the requirement under 12(1)(b). It must be understood that the two functions of switching
off and isolation are not the same, even though in some circumstances they are performed by the same
action or by the same equipment.

HSE HSR25 also gives guidance on isolation and disconnection and paragraph 189 is reproduced here (with
permission):
Extract from HSR25 (paragraph 189):
Isolator switches (or disconnectors) will often be employed as the means of effecting disconnection and
secure separation from the supply. In selecting appropriate equipment to perform this function particular

regard should be given to:
a) the isolating distances between contacts or other means of isolation which should be in accordance with
an appropriate Standard or be otherwise equally effective;
b) the position of the contacts or other means of isolation which should either be externally visible or
clearly and reliably indicated. An indication of the isolated position, other than by direct observation of
the isolating gap, should occur when the specified isolating distance has been achieved in each pole;
c) provision to enable the prevention of unauthorised, improper or unintentional energisation, e.g. locking-
off facilities.
Draft for Comment

10.5.2 Switchgear padlocking
To facilitate safe network operation ENA TS 43-36 requires switchgear to be provided with
padlocking facilities on ON-OFF and OFF-EARTH switches. This is to ensure that the provisions of
Regulation 12 of the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 can be achieved.
10.5.3 Switchgear anti-reflex handle

ENATS 43-36 requires switchgear operating handles to be of the anti-reflex type incorporating a
Draft for Comment
delay between closing and opening switches as detailed in sub-clause 5.7 of IEC 60694. The time

delay should not be less than 3 seconds.
10.6 Transformers
There are a number of standards that apply to transformers; the most relevant are shown in the table
below:
Reference Title
BS EN 60076-1 2011 Power transformers: General
Power installations exceeding 1kV AC
BS EN 61936:2010
(BS EN 61936-1 gives TX Bunding guidance)
ENA TS 35-1 Distribution Transformers (from 16kVA to 2000kVA)
While it is beyond the scope of this Code of Practice to detail all of the considerations applicable
to the selection and specification of an HV distribution transformer for solar farm systems, some
of the main criteria include:
(a) power rating;

(b) primary and secondary voltage ratings;
(c) winding configuration;
(d) transformer impedance;
(e) dielectric class;
(f) high-voltage connection type;
(g) optional accessories; and
(h) neutral earthing
10.6.1 Power rating

The unit of measurement used to identify the power rating of a transformer is the kilovolt-ampere
(kVA). The HV transformers used in PV installations are commonly rated at 500kVA, 750kVA,
1,000kVA, 1,500kVA, 2,000kVA or 2,500kVA.

Transformers may be sized at the same power rating as the inverters, however, some oversizing
may be required. It is important to ensure that the transformer supplier knows:
(a) that the end use is for a solar PV site (i.e. the supplier understands the duty cycle);
(b) that it is an inverter application (i.e. the supplier understands that the inverter harmonics could
cause overheating hot spots in transformer windings etc); and
(c) the predicted ambient operating temperature.
10.6.2 Voltage rating

By convention, both on the equipment itself and in electrical schematics, low-voltage connections
to the transformer are typically labelled X1, X2, X3 etc, whereas high-voltage connections are
normally labelled H1, H2, H3 etc. In the case of PV systems, it is also conventional to refer to the
Draft for Comment

high-voltage windings as the primary and the low-voltage windings as the secondary.
The ratio of the number of primary winding turns to secondary winding turns is known as the
‘turns ratio’, which is proportional to the ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage. A
transformer used in an HV solar system is referred to as a step-up transformer, indicating that in
this application there are more turns in the high-voltage winding than in the low-voltage winding.
This results in, for example, a 1:27 (400/11000) or 1:82 (400/33000) voltage ratio.
Standard transformers are manufactured with turns ratios matched to common distribution and
Draft for Comment
utilisation voltage combinations, such as 1,1000V to 400V. While these standard winding
configurations may work in some PV power plant applications, the inverter output voltage may not

match common utilisation voltages. Consequently, custom turns ratios may need to be specified
for some inverter types.
10.6.3 Winding configuration

While the design engineer working on the PV system installation may have a preference of
transformer winding and inverter configuration, the Network Operator connection requirements
will significantly influence the decision. Consequently, it is important to coordinate carefully with
both the inverter manufacturer and the Network Operator when specifying a transformer.
In the UK the winding configuration will normally be Delta/Star for 11kV HV/LV systems (i.e
designated as Dy11; see Table xxx). However, in certain instances it may be necessary to phase-
shift 30 degrees on the transformer secondaries between individual transformers in a group in
order to reduce the overall primary level of harmonics. In the case of higher voltages (33kV/66
kV/132kV), the transformers will generally need to be star or star configured and will potentially
need to have Neutral Earthing resistors installed to limit the earth fault currents.
For compliance with Engineering Recommendation G59, the phase shift and voltage of the HV side
of the transformer will need to match the Network Operator connection configuration. There are
advantages from phase shifting on the secondary side to reduce the harmonics and ensure
compliance with the provisions of Engineering Recommendation G5/4. However, if the solar site
requires an alternative low voltage supply this would be problematical.

Transformer designation codes
• First Symbol: for High Voltage (always a capital letter)

D=Delta, Y=Star, Z=Interconnected star, N=Neutral.
• Second Symbol: for Low voltage (lower case letters)

d=Delta, y=Star, z=Interconnected star, n=Neutral.

• Third Symbol: phase displacement expressed as the clock
hour number (1,6,11)
0 = LV in phase with HV
1 = LV lags by 30°
11 = LV leads by 30°.
Example – Dy11
o Transformer primary winding – delta (D)
o Transformer secondary winding – star (y)
o Transformer phase shift - 30° leading (11)
Draft for Comment

Generally, there are three types of HV transformers used in solar applications:
(a) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) capable transformers: specified where the transformer is used
as an inductor to provide filtering and designed to operate with a PWM inverter.
(b) multi-winding transformers, with multiple isolated low-voltage windings: used for inverters
that cannot be connected in parallel.
(c) standard transformers: one low-voltage winding and one high-voltage winding.
10.6.4 Transformer impedance

Draft for Comment
Different types of generation have different abilities to increase Network Operator fault currents

for all types of HV and LV system faults. While Solar PV systems may have a low fault contribution,
in weak rural networks or during abnormal operating periods the contribution may be more
significant and the impact on performance of protection systems will be greater.
i. Winding Impedance
Impedance in transformer windings is mostly due to reactance and is an important factor in
controlling fault currents (increasing winding reactance decreases fault current). The impedance
of a transformer may be intentionally increased to overcome issues of an excessive fault current
contribution. The increased winding impedance will also reduce fault currents on the LV side of
the transformer. The effect of the transformer winding impedance on protection systems and
disconnection times needs to be considered.
ii. Neutral point impedance

Earth fault current is the most important factor in earth system design. Where earth fault current
is high, the impedance of earth return paths and electrodes must be very low to reduce earth
potential rise to acceptable levels. With solid earthed neutral points, the maximum earth fault
current close to Network Operator source transformers is normally very high and similar to three
phase current. Wherever practicable, most Network Operators introduce additional impedance in
the neutral point earth connection of the transformer. This neutral point impedance significantly
reduces earth fault current without affecting transformer voltage regulation and system voltages
under load conditions. However adding impedance in the neutral earth connection of a system
will cause the system to become ineffectively earthed and during an earth fault there will be
substantial increased phase voltages (with respect to general earth) of the ‘no fault’ phases. HV
equipment must be adequately rated for this duty.

10.6.5 Dielectric class
There are two main types of transformer dielectric: oil-immersed transformers and cast resin
transformers.
i. Oil-immersed transformers

Oil-immersed transformers are commonly used on solar PV systems. These can be either free
breathing or hermetically sealed units with an integral filling, or an insulation system with oil-
natural-air-natural (ONAN) cooling for indoor or outdoor installation.
The following standards are relevant to oil-immersed transformers for use within the UK:
Reference Title
Three-phase oil-immersed distribution transformers 50 Hz, from 50 kVA to 2 500
BS EN 50464-1 kVA with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV.
General requirements
Three-phase oil-immersed distribution transformers 50 Hz, from 50 kVA to 2500
kVA with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV.
Draft for Comment

BS EN 50464-2-1
Distribution transformers with cable boxes on the high-voltage and/or low-
voltage side. General requirements

BS EN 50464-2-2
voltage side.
Cable boxes type 1 for use on distribution transformers meeting the
requirements of EN 50464-2-1

Draft for Comment

BS EN 50464-2-3
voltage side.
Cable boxes type 2 for use on distribution transformers meeting the
requirements of EN 50464-2-1

BS EN 50464-3
Determination of the power rating of a transformer loaded with non-sinusoidal
currents

BS EN 50464-4 kVA with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV.
Requirements and tests concerning pressurised corrugated tanks

ii. Cast resin transformers
Cast resin transformers are constructed with their HV windings encapsulated in resin and provide
an alternative to traditional oil immersed transformers. Self-extinguishing and high mechanical
resistance to electro-dynamic stresses are some of the qualities of cast resin transformers. They are not
suitable for direct outdoor use and are generally housed in prefabricated containerised units or
with sheet steel ventilated enclosures and cable boxes

Cast resin transformers are increasingly being used for typical distribution specifications and can be
provided to IP00 specification (often required by LV switchboard or inverter manufacturers) or with sheet
steel ventilated enclosures and cable boxes, which can be designed and built to suit bespoke specifications.
The following standards are relevant to cast resin transformers for use within the UK:
Reference Title
Three phase dry-type distribution transformers 50 Hz, from 100 kVA to 3150 kVA,
BS EN 50541-1
with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV. General requirements
Three phase dry-type distribution transformers 50 Hz, from 100 kVA to 3 150 kVA,
BS EN 50541-2
Draft for Comment

with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV. Determination of
loadability of a transformer loaded with non-sinusoidal current
BS EN 60076-11 Power transformers. Dry-type transformers
EN-Dry-Type Power Transformers-Includes Amendment A1:1988 A2:1991 A3:1992

CENELEC HD 464 S1
A4:1995 and A5:2002; IEC 60726:1982 + A1:1986 Modified
CEI 14-4 Power transformers
CEI 14-8 Dry power transformers

Draft for Comment

10.6.6 Transformer connections
Transformer connections should be fully understood and agreed by all parties to ensure that the
installation can progress on site in line with the programme.
Where solar developers use high voltage cast resin transformers with exposed conductors,
appropriate safety measures with restricted access to exposed HV conductors must be ensured.

10.7 Earthing arrangements

There are a number of standards that apply to earthing at HV sites. The most relevant are shown in
the table below:
Reference Title
BS7430:2011 Code of Practice for protective earthing of electrical installations

BS EN 50522:2011 Earthing of Power Installations Exceeding 1kV AC
BS EN 61936:2010 Power installations exceeding 1kV AC
Guidelines for the design, installation, testing & maintenance of main
ENA TS 41-24
earthing systems in substations
ENA ER S34 A guide for assessing the rise of earth potential at substation sites
The design and specification of appropriate earthing arrangements will ensure that a suitable low
impedance path is in place for earth, fault and lightning currents and that step and touch voltage
hazards are minimised.
Draft for Comment

The objectives are to:
(a) design and install an earthing system that provides sufficient safety with regard to step and
touch potentials;
(b) conform with the requirements of BS EN 50522 and BS 7430; and
(c) satisfy the Network Operator that the site is safe to connect to.
Touch potential
Touch potential is the voltage between an energized object and the feet of a person in contact
with the object. Limits for Network Operator substation areas are provided in ENA TS 41-24.
Draft for Comment

Step potential
Step potential is the voltage between the feet of a person. Limits for Network Operator
substation areas are provided in ENA TS 41-24.
Earth potential rise (EPR)

EPR is a phenomenon that occurs when fault currents enter the earth through electrodes, such as
during an HV fault at a substation. When these currents flow, not only is there a rise in the
potential of the earthing system, the surrounding soil also experiences a rise in potential that
decreases with distance from the earth system.
Transfer voltage
Transfer voltage is a touch or stress voltage, which may be the full substation earth potential rise
(EPR) or part of this. Examples are:
(a) the voltage of a metallic path (such as a cable sheath) earthed in a substation, at a location
with lower EPR or at the potential of remote earth.
(b) the voltage inside a substation of a metallic path (such as a cable sheath) earthed remotely.
(c) the remote end voltage to ground of a metallic path (such as a fence) earthed or in ground
contact in an area with elevated voltage (within the zone of influence of an earth system).
10.7.1 Earthing of HV systems – Network Operator considerations

Network Operators are required to ensure that their systems are suitably and adequately earthed.
The obligations and license conditions imposed on a Network Operator ensure:

(a) that HV and LV supplies are only provided to safe installations.
(b) that they have received sufficient evidence (from the PV developer) to ensure the safe design
of substation earth systems and safe internal operating conditions.
(c) the safe installation of Network Operator equipment in its own and any associated substations.
This requires the HV equipment to be earthed to a substation earth system designed and

installed to the requirements in ENA TS 41-24 or to specific company requirements.
(d) that there is sufficient information available to ensure general site safety during Network and
PV site HV earth faults.
(e) that HV system neutral points are connected to a suitable earth system containing electrodes.
HV (non LV) system neutral points may be solidly earthed or may be earthed via an impedance
to limit fault current.
(f) that any HV system connected to the Network Operator substation or equipment is safe from
earth potential rise (EPR) that may arise in the Network Operator substation. ENA ER S34
provides the Network Operator with a standard procedure for calculating the rise of earth
Draft for Comment

potential at sites connected to underground cable systems and also overhead line systems.
NOTE: depending on the design of the Network Operator and PV systems, HV earth faults in a PV system with an
extensive HV cable network may experience EPR in internal substations greater than that at the supply point from
the Network Operator network.
Connection agreements provided by the Network Operator to the PV Operator will stipulate
acceptable standards and will require the submission of appropriate design reports (such as the
design of protection and earth systems). The Network Operator will not be prepared to connect a
PV solar site until they are satisfied they have sufficient evidence that the whole site’s earth
system meets the relevant requirements.
Draft for Comment

In order to facilitate safe system design, procurement and installation, and to enable EPR and
other design calculations, the Network Operator is required to provide sufficient information to
the PV developer about the system fault current and other characteristics.
10.7.2 Managing hot sites

ENA ER S36 provides an agreed procedure for managing sites and substations with a high rise of
earth potential (a hot site).
A site where the EPR may exceed 430V or 650V (for high reliability circuits) is classified as hot, in
accordance with Table xxx (below). This table contains extracts from ENA ER S36 to show typical
voltage limits for EPR and zones of interference of substation earth systems.
Table xxx Earth System EPR and Zone of Influence Limits in ENA ER S36
Protection Clearance Time and
Third Party Impact Threshold Voltages via Proximity Effect
Voltage Limits
Normal reliability circuits with main protection systems that clear the
>0.2 sec
earth fault current in excess of 200ms (20kV, 11kV, 6.6kV).
High reliability circuits with main protection systems that clear the earth
0.2 sec or less
fault current within 200ms (400kV, 275kV, 132kV, 66kV, 33kV, 25kV).
Third Party Infrastructure Equipment Involved
Site services.
Isolation required on cable 430V 650V
BT and Telecommunication equipment.
Companies
Attention to main trunk lines,
1,150V 1,700V
callboxes.
Domestic residence or
Telephones and modems. 1,150V 1,700V
commercial property

Large hazardous plant, Signaling, process control and
430V 650V
processing, refineries communication cables.
Railways Signaling and communication cables. 430V 1,150V
When the EPR exceeds the hot limit voltages as listed in Table xxx above, precautions must be
taken inside the substation working area and around the earth system. Mitigating actions that
might be adopted include isolation of HV and LV earth systems, special HV cable working
procedures and isolation of communications circuit. Examples are shown in Table XX below:
Table xxx Earth Potential Rise (EPR) and Application of Transfer Voltage Limits (TVL) for
Draft for Comment

Interference and Safety Zones
EPR Action / Considerations Comments
Check proximity HV equipment to any 1,700V limit For 33kV earth faults.
˃1,700V or
third-party telecom systems and 1,150V limit for 11kV earth faults.
1,150V
equipment.
≥ 1,700V Consider telecom barriers. Consider reduction of EPR ≤1,700V.
Consider effects of separation of HV and Separation is not recommended since LV
˃1,200V LV earth systems and voltage appearing equipment in substation will exceed stress
Draft for Comment
on LV equipment. voltage limits.

≥ 1,150V Consider telecom barriers. Consider reduction of EPR ≤1,150V.
HV and LV earth systems can remain TVL appropriate to duration of fault.

≤ K*TVL
connected. K factor = 1 for TN-S system.
Consider separating HV&LV earth
˃ K*TVL Ideally do not separate earth systems.
systems.
Check K*TVL contour and whether all LV LV Neutral ideally to be earthed outside
˃ K*TVL
equipment can be located outside this. TVL contour.
Consider HV and LV earth system
LV equipment within K*TVL contour. connection. Design a common earth system
˃ K*TVL
to ensure LV TVL is not exceeded at any
point in the PV System.

Design a common earth system to ensure
Consider combined HV&LV earth
˃˃ 1,200 V LV TVL is not exceeded at any point in the
systems.
PV System.

Example PV Installation with Network Operator 33kV or 11kV Cable Network Connection
EPR=<Transfer Voltage Limit (TVL)
Network
Operator
33kV or
11kV Network
Cable Operator/PV
PVA PVA

Substation
33kV or 11kV 33kV or 11kV Substation Substation
cable cable and sheath
Common 33kV or 11kV 33kV or 11kV

33kV or 11kV Substation cable and cable and
cable Earth Grid sheath sheath
LV LV
(DC) (DC)
Network
Operator PVA PVA
33kV or Buried earth
11kV electrode
Cable
PV Array (PVA) with Type B
lighting protection electrode PV Array (PVA) with Type A
lighting protection electrode
Notes
 All earth systems can be connected (HV&LV and lightning)
Draft for Comment

 Network Operator & PV Substation equipment and PV substation equipment share a common or interconnected
system
 Network Operator & PV Substation and PV Array Substation earth systems are bonded with sheaths of cables or earth
system conductors
 PV Array equipment and PVA Substations are bonded with sheaths of cables or earth system conductors
 Security fences may be independently earthed or connected to substation earth systems.
 Horizontal earth electrode may be buried with Network Operator loop in cables
 No 1700V, 1150V or 1200V ground surface voltage contours. are present
 Touch voltages in Substations and around PVA equipment are safe
Draft for Comment
Example PV Installation with Network Operator 33kV or 11kV Overhead Line Network
Connection with Isolated LV supplies (EPR=<1200V)

Caution: This diagram does not address all issues to be considered such as auxiliary power supplies, security
fences and isolation of telecommunication facilities and services not associated with the PV Installation
Network
Operator
33kV or TVL
11kV Network TVL TVL
OH Line Operator/PV
PVA PVA
Substation Common
33kV or 11kV Substation Substation
cable Substation
Earth Grid
33kV or 11kV 33kV or 11kV 33kV or 11kV

33kV or 11kV cable and cable and cable and
cable sheath sheath sheath
LV LV
Network
Operator
33kV or PVA PVA
11kV
OH Line
PV Array (PVA) with Type B
lighting protection electrode PV Array (PVA) with Type A
Notes lighting protection electrode
 Network Operator & PV Substation equipment and PVA substation equipment share a common or interconnected
system
system conductors
 PV Array equipment and PVA Substations not connected by sheaths of cables or earth system conductors (LV
arranged as a TT system
 Security fences preferably independently earthed and not connected to substation earth systems.
 Horizontal earth electrode important to be buried with Network Operator loop in cables to lower EPR and divert fault
current from Network Operator & PV Substation earth system.
 Example ideal maximum 1200V ground surface voltage contours are shown
 PVA lightning system preferably not connected to PVA LV TT earth systems to minimise risk of damage
 PVA equipment located outside TVL transfer voltage limit (TVL) contours

Connection (EPR exceeds 1200V)
Network fences and isolation of telecommunication facilities and services not associated with the PV Installation
Operator
33kV or
11kV
1200V
OH Line Network 1200V
Operator/PV 1200V

Substation PVA PVA
1200V Common Substation Substation
33kV or 11kV
Substation
cable
Earth Grid
33kV or 11kV 33kV or 11kV 33kV or 11kV

33kV or 11kV cable and sheath cable and sheath cable and sheath
cable LV LV
(DC) (DC) PV Array
(PVA) with
Network Type B
Operator Buried earth lighting
PVA PVA protection
33kV or electrode
11kV electrode
OH Line 1200V
1200V
Notes
system
system conductors
Draft for Comment

 PV Array equipment and PVA Substations not connected by sheaths of cables or earth system conductors (LV
arranged as a TT system
 Example ideal maximum 1200V ground surface voltage contours are shown
 Touch voltage in Network Operator /PV substation not to exceed ENA TS 41-24 limits
 Touch voltage in PVA substation not exceeding BS EN 50522 limits.
 Touch voltage on PVA equipment not exceeding BS EN 50522 LV transfer voltage limit (TVL)
Connection (Very High EPR)
Draft for Comment
Network fences and isolation of telecommunication facilities and services not associated with the PV Installation

Operator
132kV or
33kV OH 1700V
Line
Network
Common 1700V
Operator/PV PVA PVA
1200V Substation
33kV or 11kV Substation Substation Substation
Earth Grid
cable 33kV cable
& sheath
33kV cable & sheath 33kV cable & sheath
33kV or 11kV
cable LV LV
Network (DC) (DC) PV Array
Operator (PVA) with
132kV or Type B
33kV OH lighting
Line Buried earth PVA PVA protection
electrode electrode
1700V 1700V
Notes
system
system conductors
 PV Array equipment and PVA Substations connected by sheaths of cables and earth system conductors (LV arranged
as a TN-S system
 Example diagramatic 1700V ground surface voltage contours shown for zone of interference on telecommunications.
 Touch voltage in Network Operator/PV substation not to exceed ENA TS 41-24 limits
 Touch voltage in PVA substation not exceeding BS EN 50522 limits.
 Touch voltage on PVA equipment not exceeding BS EN 50522 LV transfer voltage limit (TVL)

10.7.3 Hot substations and internal touch and step voltages

A hot HV substation may have an EPR that does not cause touch and step voltages inside the
substation to exceed the tolerable limits as set out by appropriate standards like ENA TS 41-24 or
BS EN 50522. However, the EPR may not be acceptable if it appears as a transfer voltage outside
the substation and particularly if the substation earth system is connected to the neutral and
protective earth of external LV supplies in unprotected environments.

As an example, an EPR of 430V can be significantly hazardous if the location this is transferred to
has a tolerable touch of only 135V for 0.5 second fault duration (from limits in BS EN 50522). This
voltage transfer must be avoided or the design should ensure the transferred touch voltage does
not exceed tolerable limits
The objective is to design and install an earthing system to satisfy the site safety requirements of
the Network Operators for step and touch potentials in order to conform to the requirements as
set out in BS EN 50522 and BS 7430.
Limits for touch, step and transfer voltages that can occur during an HV earth fault depend on the
time duration of the earth fault current and EPR which can introduce risk of electric shock. The
appropriate fault current duration will be the operating time of the appropriate protection device
Draft for Comment

intended as the main protection and the operating time of the associated circuit breaker. This
fault duration will be used to determine the appropriate touch voltage limit from standards even if
the main protection fails and a backup protection operates. .
The actual maximum duration of maximum EPR at each voltage level in a substation or the PV
system should be considered to establish the voltage limits
It should be noted that the worst case limit adopted at each voltage level may be the lowest of
voltage limits appropriate to several conditions of EPR and fault durations.
x
Draft for Comment
The design and specification of a suitable earthing arrangement will ensure that a suitable low

impedance path is in place for earth fault and lightning currents. To operate protection, ensure
that touch and step voltage hazards do not exist and prevent damage
10.7.4 Substation and HV equipment earth systems

An earthing system should normally consist of:
(a) earth electrode (tapes and rods) around the extremity of equipment and/or buildings;
(b) connections to any sheet steel or long vertical rebar reinforcements*;
(c) connections to any internal construction rebar*;
(d) test facilities; and

(e) one or more connection points to the Network Operator earthing system.
* these are generally supplementary equipotential earths
i. Substation and HV equipment earth system design
The design and specification of the whole solar PV earthing system will need to include an EPR
study at its critical points. This will look at the layout and configuration of the proposed earthing
system, data from soil resistivity tests, actual or estimated fault currents that could flow into the
earthing system, the cables used and the overall electrical design. It will also need to consider the
modelled or calculated distribution of fault current when several earth systems are
interconnected.

For the solar PV HV network, the designer shall ensure that the solar PV earthing system complies
with BS EN 50522 in terms of tolerable touch and step potentials (for the declared EPR value at the
Network Operator-Solar PV system interface). The EPR of the connection point may be declared by
the Network Operator or assessed within the PV connection project.
The design of the earthing system presented at the connection point needs to be complete and
agreed with the Network Operator before construction commences, since earthing arrangements

should be installed at an early part of the construction to avoid more costly remedial or
retrofitting work prior to energising.
For a substation that will be adopted by a Network Operator the designer shall ensure compliance
with the current ENA standards for substation earthing design and assessment; these are ENA TS
41-24 and ENA ER S34.
NOTE: the ENA have accepted in principle the adoption of BS EN 50522 within ENA TS 41-24 and ER S34. This change
will become part of the Distribution Code as an annex document and so the proposed change must go out for public
consultation. BS EN 50522 will be harmonized with the stated standard (subject to formal agreement by all ENA
members following consultation) in about 2015.
Draft for Comment

Example earthing diagram
ii. Substation and HV equipment earth systems considerations:
(a) the EPR rise of a single HV Substation connected to an overhead line is likely to be excessive even where
a large buried earth system is used. The substation area may be extended with external horizontal
electrode and earth rods to reduce resistance and lower EPR. However it may not be economic to
reduce earth system resistance to values that ensure a cold site.
Draft for Comment
(b) ground-mounted substations and independent HV equipment, such as transformers, should each have

an earth system consisting of horizontal electrode and rods buried around peripheral parts of the HV
equipment working area.
(c) the earth system will need to be functional with sufficiently low resistance to ensure operation of the
appropriate protection relays with a damaged cable sheath and also provide reasonable equipotential
conditions inside the substation.
(d) Where EPR is excessive, the earth system will be constructed as a grid with sufficient infill electrodes to
utilise the site area and control touch and step voltages.
(e) Network Operators will, within reason, accept a raised EPR as long as safe working conditions in
substations and in the connected systems are ensured.
(f) where earth systems of several HV substations are interconnected by sheaths of HV cables or insulated
earth conductors, each substation HV earth system can intentionally be minimal but functionally
sufficient to ensure operation of appropriate protection relays and also provide reasonable
equipotential conditions inside each substation.
(g) the minimal substation HV earth system will minimise the local zone of interference (hot zone) and LV
supplies can be more easily earthed outside the zone of interference.

10.7.5 Low-voltage earth systems associated with an HV substation

All Network Operator low-voltage earth systems must be designed to comply with the Electricity
Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations (ESQCR)and provide, subject to technical and economic
practicability, suitable earth terminals at the LV connection points.
i. Interconnection of HV and LV earths (combined vs separated)


Combined LV and HV earth systems are generally preferred but separation may be considered
depending upon the site EPR value and fault duration.
(a) Network Operators currently use 430V as the transfer voltage limit (TVL) to decide whether
their HV and public LV systems are separately earthed.
(b) BS EN 50522 UK annex (NA4) touch voltage/fault duration limits (without additional personal
protection) is now the appropriate reference to use when deciding whether to separate HV and
LV earth systems.
(c) Network Operators substations providing TN-C LV supplies and earth terminals using cables
with a single conductor that provide combined neutral and earth functions (cables with
protective multiple earthing (PME) of the neutral conductor and distributed earth) can
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typically accept a higher EPR without exceeding the TVL; they can also facilitate separate HV
and LV earth systems. Typically for these systems, a multiplication factor of 2 will be applied
to the tolerable transfer touch voltage/time limit in BS EN 50522.
(d) PV LV systems will be TN-S systems with single point neutral earthing and will not benefit from
increased TLV.
(e) a maximum 1,200V LV system stress voltage limit is also stated in BS 7671, BS 7430 and BS EN
50522.
(f) where the transferred HV to LV stress voltage might exceed 1,200V, HV and LV earth systems
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must be segregated (see Table 2 BS EN 50522). Note that from the UK Annex to BS EN 50522

(basic touch voltage curve with no additional insulation) TVL will generally be a lower value
and will apply as the safety criteria for separation.
(g) 1,200V is also a maximum stress value for the LV equipment located in substations when HV
and LV earth systems are separated. In essence, this requires the substation EPR to be
reduced so that EPR does not exceed 1,200V in a ground-mounted substation.
(h) Separation is not recommended in an industrial situation since such separation may introduce
more danger than avoided. Before deciding this, alternative design measures should be
considered such as to treat the whole site as an integral LV unit with full bonding and
additional electrode placed to reduce EPR and avoid danger. This is a concept that is applied
within large HV power stations.
ii. Separated earth systems
When HV and LV earth systems are separated, the two systems should be physically separated,
identified, insulated and screened from cross contact and inadvertent connections.
(a) LV electrodes must be located an adequate distance from HV electrodes; and
(b) the resistance of LV electrodes must not exceed the maximum HV electrode value for reliable
HV transformer protection operations.
iii. Connected earth systems

When HV and LV earth systems are to be interconnected, the bonding of installation structural
parts in ground contact and LV earth systems is particularly important, as doing so prevents
dangerous HV fault currents flowing in the small protective conductors of the PV installation.
While cable sheaths and earth connection conductors in the PV system will provide the general LV
system protective/bonding conductors, adequate direct bonding conductors must also be present
(to prevent excessive HV fault currents flowing in the small LV protective conductors). The bond

will also prevent damage to HV earth conductors from an LV fault current, should a transformer LV
winding fault occur.
Reliable and adequate HV and LV earth system interconnections can be achieved by:
(a) collective earth bars for both HV and LV equipment, that are connected by an earth conductor
rated for the duration of the maximum LV earth fault current; or
(b) an additional direct earth bonding conductor (again, rated for the duration of maximum LV
earth fault current) installed between the HV transformer earth point and the point of LV
neutral earthing.
10.7.6 Integration with array frame earthing
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The HV–LV earth system design also needs to consider the requirement for functional earthing of
the arrays frames (see Section 5.11).
10.7.7 Integration with lightning and surge protection systems
The HV-LV earth system design also needs to consider any lightning and surge protection earthing
scheme that is to be implemented on the site.
Where a lightning protection system is to be installed, close coordination will be required between
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the designer of the LPS system and the HV-LV earth system designer.


11 Mechanical and civil design and installation
11.1 PV mounting systems: general requirements
In addition to load calculations that are covered in the next section, there a few general rules that
apply to the design of all PV mounting systems:

• Module requirements/clamping zones: the design of a PV mounting system shall ensure that
module fixings/clamping zones comply with the module manufacturer’s instructions.
Module manufacturer’s instructions will specify requirements for the fixing/clamping of the
module. This may restrict what edges can be used for clamping (for example, some modules
do not allow clamping on the short edges) and may also restrict zones where clamps are
allowed.
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Module clamping zones
• Corrosion: PV array frames and fixings shall be made from corrosion resistant materials that
are suitable for the lifetime of the system.
In considering corrosion, possible galvanic effects from bolting dissimilar metals together may
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also need to be considered – and, where necessary, materials swapped or insulating washers

utilised.
• Thermal effects: PV mounting systems shall allow for thermal expansion and contraction.
Thermal effects need particular consideration in larger systems where the array structure may
require long lengths of support rail etc. In such cases, thermal breaks and expansion gaps will
need to be designed into the system
• Snow/ice/debris accumulation: PV mounting systems shall be designed to prevent the

accumulation of snow, ice or other debris as far as practicable.
The long-term accumulation of snow/ice should be prevented by ensuring that the design does
not trap snowfall on the module surface (for example, avoiding any up-stands at the module
bottom edge that may prevent snow sliding off during a thaw). For larger arrays, the
possibility of uneven snow loading may need to be considered if there is the potential for snow
to slide and accumulate on the bottom portion of an array.
Similarly, the potential accumulation of dirt, leaves and other debris should also be considered
in the array frame design. This is to include debris accumulation beneath an array, which can
build up and restrict good air flow beneath the array.
• Rain/snow run-off shall be considered during array frame design.

The installation of a PV system may affect the existing run-off patterns of rain and snow on the
site. For example:
(a) large roof arrays may speed up or deflect the natural shedding of water from a roof and
cause existing guttering systems to be overwhelmed at times of heavy rainfall.
(b) PV arrays too close to an eave or gutter may cause water to miss the gutter.

(c) large ground-mounted arrays may cause pooling of water in localised areas during heavy
rainfall.
(d) PV arrays may alter the way snow is shed from a building. Module surfaces shed snow
relatively easily and may cause larger amounts of snow to be shed in one go. Snow guards
may be needed over doorways and guttering may need to be re-enforced beneath an array.
• Self-shading: PV mounting systems shall be designed to minimise self-shading from the array
structure.
When designing the array frame, consideration needs to be given to the shade cast by the
structure itself. For example, module clamps that have excessive height may cast a small
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amount of shade onto the module immediately adjacent to the clamp.
• Access for maintenance: when designing an array frame, consideration needs to be given to
future access requirements – both for the array itself and for the building and the ground it is
mounted upon.
This is of particular significance for arrays mounted on buildings. Consideration of a safe

maintenance procedure should be included at the design phase. General roof access for
maintenance and for emergency services may also need to be considered (see fire section
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11.4).

• Weather-tightness: PV array frames and fixings shall not compromise the weather-tightness of
any building to which they are fixed.
11.2 Wind and snow loads
The PV modules, array mounting structures and fixings need to be able to withstand the forces
imposed on them over the lifetime of the system. The same applies to any underlying structure
that the PV array may be fixed to. It is therefore necessary to calculate the wind and snow loads
for the site and system in question.
11.2.1 Wind loads
Determining the wind load on a system is performed primarily to ensure that the PV mounting
structure and fixings are sufficient to withstand any uplift (suction), sliding and overturning
moments that the wind will impose. Knowledge of wind-uplift is vital in specifying fixings for PV
systems attached to buildings. Sliding and overturning moments need to be calculated for
ballasted systems.
NOTE: downward forces from the wind are generally of less importance and can be ignored in most circumstances.

The procedure for determining the forces on a PV system due to the wind is a two-step process.
The first step is to determine the peak velocity pressure that the wind will impose at the site in
question. The second step involves translating this peak pressure into a force by multiplying by
the area of the array and an appropriate pressure coefficient:
i. Wind Force

Wind Force = Q p x A x C p x SF
Where:
Q p = peak velocity pressure
A = area of module or array
C p = pressure coefficient
SF = safety factor
ii. Peak velocity pressure
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Peak velocity pressure is the maximum wind pressure that is to be expected at a particular location
over a 50-year period. The procedure for calculating peak velocity pressure is contained within
Eurocode 1: BS EN 1991 and the UK National Annex: BS EN 1991-1-4.
In order to calculate the peak velocity pressure, the following site factors need to be taken into
account:
(a) basic mean wind velocity (varies according to location – taken from a map of the UK).
(b) altitude correction factor (accounts for the height above sea level).
(c) reference height (height of structure above ground level).
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(d) terrain roughness (terrain type: sea, town or country).

(e) topography – adds a correction factor where the site is on a hill or escarpment.
(f) distance from the sea.
A simplified method for calculating peak velocity pressure can be found in BRE Digest 489 - Wind
loads on roof mounted solar systems.


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iii. Pressure coefficients
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The pressure coefficients used in wind load calculations need to be selected according to the

nature of the array mounting system.
BRE Digest 489 - Wind loads on roof mounted solar systems provides information on the selection
and use of pressure coefficients for PV arrays mounted on roofs. The document also provides
guidance on the application of Eurocode-1 to PV systems.
Pressure coefficients for arrays mounted on pitched or flat roofs shall be selected according to the
requirements of BRE Digest 489. Pressure coefficients for all other systems shall be taken from
Eurocode-1: BS EN 1991.
Note: the forces on ground-mounted systems can also be calculated using the flat roof procedure within BRE Digest
489 and setting the building height to zero.
The selection of the appropriate pressure coefficient for a PV system mounted on a building also
needs to take into consideration the relative location of the array on the building. Pressure
coefficients within central zones will be lower than those at the building edges.


Example of central and edge zones (pitched roof)
iv. Safety Factor
A safety factor needs to be applied in all wind load calculations in accordance with the
requirements of Eurocode-1.
For PV systems mounted on roofs, a safety factor of 1.35 can typically be used, in accordance with
the requirements of BRE Digest 489.
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NOTE: the 1.35 factor is derived from a partial load factor of 1.5 (from Eurocode-1) multiplied by a consequence class
factor (CC1) of 0.9 taken from BS EN 1990.
Example: wind load calculation
System data:
(a) pitched roof - duopitch, 30°.
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(b) modules mounted above and parallel to roof.

(c) array wholly in central area of roof.
(d) 16 Panel system, each panel 1.6m 2 .
(e) peak velocity pressure (Q p ) = 763Pa (calculated using Eurocode-1).
Area of array: A = 25.6m 2 16 x 1.6m 2

Pressure coefficients: C p = -0.5 From BRE Digest 489 (uplift)
C p = +0.26 From BRE Digest 489 (down)
Safety factor: SF = 1.35 From BRE Digest 489
Total Wind (uplift) force acting on array = Q p x A x C p x SF = 763 x 25.6 x 0.5 x 1.35 = 13.18 kN
Total Wind (uplift) force per module = Q p x A x C p x SF = 763 x 1.6 x 0.5 x 1.35 = 824N
Total Wind (down) force acting on array = Q p x A x C p x SF = 763 x 25.6 x 0.26 x 1.35 = 6.86 kN
Total Wind (down) force per module = Q p x A x C p x SF = 763 x 1.6 x 0.26 x 1.35 = 429N
11.2.2 Snow loads

Determining snow loads is performed primarily when looking at the suitability of a building
structure to accept a PV array, for example, when considering the ability of roof trusses to accept
the additional load of a PV array. Knowledge of snow loads may also be required when designing
array frames or where the nature of the array design may trap and accumulate snow.
The procedure for determining snow loads within the UK is contained within Eurocode-1 BS EN
1991 and the UK National Annex: BS EN 1991-1-3 Part 1-3: General actions — Snow loads.
11.2.3 Load calculations


i. PV module
The PV module shall be checked to ensure it can withstand the wind and snow loads calculated for
the site.
The focus of mechanical design is often on the array frame and fixings, and checking the rating of
the module is often overlooked. In some high wind load applications, such as facades, the module
may not be suitable for the loads that will be imposed.
ii. Array mounting frame
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The PV array mounting frame shall be rated for the wind and snow loads calculated for the site.
Detailed mechanical design is beyond the scope of this Code of Practice. While off-the-shelf
mounting systems should have maximum loadings specified by the manufacturer, this will not be
the case for bespoke framing systems. In such cases, a suitably competent person will need to
ensure that the bespoke mounting system is fit for purpose.
iii. Fixings
The fixings used to secure a PV array shall be rated for the wind and snow loads calculated for the
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site.

The type and quantity of fixings selected for a PV array need to be able to withstand the loads
imposed. In most cases the key factor will be the wind uplift force. Fixings manufacturers will
commonly supply a withstand value that their fixing is rated to (provided the installation
instructions are followed). It is then a matter of ensuring that sufficient fixings are specified to
withstand the calculated wind uplift.
Example: fixing calculation

System data:
(a) total wind (uplift) force acting on array = 13.18 kN.
(b) fixing bracket rated capacity = 500N (includes safety factor).
Wind uplift / bracket capacity = 13.18 ÷ 0.5 = 26.36

Minimum number of fixings required = 27
It is important to determine whether the fixing capacity provided by the manufacturer includes a
safety factor (as this can vary between manufacturers). If no safety factor has been applied, an
appropriate factor will need to be included as part of the fixing calculations.

Not only should the correct number of fixings be installed, but their layout and deployment must
be suitable for the array frame and the structure it is connected to. For example, on a roof-
mounted system, the fixings will need to be spread appropriately across all the roof rafters
beneath the array. Fixings also need to be suitable for the structure and material to which they
are being attached.
Fixing calculations and specifications shall be undertaken by a suitably competent person.


Manufacturer’s instructions shall also be followed.
Detailed fixing design is beyond the scope of this Code of Practice.
iv. Building structure
The building structure shall be checked to ensure that it is able to withstand the imposed loads
that will be the result of the installation of the PV system. Calculations shall be undertaken by a
suitably competent person.
In general, the installation of a PV system on a building will not increase the wind uplift forces
upon the building structure. However, the increased weight of the PV array system reduces the
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capacity of the structure to withstand the downwards-imposed wind and snow loads.
Hence, before installing a PV system, it is necessary to ensure that there is sufficient residual
capacity in the building structure to accept both the existing loads and the added weight of the PV
system.
Detailed structural calculations are beyond the scope of this Code of Practice.
Before fitting a PV system to an existing building, the building shall be inspected by a suitably
competent person to ensure that the existing structure is free from decay or any other factors that
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could influence the suitability of the structure to accept the addition of a PV array.

The method of fixing shall also be reviewed to ensure that the fixings to do not compromise the
integrity of the timber or other structure to which they are attached.
NOTE: the inappropriate use of screw fixings in some roof timbers can result in cracked or split timber.

11.3 PV systems on buildings

11.3.1 PV systems on top of pitched roofs
The majority of PV systems mounted on top of a pitched roof use

standard modules laid in rows with each row clamped down to a pair of
fixing rails.

Standard mounting rails can be used with a variety of different fixing
brackets – with the fixing bracket tailored to the particular roof
cladding.
When brackets are fixed to a tile-clad roof it is necessary to ensure that

the design and installation of the bracket does not disturb the roof
tiles.
It is good practice to notch the roof tile to prevent any tile

displacement.
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The bracket should be screwed into a suitable structural member.
Fixing a PV array to a slate roof requires particular care to ensure that

the weather-tightness and integrity of the slate roof is maintained.
The use of ‘through bolts’ is not permitted due to the potential for
cracked slates (by imposing some load onto the slate) and the risk of
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water ingress (see below).

When using brackets that secure directly to a metal roof cladding:
(a) the roof-sheet thickness should be checked to ensure that it is

compatible with the fixing bracket & screws.
(b) the fixing of the metal roof cladding back to the main roof structure
should be checked to ensure that it is capable of transferring the
imposed loads.
The roof brackets used to fix a PV system to a slate or tiled roof shall:
(a) be fixed to a suitable structural member;
(b) not displace the tiles/slates in a manner that results in gaps more than those that naturally
occur across the rest of the roof;
(c) not impose any load onto the slates or tiles;
(d) not rely on silicon/mastic to provide the sole means to form a weather-tight seal; and
(e) durably seal all layers of the roof cladding.
NOTE: battens are not generally considered suitable structural members for fixing roof brackets.
Cable penetrations through a roof shall not compromise the weather-tightness of the roof. Cables
taken through the underlay shall use purpose-made glands or, if taken through a lap in the felt,
installed so as to minimise disturbance to the lap joint.
The design of systems installed on metal or fibre cement roofs needs to consider the access
requirements for installation - an allowance for crawl-boards may be needed on some fragile
roofs. Installation on fibre cement roofs also needs to consider if there is any asbestos in the roof.
11.3.2 Roof integrated PV systems


Roof-integrated PV systems vary considerably, from small format PV tile systems to larger format module
framing systems.
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Roof-integrated PV arrays shall not compromise the weather-tightness of the roof on which they
are installed. The array flashing and framing arrangements shall not displace the surrounding tiles
or slates in a manner that results in gaps more than those that naturally occur across the rest of
the roof.
Roof-integrated PV arrays shall have a fire rating that is appropriate to the relevant local building
regulations.
Cables taken through underlay shall use purpose-made glands or, if taken through a lap in the felt,
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installed so as to minimise disturbance to the lap joint.


11.3.3 Flat-roof PV systems
Ballasted systems require no roof penetrations for fixings and generally

provide the simplest means to install a PV array onto a flat roof.
Sufficient ballast needs to be placed on the PV array frame to withstand


the effects of sliding and overturning from the wind.
The roof needs to be sufficient to take the weight of the PV array and
ballast.
Low-profile systems with a shallow module pitch can decrease the

ballast requirements on flat roof systems.
Ballasted frames that interlock can further decrease the ballast

requirements.
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Fixed frames are generally most suitable for new-build applications or
as part of a re-roofing exercise.
Great care needs to be taken in the design of the fixing and roof
penetration to ensure that a lasting weather-tight seal is achieved.
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For a ballasted system:
(a) the ballast weight shall be selected to ensure that it is sufficient to prevent the PV array from
sliding or overturning under the design’s wind load;
(b) variations in the wind loads from the edge and central zones of the roof shall be considered;
and
(c) the roof structure shall be suitable for the additional imposed load of the PV module, array
frame and ballast (total load and point loads).
The interface between the array frame and the roof membrane shall be considered and an
isolating layer inserted where necessary.
NOTE: some membrane manufacturers recommend an isolating layer between the array and the membrane to prevent
chemical reactions that may compromise the integrity of the roof over the life of the system.
The layout of a flat roof array shall consider any requirements for general roof access and access
to any roof plant.
Good workmanship and housekeeping is essential when working on a flat roof, as great care is
needed to prevent accidental punctures to the roof membrane. Punctures can occur due to
dropped tools or components or by small/sharp objects getting trapped beneath a ballasted array
frame.
11.3.4 PV Facades

PV facades normally use bespoke modules or laminates, but standard

modules can be used in some circumstances.
High wind loads are a characteristic of most PV facades projects. As

well as ensuring the mounting system is sufficient to withstand the
imposed loads, the module itself needs to be scrutinised, as the loads
are often greater than the rating of standard PV modules/laminates.

Other key factors that need be considered when designing a PV façade
include: cable routing and connector locations; meeting the thermal
and weather performance requirements for the façade; fire and
acoustic characteristics; and arrangements for maintenance.
PV modules and framing systems used for a PV façade shall be capable of withstanding the design
wind loads and shall comply with the relevant building regulations.
PV modules used in a façade shall retain their integrity in the event of a breakage to the module
laminate.
NOTE: many PV modules are formed from a PV laminated clamped into a frame. A break of such a PV laminate will
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causes it to lose its structural integrity and may result in the laminate falling out of the frame. Modules with the
laminate bonded to the frame prevent this from occurring.
11.3.5 PV glazing
Glass-Glass PV modules can replace standard glass in any part of a

building envelope. PV can be integrated into single- and double-glazed
units and the cell layout varied to suit the building design and shading
requirements.
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The glass and construction of the PV unit needs to be designed to meet
the relevant building regulations for the glazing it is replacing.
Cabling details generally require particular scrutiny to ensure that there

is appropriate cable containment and that the aesthetics of the cabling
is acceptable from both inside and outside the building.
PV modules used for PV glazing shall comply with the relevant building regulations for the regular
glazing they are replacing.
The key factors to be considered in the design of a PV glazing system are similar to those of a PV
façade and include:
(a) mechanical integrity on breakage;

(b) cable routing and connector locations;
(c) thermal/shading performance requirements; and
(d) arrangements for maintenance/replacement.
As well as standard considerations, the glazing frame that supports the PV modules will also need
to be checked to ensure that it does not cast shade on the PV cells and (where required) that it
provides sufficient internal space for cable routing.

11.4 PV systems on buildings: fire considerations

All electrical installations, by their nature, carry some degree of fire risk. With respect to PV
systems, two factors need to be considered: firstly, ensuring that the PV system does not become
the source of a fire; and secondly designing and installing the system in a manner that minimises
any increased risk to occupants or emergency services should a fire occur (whatever the source of
the fire).

Fire risks can be minimised by good system design, component selection and installation practices.
11.4.1 Preventing PV system fires

In the rare cases in which PV systems have been the cause of a fire, this has generally resulted
from poor installation practices or the use of wrongly specified, incorrect or faulty equipment.
There is generally little an installer can do to mitigate against manufacturing defects, however,
good design and installation practice will minimise fire risk.
NOTE: fires can also occur as a consequence of lightning – this topic is dealt with in detail in Section 6.
From the limited information available, it is generally believed that the most likely cause of a fire
on a grid-connected PV system will be a DC arc. This can occur within a faulty DC switch or a poorly
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attached connector or it can be the result of abrasion through the insulation and subsequent
shorting via a conducting surface. Poor contacts can also worsen over time, with a high resistance
junction deteriorating, heating up and deteriorating further until a series arc results. Whatever
the cause, DC arcs can be extremely hot (enough to melt glass) and easily capable of causing a fire.
Incorrectly specified DC isolators, poor DC connections or cable containment are the most
commonly attributed causes that are under the direct influence of a PV installer.
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Result of a DC isolator arc
Photograph courtesy of Devon & Poor installation practice with
Result of a DC connector arc
Somerset Fire and Rescue Service Fire the potential for a DC arc
Investigation Team
Clearly, small fires starting within components can spread and cause further hazards, such as
larger fires or a shock risk from exposed conductors.
i. DC overcurrent protection
The correct selection and installation of overcurrent protective measures is essential in ensuring
good fire safety in a PV array. This includes the appropriate cable sizing and, where appropriate,
the correct selection and specification of overcurrent protective devices. DC overcurrent
protective measures are detailed in Section 5.
ii. Cable management

Standard electrical installation practices apply to the containment and securing of PV system
cables. External cables exposed to wind and thermal influences (for example, the cables directly
beneath a PV array) require particular attention and need to be adequately secured. Care should
also be taken to ensure plug and socket connections are secured in a manner that places minimal
stress from wind or thermal effects (both plug and socket sides of the connector properly
secured).

NOTE: an example of poor cable management is where the interconnecting cables between modules on a roof-
mounted PV array are left dangling, unsecured and resting on the roof cladding. This can lead to direct cable damage
and result in plug-socket connectors deteriorating due to continual fretting of contact surfaces.
Segregation between positive and negative conductors (and terminals) within combiner boxes will
also assist in minimising the risk DC arcs present.
iii. Cable routing

As described in Section 5.8, the installation of PV array cables buried in walls, or otherwise hidden
in the building structure, is to be avoided as mechanical damage may be very difficult to detect
and could lead to a fire risk. Where this cannot be avoided, conductors should be suitably
protected from mechanical damage.
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iv. Enclosures
A DC arc within a combiner box or switch enclosure could also result in a fire. Enclosures made
from insulating materials with self-extinguishing properties will help to minimise fire risks.
An enclosure used to house surge arrestor devices shall be constructed from a material with self-
extinguishing properties.
v. DC isolators and switch-disconnectors

The correct selection and installation of devices for isolation and switching is essential in ensuring
good fire safety in a PV array. This is detailed in Section 5.5 and includes ensuring that the devices
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are suitably rated for DC operation at the system voltage and current maxima. It is important to

note that inappropriate switching devices may not fail immediately – contacts may deteriorate
over time leading to increased resistance and the potential for heat build-up and arcing.
NOTE: fires as a result of incorrectly specified or poorly installed DC isolators have been observed. Examples of bad
practice include the use of AC rated isolators and isolators with an insufficient DC current rating.
vi. Connections
To prevent series arcs as a result of poor connections, good installation practice requires that all
connections be verified for tightness. Torque drivers can assist with this.
Poorly assembled plug and socket connections are also a potential concern – all connections need
to be made using the appropriate tools and assembled correctly – see Section 5.7 for more details.

11.4.2 DC arc detection

DC arc detection is built into some inverters and is also available within stand-alone devices that
can be wired into the PV array circuit. The devices generally work by detecting the RF signal from
the arc. The action to be taken to detect an arc depends upon the type of arc.
i. Series arcs

Due to the large number of series connections with a PV array, the most likely arc to occur in a PV
system is a DC series arc. Series arcs can be readily halted by isolating the circuit or switching off
the inverter.
ii. Parallel arcs

DC arcs may also occur between conductors, or as an arc via an earth fault. Parallel arcs are less
likely to occur due to the ‘double insulation’ put in place across the DC circuit and, as inverters,
should flag a first earth fault before a second fault (and the ensuing fault current) occur. Halting a
parallel arc is more difficult (switching off the inverter may simply increase the current available to
the fault).
11.4.3 Smoke and fire alarms
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Whilst the use of smoke and fire alarms is not mandatory (and not even very common), an installer
should consider fitting an alarm appropriate to the particular installation. Where isolators,
junction boxes, connectors, inverters, etc are unavoidably in close proximity to flammable
material, a smoke or flame sensor or alarm should be seriously considered.
It is sometimes not appreciated that the sensing part of an alarm system, be it a simple domestic
smoke detector or a more sophisticated central alarm system, must be carefully sited, according to
the manufacturer’s instructions. Sensors sited where air circulation is limited (for example, in a
corner) may not be effective.
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Where sensors are mounted in a building location where an alarm may not be heard (such as a loft
void) it may be necessary to link the sensor to an alarm that will sound elsewhere in the building.

11.4.4 Fire: general installation considerations
The following installation considerations will help to minimise any hazard to building occupants or
to emergency services who may tackle a fire at a building with a grid-connected solar PV system
installed (irrespective of the cause of the fire).
i. Array layout
PV systems shall not compromise fire escape routes for building occupants or access to fire and
rescue services.
When designing the physical layout of a PV array upon a roof, consideration needs to be given to
access routes for fire fighters and escape routes for occupants:
(a) for pitched roofs, a border free of panels around the array should be considered. Arrays
should also be kept away from roof eaves and ridges to permit ladder access.
(b) for flat roofs, PV arrays need to permit access around the roof (larger systems may need the
inclusion of access corridors) and arrays need to be kept away from any fire escape routes.
ii. Fire Propagation considerations

Should a fire occur, a PV system should not adversely impact the spread of the fire.

Systems mounted above roofs can act as a chimney and exacerbate the spread of flames from
upstairs or roof windows. In general, this effect only needs consideration where the roof cladding
is flammable. The installation of baffles beneath the array and/or a layout with sufficient clearance
distances should be considered in these circumstances.
The fire rating of the PV system components also needs to be considered. This is of particular
importance for BIPV systems where the PV modules replace part of the building fabric, but is also

of relevance for on-top systems where the array fixings must not compromise the fire integrity of
the part of the building that they are attached to.
Fire safety is addressed in the building regulations - the installation of a PV system needs to take
the relevant provisions into consideration.
NOTE: from April 2014, all PV systems mounted on pitched roofs must comply with the MCS standard MCS 012 in
order to be MCS-compliant. MCS 012 includes fire exposure tests for PV systems that form part of the roof structure.
iii. Cable routing

While AC mains cables can be isolated by the fire and rescue service, DC cables between the array
and inverter may remain a hazard. The following measures will assist in minimising the risk from
these cables:
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(a) keep DC cable runs as short as practical (installing the inverter close to the array);
(b) avoid installing DC cables buried in walls, or otherwise hidden in the building structure;
(c) enclose any cables within the building in metal conduit/trunking (or use SWA cables);
(d) enclose any cables within a building in intumescent conduit/trunking; and
(e) provide a layout plan of the building with DC cable runs clearly marked.
iv. Additional Isolators

Where long DC cable runs are required within a building, the installation of an additional isolator
should be considered at the point of cable entry, so as to allow the cable run to be isolated in the
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case of a fire.

Remotely operated isolators should also be considered. These devices allow owners or fire crews
to isolate a PV array by the use of a remotely sited switch. Since the control is remote, the actual
isolation point can be quite close to the array, thus minimising the length of circuit remaining live.
Some devices can link to the operation of a fire alarm system.
Additional isolators shall comply with the requirements for the array switch-disconnector set out
in Section 5.5.1.
NOTE: determining when to fit these devices is complex. Factors that may have a bearing on the decision include:
the building type, size and use; the length of cable within the building between array and inverter; the cable route and
containment method; the increased cost and complexity required; and the power consumption of the device (remote
switches consume power under normal operation).
11.4.5 Labels and signs

The presence of a PV system on a building is not always obvious, hence a sign that flags the
presence of a PV system is requested by the fire and rescue service.
Where a PV system is installed on a building, the following sign shall be installed. The sign shall be
located at the supplier’s cut-out and shall measure at least 100mm x 100mm.


11.4.6 Specifying additional fire measures
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While some of the fire measures detailed in this section are mandatory for all systems, some
measures will only be adopted in certain circumstances. These additional measures are described
above and include:
(a) fire/smoke detection;
(b) arc detection;
(c) additional and/or remotely operated DC isolators;
(d) intumescent conduit; and
(e) module-free access routes within or around the arrays.
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The factors that will influence whether these additional measures should be specified include any

specific design brief from a client and the nature /use of the building. For many installations
(such as public buildings, care homes etc) a risk assessment will need to be undertaken to
determine which, if any, of the additional measures should be adopted.

11.5 Ground mounted PV systems
Like any other PV system, a thorough site survey is essential stage in a ground-mounted PV
development. The scope of the site survey will need to vary according to the nature of the site
and the size of the system, but points to consider may include:
(a) site boundaries, area of usable land and site terrain;


(b) site type (greenfield, brownfield, landfill, industrial land etc);
(c) information about the existing land cover, site vegetation etc;
(d) proposed use of the site after installation (grazing etc);
(e) proposed system layout and orientation;
(f) shade factors: both local (for example, trees, hedges) and far (for example, hills, buildings);
(g) any future tree planting or other potential shadow objects proposed;
(h) grid connection point;
(i) proposed cabling routes;
(j) suitability of roads and tracks to provide access to the site for heavy vehicles;
(k) good mobile phone coverage or any landline connection available;
(l) ground conditions (rocky, sandy etc);
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(m) any available geological survey;
(n) location and route of any services passing under or over the proposed site;
(o) any land contamination;
(p) whether the proposed site is in a flood risk area or has a high water table;
(q) any potential archaeological, ecological and environmental status;
(r) distance of the proposed site from the nearest housing;
(s) distance of the site from the public road; and
(t) proposed fencing and drainage plans.
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NOTE: special care needs to be taken during the survey of a landfill site. It is essential to determine the length of
time since the site was re-cultivated; the level of any ground settlement to be expected; and whether there is any gas
pipe or any other existing infrastructure that may be hidden below ground.
11.5.1 Array design
In order to determine an appropriate array layout and a suitable array frame specification, a
ground and topographical survey is required. The site topography will affect row spacing and the
design of the mounting structure. The site’s ground conditions will help to determine an
appropriate mounting system type and specification.
Other information also required before finalising the array design includes:
(a) wind and snow loads for the site;

(b) minimum ground clearance required (height from ground to lowest part of the array);
(c) maximum overall height permitted; and
(d) maximum row length permitted between thermal breaks (expansion gaps).
Editor’s Note: need some replacement images; to complete following DPC.

Rammed pile construction
Cheap solution and quick to install with the right equipment.
Pile profile, material specification (coating) will need to be determined

during site survey as these will all be affected by ground conditions -
not all sites will be suitable. An on-site pull-out test will be required to

determine the required pile length/ramming depth.
Ground screws
An alternative to rammed pile construction that can be more

appropriate for some ground conditions. A variety of screw types
available.
Screw specification will need to be determined during site survey. Not

all sites will be suitable. An on-site pull-out test will be required to
determine the required screw size and length.
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Concrete foundations
Used where ground conditions preclude the use of a driven or screwed

pile. A flexible solution for difficult sites.
Can either be formed by casting the array mounting posts in situ

(within a pre-dug hole) or by casting foundation blocks first, then
bolting mounting frames down subsequent to the curing of the
concrete.
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Ballasted solution

Ideal for rocky ground conditions or other sites where ground
penetration is precluded or otherwise difficult (contaminated ground,
landfill sites etc.).
Concrete ballast blocks can be readily specified to match the array size
and calculated wind loads.
Spacing between rows

The spacing between module rows is dictated by the site topography and the degree of inter-row
shading that is deemed acceptable. Providing sufficient access between rows for cleaning or grass
cutting vehicles also needs to be considered.
(a) Larger gaps between rows: less inter-row shading, better kWh/kWp performance.
(b) Smaller gaps between rows: larger array (kW) can be installed.
Array pitch
Like the selection of row spacing, the choice of array pitch is dictated by the site topography and
the degree of inter-row shading that is deemed acceptable.
(a) Optimal pitch: best kWh/kWp performance.

(b) Shallower pitch: rows can be kept closer together and a larger array (kW) can be installed.

The choice of the array pitch may also depend on the time of year when optimum performance is
required. A shallow tilt angle gives maximum power in the summer, when the position of the sun is
high in the sky, while a larger tilt angle results in better performance during spring and autumn.
Incidence Variation for 52 Degree
140

120 21-Mar 21-Jun 21-Sep 21-Dec
100
80
60
40
20
0
0:00 4:48 9:36 14:24 19:12 0:00
Figure xxx : Seasonal variations of solar incidence angle
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Determining the optimum combination of inter-row spacing and pitch for a particular site often
comes down to an examination of the financial returns for a number of different scenarios. While
a bigger gap and an optimum tilt angle may give a better kWh/kWp performance, a smaller gap
and shallow pitch may provide a better financial rate of return for the site as a whole (due to fixed
costs such as planning and grid connection).
In addition to considering inter row shading, other factors will also influence the layout of a
ground mounted PV array, including:
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(a) provision of sufficient clearance for access roads;

(b) shading from security fencing, hedges and other perimeter objects;
(c) space – shade restrictions arising from inverters and substations; and
(d) overhead power cables.
11.5.2 Tracking systems

A solar tracker is an electro-mechanical device that positions the PV array to follows the sun’s
motion throughout the day. It is a structural system that, as well as supporting and re-positioning
the array, needs to resist external forces such as wind and snow loads.
Tracker systems can be classified into single and twin axis trackers. Twin axis trackers will adjust
both the array orientation and tilt to keep the array at the optimum solar position.
Tracker systems can be operated via a direct sensor (which determines the brightest spot in the
sky) or via devices that compute the local celestial bearing of the sun by applying a set of
equations (using the local time, date, latitude and longitude).
The selection of a tracker system largely depends on the site-specific irradiance profile, including
both direct and diffuse irradiance components. A study would normally be undertaken to
calculate the difference in energy yield between a tracking and fixed tilt system. This is then
balanced against the additional capital cost and operational cost (maintenance) of the tracking
system.

Manual adjustment: ground-mounted array frames that facilitate manual adjustment are also
available. A typical example is a frame that has two or three tilt positions to allow the array to be
adjusted for the season (steeper for winter, shallower for summer).
11.5.3 String design

The string configuration and wiring plan needs to be designed not only to suit the electrical

requirements of the inverter, but also to suit the physical layout of the array (avoiding, where
possible, the carrying of string cabling across rows, thermal breaks or other array gaps)
Shade patterns also need to be considered when designing the string wiring. For many sites there
will be a likelihood of inter-row shading when the sun is low in the sky, however, this shade may
only affect the lowest row of modules. To minimise shade loss during these times, strings should
be formed from single module rows (variant 1 or 4 below). Where practical, grouping upper rows
on a different inverter may improve system performance.
NOTE: when considering shade loss between rows, module orientation (landscape vs portrait) also need to be
considered – see Section 3.6.
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Variant 1
Variant 2
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Variant 3
Variant 4
11.5.4 Access
Large ground-mounted PV systems (PV farms) will typically require the access roads to permit
delivery by heavy goods vehicles, usually articulated lorries. An assessment of the access road
needs to be performed in relation to both the load bearing capacity and suitable turning radius.
Upgrading of access tracks and widening of gateways is common on many solar farm projects.
As well as the construction phase, access for O&M purposes also needs to be considered. This will
typically need to facilitate access to all module arrays, string combiner boxes, inverters and
substations.
11.5.5 Security
Typically, the security system in a large-scale PV site comprises a perimeter fence and camera
system.

The design of any security camera system needs to consider the type of camera technology, the
height of the camera posts and the terrain of the land. The visual inspection of the camera
technology and the alarm system should be able to differentiate any animal movement and a true
security breach.
In case of metal fencing, the earthing of the PV plant may need to be connected with the fencing

system unless there is a sufficient gap maintained from the perimeter earthing.
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12 System monitoring
PV system monitoring is desirable, because it allows the system owner and the installer to review the
generation and performance of a system and to pick up any potential problems. PV monitoring systems
make use of a variety of inputs and sensors in order to keep track of key parameters, and the information
can be displayed on a variety of different devices, either locally or remotely online.

Without any form of monitoring, metering or displays it is very difficult to tell if a grid PV system is
operational. All grid-connected PV systems shall be fitted with, as a minimum, a device to display and
record the energy generation (kWh) of the system. It is also good practice to install a means to view the
instantaneous output of the PV system (kW).
12.1 Types of monitoring

12.1.1 Fault detection and alarms
Most inverters possess some sort of system via which state codes and error messages can be seen – via
either indicator LEDs or a display on which messages can be shown.
Additionally, most inverters will include an earth fault alarm provision. In the case of the earth fault alarm,
it is not enough for the inverter to show earth fault messages on an inverter display, and it should have
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some way of remotely alerting the user of the fault – this is described in more detail in Section 5.9.3.
12.1.2 Generation and export monitoring

In order to receive Feed in Tarrif (FIT) payments, an OFGEM- or MID-approved generation meter must be
installed, from which readings are taken and provided to the FIT provider. The FIT meter can be provided
and installed by the PV system installer.
In addition to manually taking FIT readings, it is also possible to remotely and automatically obtain the
measurements. This is particularly useful where multiple systems are managed by a single entity (for
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example, a council or housing association). Such systems usually work using GSM-enabled generation

meters, fitted with SIM cards that send the information to a central portal that can be accessed online.
There are also systems available that can send the information directly to the FIT provider, eliminating the
need for the customer to administer it themselves.
For systems above 30kW, the FIT provider will require the installation of an export meter, which again
must be OFGEM- or MID-approved. This provides the information that determines the amount of ‘export
tariff’ the customer will receive. This is installed and maintained by a licensed meter provider, not the PV
installer.
12.1.3 Performance monitoring

Performance monitoring of a system has the benefit of allowing system’s owners and administrators the
ability to determine problems on sites that are not necessarily faults, but could rather be down to issues
such as shading, soiling, module degradation, poor connections, or even just poor weather. Performance
monitoring can be from the level of the entire plant, to individual inverters, to individual strings or even
down to module level.
12.2 Performance Ratio

The Performance Ratio (PR) is the standard means of determining PV plant performance. The PR describes
the relationship between the actual and theoretical energy outputs of the PV system. In order to
determine PR, an irradiation sensor is required.
The Performance Ratio is calculated using the following equation:

Measured Plant Output (kWh)

Performance Ratio (PR) =
Calculated Plant Output (kWh)
Where:
Calculated Plant Output (kWh) = Solar Irradiation × Area of Array × Module Efficiency

The PR is stated as percent and the closer to 100%, the better the system is performing. However,
due to unavoidable system losses, 100% is unachievable. A PR of 80% would describe a very well
performing system. PRs can be calculated over any time period, but yearly or monthly calculations
are the most common.
12.3 Monitoring resolution

A system can be monitored down to several levels of resolution. The most basic level of
monitoring is simply using the total generation data from the generation meter, which gives the
measured plant output. However, if the PR has dropped significantly, it may be difficult to
determine the cause.
Inverter-level monitoring allows problems to be isolated down to a particular inverter. This can be
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achieved by connecting the inverter to a data-logger or via online monitoring. The output data of
an inverter can then be compared with other inverters in the system to determine its relative
performance.
String-level monitoring is desirable on larger systems. String-level monitoring can be

incorporated into the inverter or into the string combiner boxes. On large systems with no string
monitoring, the loss of one string can easily be missed (moreover, the failure of string fuses is a
fairly regular occurrence).
Systems using DC optimizers or micro-inverters offer monitoring down to the module level. This
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allows individual modules to be compared against each other, which in turn allows faulty, soiled or

shaded modules to be quickly identified.
12.4 Sensors
12.4.1 Irradiance Sensors
Often the simplest to measure, irradiance is via a reference cell. As long as the cell is of the same
type as the modules in the PV array, a reference cell provides an ideal means to characterise array
performance as it should have the same spectral, thermal and optical performance as the array.
A pyranometer is the means by which solar irradiation is measured by meteorologists. A

pyranometer is designed to measure light from all angles, have a wide spectral response and to
have a stable output across a range of ambient conditions. A variety of instruments are available,
with varying degrees of accuracy and response.
For array plane monitoring, irradiance sensors should be installed so that the orientation and tilt is
identical with that of the PV array. Where there are multiple orientations, multiple devices may
be required.
12.4.2 Cell temperature sensors

Measuring cell temperature permits the thermal performance of the module to be calculated and
allows for in-system performance calculations.
Cell temperature measurements are usually achieved by the use of a resistance thermometer
device, silicon bonded to the rear of the module directly behind the middle of a cell towards the

middle of the module. Good practice is to scan the module with an infra-red camera after the
sensor has been installed to ensure that it is representative of the wider module temperature.
12.4.3 Other sensors

Other sensors that may be installed on larger systems or more complex monitoring installations
include:

(a) ambient temperature;
(b) global, horizontal radiation;
(c) diffuse irradiance (pyranometer with shadow ring or tracker);
(d) direct irradiance (pyranometer on tracker, following the sun);
(e) wind speed and direction;
(f) relative humidity;
(g) rainfall; and
(h) grid voltage and frequency.
12.5 Data logging

A data-logger will record system information and may also transfer data onto an online portal,
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allowing system information to be viewed remotely and facilitating remote troubleshooting.
Data-logging systems with internet or phone access can also be configured to send status updates
and error messages via e-mail or SMS. These systems can allow low-system performance or faults
to be picked up quickly and can also facilitate remote warning of earth-faults as per Section 5.9.3.
In some cases, the information can flow in both directions - it is possible for the installer or
manufacturer to perform online firmware upgrades or adjustments to inverter parameters
remotely.
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12.6 Displays

There are a number of ways to display measured and recorded data to the customer, either locally or
remotely. Without any form of monitoring, metering or displays it is very difficult to tell if a grid-
connected PV system is operational.
NOTE: while many inverters have a display, the inverter is usually installed in a place that does not have easy visibility,
and some form of remote display is required.
12.6.1 Remote indicator

A remote light or sounder can be installed to flag alarm or error alerts. A typical application would be in
the form of a signal from an inverter that activates an error alarm (for example, in the event of an earth
fault).
12.6.2 Home displays

A wide variety of devices are available for single, domestic applications. The display unit is either a stand-
alone device or sometimes information accessed via a smartphone or tablet. Where a discrete device is
installed, this needs to be installed in a location that can be readily viewed by the householder.
The simplest home display systems show only generation data, with this data often derived from a current
transformer clipped to the AC cable from the inverter. More complex displays may take data from the
inverter(s) or from a dedicated system data-logger.
NOTE: many home display systems operate over a wireless link. Care needs to be taken when installing such a system
that the radio signal is strong enough to maintain a connection. In the case that the signal is too weak, additional
antennas or boosters may be required.
12.6.3 Public displays

Public displays are larger devices designed to be installed in a prominent location, such as a reception area
in an office. Again, a wide variety (size and complexity) of devices are available – from simple LED/LCD
numeric displays to LCD screens that display system performance graphs and other relevant information.
The most commonly used type of public display units rely on data from the pulsed output on the system
generation meter. In such cases, care needs to be taken to ensure that the display unit is compatible with
the kWh meter and that the distance between the display and the meter is adequate to obtain a strong

enough signal.
12.6.4 Online data displays

System information from data-loggers or online monitoring portals can also be inserted onto company
websites. This allows real-time data on system performance to be viewed in both numerical and graphical
format.
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13 Battery systems
13.1 Application of battery systems
The inclusion of a battery in a grid-connected PV system is generally for one or a combination of

three main reasons:

(a) to store electricity so it can be used/exported later in the day.
This is typically done to allow the system’s owners to increase their self-consumption rate -
storing electricity at times when they have an excess, for use later in the day. It may also be
done to facilitate energy exports to the grid during times when export tariffs are higher.
(b) to limit the amount of electricity that is exported to the grid.
For some sites, a limit may be placed on the amount of electricity that can be exported. Adding
storage to a system allows a larger system to installed, as the occasional peaks that would
otherwise exceed the export limitation can be diverted to the battery.
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(c) to provide a back-up system for times of grid failure.
For the first two cases, storage is usually only required for a few hours and is limited to storing
excess energy from the PV array; consequently, the battery size can normally be kept fairly small.
However, systems designed to provide a back-up during power-cuts will typically require
considerably larger battery banks as they will need to allow for longer storage periods, prolonged
operation and the requirements of the loads they are expected to run.
A similar consideration applies to the rating of the inverter-charger. A system that is required to
provide electricity during a power cut may need an increased rating due to the size of the loads it
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is expected to run.

While providing additional functionality, the addition of a battery to a grid-connected PV system
needs careful consideration. A key factor in any assessment is the relatively poor efficiency of a
typical battery system (most battery systems will result in at least 20% of the energy being lost).
Furthermore, the limited lifetime of most batteries will need to be factored into the financial
considerations, as batteries will typically need replacing at least once within the system lifetime.

13.2 System configurations
Grid connected system

incorporating integrated This diagram shows a schematic for a typical
inverter-charger grid-connected PV system that incorporates
No facility for off grid battery storage.
operation

The inverter, charger and battery may be
incorporated into a single package or provided
as multiple units.
Inverter /
charger
Battery
GRID
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Distribution board
AC coupled design
DC coupled design
Battery connected via
Battery connected on
battery-inverter & regulator
PV side of inverter
on the AC side
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Battery
kWh
kWh
Battery
Generation meter records Generation meter ignores

output after battery losses battery losses
Distribution board Distribution board

Grid connected system Where power is required during a power-cut, a

inc. isolation relay
means to disconnect and isolate the installation
Allows for from the grid needs to be incorporated into the
off grid operation
system. A modification to the first design that
can provide this facility is shown in this
diagram.

NOTE: details of the isolation and switching requirements
Inverter /
are covered later in this section.

charger
Battery
It is to be noted however, that this is not a

common approach as the inverter rating needs
to be sufficient to run all the prospective loads.
Where off-grid operation is required, it is more
typical to separate the loads into essential and
GRID non-essential parts, as shown in the next
Distribution board schematic.
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Splitting system loads into essential and
Inverter /
charger
Battery non-essential parts permits a smaller system

inverter and battery capacity.
The inverter needs only to be sized to handle

the loads that are required to run during a
power cut. The battery capacity can also be
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GRID
reduced due to the lower power draw.

ESSENTIAL
Most systems will also have the facility to use
the grid to rapidly re-charge the battery
following a power cut (rather than wait for a
NON-ESSENTIAL slower re-charge from the PV array).
13.3 Battery: main overcurrent protection

An overcurrent protective device shall be installed on the positive output terminal of the battery.
This device shall:

(a) be rated for DC operation;
(b) have a voltage rating of at least 1.25 x the nominal battery voltage; and
(c) have an interrupt rating that is higher than the batteries’ rated short-circuit current.
The overcurrent protective device shall be installed so that the cable between the battery terminal
and protective device is kept as short as practicable.
NOTE: when determining the location of the protective device, any gasses emitted by the battery need to be taken
into consideration – see section 13.7 in this Code of Practice.
13.4 Battery isolation

An isolator shall be installed on the output terminals of the battery. This device shall:
(a) interrupt both positive and negative cables;

(b) be rated for DC operation;

(c) have a voltage rating of at least 1.25 x the nominal battery voltage; and
(d) have an interrupt rating that is higher than the batteries rated short-circuit current.
The isolator shall be installed so that the cable between the battery terminals and isolator is kept
as short as practicable.

The battery main overcurrent protective device can also provide the means of isolation, providing it
is rated as an isolation device and meets the requirements of the battery isolator as listed above.
13.5 PV array/string overcurrent protection

As a battery has the capacity to deliver large fault currents, the addition of a battery to a grid-
connected PV system significantly alters the prospective fault currents that the system has to be
designed to handle.
Where a battery is coupled on the DC side of the PV system, the design and specification of PV
array, sub-array or string over-current protection shall consider potential fault currents from both
the PV array and the battery.
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DC system design and the specification of over-current protection on the DC side is covered in
Section 5 of this Code of Practice. Adding a battery on the DC side will alter these considerations.
Where a battery is coupled on the DC side of the PV system and there is the potential for fault
currents to flow from the battery into the DC side of the system:
(a) String overcurrent protective devices shall be installed to protect the PV modules where:
• I MOD_MAX_OCPR < I B or other upstream device
Where I B = rating of the main battery overcurrent protective device
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(b) Overcurrent protective devices shall be installed to protect a circuit where the rating of any

part of that circuit (cables, connectors, isolators etc) is less than I B or other upstream device.
In a simple system, the main battery over-current protective device may be the only device to
interrupt fault currents flowing from the battery. However, in more complex systems, additional
protective devices may be installed between the battery and the circuit under consideration. In
such cases, the device with the lowest interrupt rating is used in the above considerations.
13.6 DC cables and component ratings

Where a battery is coupled on the DC side of the PV system and there is the potential for fault
currents to flow from the battery into the DC side of the system, all parts of that circuit (cables,
connectors, isolators etc) shall have a current rating greater than I B or other upstream device.
NOTE: as detailed in the previous section, in a simple system the main battery over-current protective device may be
the only device to interrupt fault currents flowing from the battery. However, in more complex systems, additional
over-current protective devices may be installed between the battery and the circuit under consideration. In such
cases the device with the lowest interrupt rating is used in calculations.
Where a battery is coupled on the DC side of the PV system, all parts of that circuit (cables,
connectors, isolators etc) shall have a voltage rating of at least 1.25 x the nominal battery voltage
or the maximum open-circuit array voltage (as calculated in Section 5.1) - whichever is the greater.
NOTE: on opening the battery isolator (or should the overcurrent protective device trip), the DC system voltage will
rise to the array open-circuit voltage.

13.7 Battery installation

While the hazard varies depending on the type of battery, they typically contain hazardous
chemicals that can be highly corrosive, poisonous, burn skin and seriously damage eyes.
Charging a battery may also result in the production of gasses such as hydrogen and oxygen that
can result in an ignition and explosion risk. Charging of a lead-acid battery produces hydrogen,

which, being lighter than air, will gather in the upper part of a battery enclosure/room. A
concentration of more than 4% hydrogen creates an explosion hazard.
The gases emitted during charging may also contain a mist of the chemicals within, such as
sulphuric acid, which can be a hazard to breathing and to eyes.
A large amount of energy can be stored within a battery, making the accidental short circuiting of
the battery terminals a particular hazard (for example, from a necklace or uninsulated spanner).
This can result in large fault currents with the risk of burns and explosion.
The following general measures shall be observed where a battery is installed:
(a) the battery shall be installed in a location with access restricted to authorised personnel.
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(b) battery enclosures/rooms shall be provided with sufficient ventilation.
(c) the battery terminals shall be protected to prevent accidental short-circuiting.
(d) devices that could form a spark, such as over-current protective devices and isolators, shall be
located outside battery enclosures and in a suitably ventilated zone away from areas where
there may be a build-up of explosive gasses.
(e) battery enclosures and containment shall be suitably corrosion resistant.

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(f) any electrical cable, connectors, electronic devices or other components within a battery
enclosure shall be suitably corrosion resistant. Otherwise, these parts shall be located outside
the battery enclosures and in a suitably ventilated zone.
(g) appropriate insulation and/or thermal control shall be provided.
Detailed information on the safe installation of batteries is contained in BS EN 50272 Safety

requirements for secondary batteries and battery installations.
NOTE 1: the ventilation required for a battery will depend on the battery type and the enclosure/room characteristics.
In general, this will require vents at low and high levels – the sizing of these vents and a procedure for calculating
ventilation requirements is contained within BS EN 50272.
NOTE 2: the corrosion resistance required will vary depending upon the battery chemistry.
NOTE 3: battery efficiency can be significantly affected by operating temperature. Freezing may cause failure of
batteries. High temperatures can result in thermal runaway.
Where appropriate, personal protective equipment (PPE) should be located within a battery room.
The provision of eye wash and a neutralising agent may also be appropriate.
Appropriate safety signs shall be fixed on a battery enclosure.
The appropriate signs will depend on the battery type. For example, for a lead acid battery, the
following sign would be appropriate:


Taken from web … to re-draw !
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13.8 Isolation and switching for off-grid operation

Where a system is designed to operate independently of the grid (‘islanded’), the system design
needs to ensure that there is suitable isolation between the grid and the system during islanded
operation and that a suitable earthing arrangement is maintained throughout.
Where a system is design to operate in islanded mode an isolator shall be installed that:

(a) isolates the grid before islanded operation can commence;
(b) isolates all phases and neutral; and
(c) is interlocked with the neutral-earth switch (see below).
Where a system is design to operate in islanded mode, a neutral-earth switch shall be installed
that forms a neutral-to-earth bond for the duration of the islanding operation only.
A neutral-to-earth bond is provided on the supply to an installation in order to facilitate proper

operation of over-current protective devices and to ensure automatic disconnection of supply
(ADS). Multiple earth-to-neutral bonds will compromise the correct function of ADS. When the
grid supply is isolated to enable islanding operation, the neutral-to-earth bond on the supply is
lost – hence the requirement to provide a temporary bond for the duration of the islanding
operation.
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Taken from G59 … to re-draw
Do we show the neutral switch ??
Additional information on connection arrangements for islanded generation can be found in

Engineering Recommendation G59.

14 Installation
The following flowchart describes the typical phases for a small commercial or domestic PV system:
Outline design approved by client


Structural survey
Detailed mechanical & structural design (if required)
Planning application
Design and planning phase
Planning requirements assessed (if required)
YES G59 application

System >16A per phase
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Installation of multiple systems in close YES G83 multiple site
geographical proximity? application
Component ratings &

Detailed electrical design
compatibility checked
Risk assessment and method statement

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CDM applied if relevant

prepared

Installation phase
Design modifications
Installation – site work approved, if required
G59 witness testing

Commissioning
(if required)
MCS / ROOFIT / Building control

submissions
Handover to client
14.1 Planning permission
14.1.1 Installation on buildings

In many cases, the installation of a PV array to a building is likely to be considered 'permitted

development'. To fall within permitted development, an array should generally:
(a) be sited, so far as is practicable, to minimise the effect on the external appearance of the
building and the amenity of the area;
(b) not protrude above the roof ridge;
(c) not stand more than 200mm above the roof slope or wall surface; and

(d) not be installed on a building that is within the grounds of a listed building or a site designated
as a scheduled monument.
In all cases, it recommended that the local planning authority be consulted before an installation
proceeds, particularly for sites in a conservation area or a World Heritage Site.
14.1.2 Ground-mounted installation: domestic properties

The installation of a PV array on domestic land is also likely to be considered 'permitted
development', providing that:
(a) the array is sited, so far as is practicable, to minimise the effect on the amenity of the area and
at least 5m from the boundary of the property;
(b) no part of the array should be higher than 4m above ground level;
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(c) the size of the array should be no more than 9m² or 3m across; and
(d) not be in the curtilage of a listed building or a site designated as a scheduled monument.
Only the first array will be permitted development – additional ground mounted arrays will require
planning permission.
In all cases, it recommended that the local planning authority be consulted before an installation
proceeds, particularly for sites in a conservation area or a World Heritage Site.
14.1.3 Large-scale field arrays

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It is recommended that consultation with the Local Planning Authority and local community occurs
at an early stage of any large-scale PV project.

The installation of larger ground-mounted solar PV projects (over 50kWp) and installations not
directly linked to domestic premises should in general:
(a) utilise previously developed land, brownfield land, contaminated land or industrial land;
(b) where agricultural land is used, use land preferably classified as 3b, 4, and 5 (avoiding the use
of ‘Best and Most Versatile’ cropland where possible);
(c) aim to avoid affecting the visual aspect of landscapes and maintain the natural beauty of the
landscape;
(d) be installed on predominantly flat land;
(e) be well screened by hedges, tree lines etc; and

(f) cause undue impact to nearby domestic properties or roads.

The planning process that a large-scale project will require is dictated by the site in question, but
will typically require some or all of the following:
(a) planning application;
(b) ecology/environmental impact assessment;
(c) location plans and elevations;
(d) design and access statements;

(e) information on any buildings/ancillary structures or works;
(f) fencing specification and details;
(g) grid-connection details;
(h) a landscape/visual assessment (e.g. areas of outstanding natural beauty (AONBs), etc);
(i) impact assessment on agricultural land (where applicable);
(j) flood risk assessment; and
(k) archaeology.
More information can be found in the BRE NSC publication: Planning guidance for the development
of large scale ground mounted solar PV systems.
14.2 Building control
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The building regulations apply to most building works including the installation of a PV system.
In all cases the installation of a PV system on a building shall be notified to the Local Area Building
Control.
NOTE: installations can be notified either by a direct submission (prior to works) and subsequent inspection by a
building control officer or via a competent person scheme (such as those operated by some MCS certification bodies).
While all parts of the building regulations are relevant, of particular note to a PV system installed
on buildings are:
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(a) structural (Part A - England & Wales; Section 1 – Scotland);

(b) electrical safety (Part P - England & Wales; Section 4 – Scotland); and
(c) fire safety (Part B - England & Wales; Section 2 – Scotland).
It is important to note that Building Regulations differ between Scotland and England and Wales

15 Health and safety
15.1 Introduction
The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 (the ‘Act’) provides the basis for health and safety law in
Britain. The Act sets out the duties that employers and employees have towards each other and to
members of the public. The Act requires stakeholders to examine the risks and take sensible

measures to tackle them.
The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 provides more explicit details on
the measures required to assess the risks. The regulations require companies to make a suitable
and sufficient assessment of the risks to the health and safety of its employees while at work. The
risk to persons not in their employment (arising out of, or in connection with, the conduct of the
company’s business) also needs to be assessed.
The regulations require employers to carry out a risk assessment. Following this, an employer
needs to implement the health and safety measures that were identified by the risk assessment.
Competent people also need to be identified to implement the measures. Training and
information needs to be provided for employees and a methodology of working with other people
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within the same workplace arranged. Finally, emergency procedures need to be established in
case something goes wrong.
The management of health and safety requires many other regulations and guidance to be
considered. It also requires a system of monitoring, auditing and improvement to ensure
arrangements are constantly fit for purpose and are evolving to meet changing circumstances.
However, this Code of Practice does not address in any detail these systems or procedures as they
are covered in greater detail from other sources.
NOTE: the CITB-Construction Skills publication: “Solar panel installation - What you need to know to work safely”
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provides a good resource for installers of domestic PV systems.


15.2 Construction (design and management) regulations

The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2007 (CDM) apply to any project that lasts
longer than 30 days or involves more than 500 person days of construction work. CDM places legal
duties on virtually everyone involved in a project and defines a number of key roles:
CDM duty holder Duties


Appoint CDM coordinator and principal contractor.
Check competences. Ensure sufficient resources & welfare facilities.
Client
Ensure suitable management arrangements.
Provide pre-construction information.
Coordinate health and safety aspects of design phase and liaise with all parties.
CDM co-ordinator Create health and safety file and keep this updated.
Advise and assist the client. Notify HSE.
Remove or reduce hazards and risks.
Designer
Provide information on the residual risks.
Manage and run the construction phase (plan, manage, monitor).
Write and implement the construction phase plan. Disseminate the plan.
Principal contractor
Induct and consult with workers. Ensure sufficient competence & training.
Ensure adequate welfare facilities provided throughout.
Plan, manage and monitor their own work.
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Contractors Ensure workers have sufficient information, competence and training.
Liaise and cooperate with the principle contactor.
Ensure their own competence.
Workers
Report any hazards and cooperate with others to ensure health and safety.
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15.3 Electricity at Work Regulations

Electricity is a significant hazard: it can kill by electrical shock and can result in fire or explosions.
In a PV system there is a potential hazard on both the DC and AC sides. On the DC side, voltages
are typically up to 500VDC and for larger systems can be in the 500-1000VDC range. On the AC
side, both LV and HV voltages can be encountered.

The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 places duties on all those involved with electrical work
and those who operate or maintain electrical systems. The regulations describe duty holders and
specifies their relevant responsibilities. PV installation companies, owners and operators can all
be duty holders and have responsibilities under the Electricity at Work Regulations, they may also
have duties under the Electric it y Safety, Quality and continuity Regulations, 2002 (as amended).
Duty holders are accountable for ensuring control; they are also responsible for the safe
management, design, installation, operation and maintenance of the electrical systems. To ensure
safe operation and to minimise the risk of injury, management systems will need to include:
(a) policies and procedures that cover the installation, commissioning, operation, maintenance
and removal of the equipment;
(b) definitions of responsibilities and training requirements;
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(c) systems to audit the effectiveness of procedures; and
(d) appropriate record systems.
In establishing and applying suitable safety policies and procedures, sufficient technical expertise
may not be available in-house to carry out a risk assessment and to decide on the appropriate
precautions. In such cases, advice from suitably competent organisations should be sought. This
may include advice from electricity distribution companies, switchgear manufacturers or from
specialist HV/LV contractors or consultants.
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The following table summarises the basic legal requirements applicable to carrying out work on

electrical systems:
• The employer must provide suitable safe systems of work. Health & Safety at Work Act
• The employee must comply with such safe systems of work. 1974 - Sections 2 and 7
Electricity at Work
• The work must be carried out in such a way as to avoid danger.
Regulations 1989
• Suitable PPE and equipment shall be provided and used.
Regs 4(3) & 4(4)
Isolated (dead) working will be the normal method of working on

electrical equipment.
Where it is not possible to isolate or there is a need to work live: Electricity at Work
(a) the work will be carried out in accordance with a risk assessed safe Regulations 1989
method or procedure; Regs 12, 13, 14 & 16
(b) persons undertaking this work will be trained and competent to carry
out the work (or be under suitable supervision); and
(c) correct tools, equipment and PPE will be available and used.

15.4 Hazard inventory
A risk assessment is a key step in ensuring effective health and safety practices. Health and safety
regulations require employers to carry out a risk assessment prior to commencing work; where an
employer has five or more employees, the employer needs to record the significant findings of this
risk assessment. A five-step approach is usually followed:

(a) Step 1: identify the hazards.
(b) Step 2: identify who could be harmed and how this may occur.
(c) Step 3: evaluate the risks and identify the control measures that need to be put into place.
(d) Step 4: record and implement the findings.
(e) Step 5: review the assessment. Update if necessary.
NOTE: the HSE publication INDG163 Five steps to risk assessment provides a good resource for employers assessing
health and safety risks in the workplace.
The following table provides a summary of some of the main hazards that may be encountered
during the construction, maintenance and operation of a solar PV system. Specific sites or
installation methods may incur additional hazards.
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Hazard Notes
PV modules: general
PV modules produce electricity during daylight and

Live working is required to interconnect the array
cannot be ‘turned-off’.
Affects the design of over-current protection
systems (may be insufficient fault current to
PV modules are current-limiting devices – the short-
operate over-current protection devices).
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circuit current is not much more than the operating

current.

Faults may remain undetected for a while. Minor
faults can develop into a fire hazard.
Manual handling difficulties – due to the size of the
Modules are often installed on roofs, which can
module and/or the effects of wind catching the
often be a windy/ gusty environment.
module.
Work at height
Installation will need suitable scaffolding or similar
equipment. Protection to extend beyond work
Fall from roof edges.
area and/or needs to include suitable edge
protection.
Requires fragile areas barricaded or covered

Fall through fragile roof covering.
and/or catch nets (or equivalent) beneath.
Fall while gaining access to the roof. Requires suitable access provisions.
Fall through ceilings (from within roof voids). Requires suitable provisions.
Safe lifting procedures. Suitable edge protection
Dropped tools or materials. (toe boards, debris netting).
Suitable barricades/access routes beneath.
Work at height can be more susceptible to the
Adverse weather conditions.
effects of weather.
A) Electricity
Cables are always live and will be present across
Electric shock/burn from PV cables during
the work area. Cables may be susceptible to
construction.
damage during construction activities.
PV cables need to be clearly labelled and installed
Electric shock/burn from PV cables – subsequently.
in suitable containment/locations.
Electric shock/burn at junction/combiner boxes. Pre-assembly of combiner boxes and connecting
cables prior to installing the array will minimise

risk. Use of plug/socket connectors.
Safe working practices.
Requires standard AC working
AC shock.
practices/considerations.
Miscellaneous

Due to the size of modules, often need to allow for
Manual handling – modules.
two people (to prevent over-reaching etc).
Inverters are usually very heavy. Many inverters
are wall mounted.
Manual handling – inverters.
Access for maintenance and replacement needs to
be considered during design phase.
Module frames may present particular challenges
Manual handling – other parts.
due to the lengths of components.
Plant may be required for movement of materials
Plant.
or during phase of construction (groundworks etc).
Excavations and ground works. Standard considerations – buried services etc.
Asbestos may be present in the roof cladding - for
example, in roofing sheets or artificial slates.
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Asbestos. Asbestos may also be present in other parts of the
building structure that is being disturbed during
installation works.
PV installation works are frequently carried out in
rd public areas, work environments or homes.
3 parties.
Suitable barricades and signs need to be provided.
15.5 Safety management of solar farm installations

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The responsibility for safety on solar installations can be broadly split into three phases:

(a) Design construction and commissioning phase – responsibility rests with the principal
contractor.
(b) commercial operation – responsibility rests with the owner/operator.
(c) decommissioning – responsibility with the de-commissioning contractor.
15.5.1 Principal contractor responsibilities

The principal contractor responsible for the design, construction and commissioning of a solar
farm installation is required to comply with safety legislation laid down by the Health and Safety at
Work Act 1974. The basic principle will be to ensure that all persons undertaking work on
construction sites under his/her control will do so in accordance with risk-assessed safe systems of
work. This requirement also applies to sub-contractors or others engaged in any work activity that
is sanctioned, coordinated or directed by the principal contractor.
When appointing sub-contractors, the principal contractor must ensure that such sub-contractors
are competent to carry out the work, have legally compliant safe systems of work and will deploy
competent personnel who will work in accordance with such safe systems of work.
The principal contractor is also responsible for ensuring that any safety issues relating to the
operational interface between the solar electrical system and the Network Operator’s system to
which the installation will ultimately be connected, are appropriately managed.

15.5.2 Solar farm installation: owner/operator responsibilities

Once an installation has been ‘handed-over’ by the principal contractor and the owner/operator
has operational control of the installation, the owner/operator has responsibility for ensuring that
the installation’s HV and LV systems are operated, worked upon and maintained in accordance
with legally compliant safe systems of work. Guidance on these matters is available in the HSE
publication HSG85 Electricity at work, Safe working practices.

As previously stated, the employment of contractors to carry out electrical work does not allow
owners/operators of solar farm installations to escape responsibility for the effective control and
operation of electrical systems (Regulation 3 of the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989).
Where the owner/operator contracts out the responsibility for the operation, inspection, repair
and maintenance of the HV and LV electrical systems of a solar installation, it is incumbent upon
the owner/occupier to ensure that the contractor has the appropriate safety management
systems, legally compliant risk-assessed safe systems of work, and personnel who are trained and
competent to carry the operations or work.
Irrespective of whether the responsibility for the operation, repair and maintenance functions is
contracted out to a third party, the owner/operator is required to establish an operating policy
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and procedures to ensure that all operations and work activities are carried out in accordance with
current safety legislation. This policy should include the criteria for the selection and appointment
of suitable contractors, who are competent to operate and work at the various voltage levels and
system equipment and are able to demonstrate their competence. Evidence of competence should
include:
(a) the company’s safety management system that sets out the policy and procedures for
operating/working safely at the various voltage levels and equipment;
(b) suitable electrical safety rules and procedures for working on the systems covered within the
contract;
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(c) certificated evidence of the competence of personnel who will undertake operations and work

on the electrical installation, including records of training and assessments; and
(d) documented evidence of the monitoring and auditing process undertaken by the contractor to
meet the requirements of the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999.
15.5.3 Formal written policy and procedures

The provision of effective procedures and their formalising into written instructions is essential for
ensuring a safe system of working where this involves work on conductors or equipment of both
high voltage and low voltage systems.
High voltage systems associated with large utility connected solar farms vary considerably in size
and complexity and will require procedures tailored to the site.
15.5.4 Access to substations/switch-rooms

Access to substations or switch-rooms should be strictly controlled by the network operator
and/or the company that has operational and maintenance responsibility.
Access to live substations or switch-rooms should be restricted to persons who are classified as
competent persons (as defined in Regulation 16 of the Electricity at Work Regulations) or are
personally supervised by a Competent Person.
15.5.5 Categories of persons with specific responsibilities under a safety management system

For the effective management and application of electrical safety management systems, the
following categories of persons with specific responsibilities are usually applicable:
i. Designated person
An individual appointed by an organisation (a Board member or a person with responsibilities to
the Board) who has overall authority and responsibility for the high-voltage and low-voltage
electricity systems within the installation and who has a duty under the Health and Safety at Work

Act 1974 to prepare and issue a general policy statement on health and safety at work, including
the organisation and arrangements for carrying out that policy (this person should not be the
Authorising Engineer).
ii. Duty holder

A person on whom the Health and Safety at Work Act etc. 1974 impose a duty in connection with
safety.
iii. Authorising engineer

A person appointed in writing by the designated person to take responsibility for the assessment
and appointment of persons who are authorised under the organisation’s electrical safety
management system.
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iv. Authorised person/senior authorised person
A person appointed in writing by the organisation on the recommendation of the authorising
engineer and who is responsible for the implementation and operation of its electrical safety
management system to make systems safe for work, work on, or the testing of, defined electrical
equipment, including the issue of safety documents (for example, Permit-to-Work).
v. Competent person
A person approved and appointed in writing by the authorising engineer for defined work,
possessing the necessary technical knowledge, skill and experience relevant to the nature of the
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work to be undertaken, who is able to prevent danger or, where appropriate, injury and who is
able to accept a safety document from an authorised person or senior authorised person.


16 System commissioning
The commissioning process for a grid-connected PV system shall include:
(a) inspection and testing of the AC circuits to the requirements of BS 7671;

(b) the commissioning procedures required by the DNO under Engineering Recommendations G83/G59 –
as relevant;

(c) HV system commissioning; and
(d) inspection and testing of the remaining parts of the system in accordance with BS EN 62446.
The inspection and testing of the AC circuit(s) feeding a PV system can be performed in exactly the same
manner that any other AC circuit is handled. The procedure is described in BS 7671 and supporting
documents, in particular Guidance Note 3 Inspection and Testing.
The commissioning procedures required by the DNO are set out in Engineering Recommendations G83/G59
and are discussed elsewhere in this Code of Practice. HV commissioning will be carried out in close
conjunction with the Network Operator and will depend upon the details of the HV connection and circuits.
The requirements for the inspection and testing of the remainder of the PV system installation are set out
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in BS EN 62446 Grid connected PV systems – minimum requirements for system documentation,
commissioning and inspection. The following tables summarise the requirements within this standard:
BS EN 62446 – Summary of inspection requirements

(a) General check to confirm system complies with relevant standards.
(b) PV Voltage suitable for location.
DC system - general
(c) Components selected and erected to suit location and external influences.
(d) Roof and building penetrations weatherproof.
(a) Verification of protective measures against shock.
DC system – protection
(b) Parts selected and erected so as to minimize the risk of earth faults and
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against shock
short-circuits.

(a) Identification if the inverter has at least simple separation.
DC system – protection (b) Identification of any functional earthing.
against insulation faults (c) Presence of Earth Insulation Resistance detection and alarm system.
(d) Presence of Earth Residual Current Monitoring detection and alarm system.
(a) I MOD_MAX_OCPR > possible reverse current.
DC system – protection (b) String cables sized appropriately for prospective fault currents.
against overcurrent (c) String/array over-current protective devices correctly specified and
installed.
(a) Check of any functional earth connections.
DC system – earthing &
(b) Check functional earth fault interrupters are fitted (where required).
bonding
(c) Check of any earthing and/or equipotential bonding.
(a) Verify wiring loops minimised.
DC system – lightning &
(b) Measures in place to protect long cables.
overvoltage
(c) SPDs, where fitted, suitably selected and erected.
(a) All DC components rated for DC and for voltage and current maxima.
(b) Wiring selected and erected to suit external influences (wind, UV etc).
DC system – equipment
(c) String/array isolation and disconnection devices correctly specified and
selection & erection
located.
(d) Plug and sockets are of same type and correctly mated.
(a) Means of isolating inverter provided on AC side.
(b) Isolators correctly connected.
AC system
(c) Inverter parameters correctly specified.
(d) RCDs correctly selected and installed (where fitted).
Labelling (a) All parts correctly labelled and suitably durable.
(b) Schematics and other signs suitably displayed.
BS EN 62446 – Summary of minimum test requirements
AC tests Testing of AC circuits to the requirements of BS 7671.


Continuity of earthing (a) Test to ensure the continuity of earthing and/or equipotential
and/or equipotential bonding conductors (if fitted).
bonding conductors (b) Connection to main earthing terminal verified.
Polarity test Test to ensure that all strings and arrays are correctly marked and connected.
Test to ensure that all strings are correctly connected within a combiner box (if
Combiner box test
fitted).
String open circuit Test to ensure that module strings are correctly installed and that the right
voltage test number of modules are connected within a string.
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String circuit current (a) Test to ensure that there are no major faults within a string.
test (b) Short circuit and operational test options presented.
(a) Tests to ensure switchgear operates correctly.

functional tests
(b) Tests to ensure inverters operating correctly.
Insulation resistance
Test of the insulation resistance of PV string and array circuits.
test
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Inspection should be performed prior to testing and normally prior to energizing the installation.
Testing should generally be performed in the sequence indicated. In the event of any test
indicating a fault, once the fault has been corrected, preceding tests that may have been
influenced by the fault should be repeated. Instructions for how to perform the tests are provided
in BS EN 62446.
In addition to the minimum sequence of tests shown in the table above, BS EN 62446 also
describes other tests that can be performed in some circumstances. These tests are more
appropriate for larger systems or for fault finding. These tests are outlined in the table below:
BS EN 62446 – Summary of additional tests
(a) Will provide all key string parameters (Voc, Isc, Vmpp, Impp, Pmax).
IV curve test
(b) Can help identify module/array defects or shading issues.
(a) Performed to detect abnormal module temperature variations and

IR inspection help identify problems such as bypass diode failures, hot spots, etc.
(b) Can also be performed on junction boxes and switchgear.
A test to evaluate functionally grounded systems using a high impedance

Voltage to ground
connection.

Blocking diode test Test to verify blocking diodes (if fitted).
Wet insulation A variation on the standard insulation resistance test – typically only used
resistance test during fault-finding exercises.

Shade evaluation Recording shade conditions at date of installation.
Editor’s Note: NB: these tests are taken from the current CDV of IEC62446 – not the one currently
in circulation as BS EN 62446. Depending on timings – we may need to remove the BE EN 62446
reference at the head of this table. To complete following DPC.
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17 Handover and documentation
17.1 System handover

Handover describes the process, on completion of installation and commissioning, of passing suitable
information and instructions to the customer of the solar PV plant. The handover process should include:
(a) identifying parts of the installation and explaining their function;


(b) identifying health and safety considerations (in operation and maintenance stages);
(c) demonstrating ‘normal’ operation and explaining how to spot faults/poor performance;
(d) explaining any maintenance requirements and procedures;
(e) handing over the system manuals, drawings, test certificates and other associated paperwork; and
(f) answering client questions.
Handover procedures can vary significantly and need to be tailored to the site in question.
17.2 System documentation

Providing sufficient documentation on a completed solar PV system is important. The information in the
document pack should ensure that key system data is readily available to the customer, inspector or
maintenance engineer. Documentation requirements are described in BS EN 62446 Grid connected PV
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systems – minimum requirements for system documentation, commissioning and inspection.
System documentation shall include, as a minimum, those requirements as set out in BS EN 62446.
The following tables summarise the documentation typically provided on completion of a solar PV system:
PV system documentation – basic data
System designer Name, address and contact details.

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System installer Name, address and contact details.

(a) Power rating of array and inverters.
(b) Make, model and quantity of key components (modules, inverters etc).
Basic system information
(c) Installation and commissioning dates.
(d) Customer and site details.
Datasheets Module and inverter datasheets.
Test & commissioning data
PV array Array test results and certificates (BS EN 62446).

AC system AC circuit test results and certificates (BS 7671).
(a) Test results and certificates.

G83/G59 protection
(b) Settings.
HV systems Commissioning data, test and results.

PV array – documentation scope
(a) Wiring diagrams of all parts of the DC system.

Wiring diagrams
(b) Identify which strings/array connect to which inverter(s).
(a) Information on string configurations (module type and quantities).


(b) String cable details.
PV string (c) Over-current protection details (including location and rating).
NOTE: string information may be provided via the wiring diagram.
(a) Information on array configuration (string type and quantities).

(b) Array cable details.
Array (and sub-arrays) (c) Combiner box and isolator details (including location and rating).
(d) Overcurrent protection details (including location and rating).
NOTE: array information may be provided via the wiring diagram.
(a) Details of earth and bonding conductors.

Earthing and overvoltage
(b) Details of any connections to a LPS.
protection
(c) Details of any SPDs.
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(a) Physical layout of array and string connections.
(b) Plan of any buried or hidden PV array cables.
Physical layout NOTE: this is provided for subsequent fault finding and is particularly important on
larger systems (particularly those mounted on buildings where access to the rear of
modules is difficult).
Mechanical Details of the PV mounting system.

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AC system – documentation scope

(a) Wiring diagrams of all parts of the AC system.
Wiring diagrams
(b) Identify which strings/array connect to which inverter(s).
(a) AC isolators – including location and rating.

AC system (b) Over-current protect – including location and rating.
(c) RCDs – including location and rating.
(a) Details of earthing and bonding system and conductors.

Earthing and overvoltage
(b) Details of any connections to an LPS.
protection
(c) Details of any SPDs.
(a) Type and location.

G59 protection
(b) Settings.
(a) Specifications of transformers and switchgear.
HV systems (b) Cable details and locations.
(c) Earthing arrangements.

Operation & maintenance
(a) Inverter.
Manuals (b) PV modules.
(c) Data-loggers/displays.

Warranty Warranty start date, duration and details.
(a) How to verify ‘normal’ operation.

Normal operation
(b) Explanation of any alarm/error messaging systems.
Shutdown Emergency isolation/shutdown procedures
(a) Fault finding procedure.

Fault-finding
(b) Service/emergency contact numbers.
(a) Periodic maintenance/cleaning requirements.

Maintenance (b) Service/inspection intervals.
(c) Information on any maintenance contracts.
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18 Operation and maintenance
Information on the operation and maintenance requirements of the solar PV system should be
provided in the handover pack provided on completion of the system (see preceding section).
During regular operation, little or nothing should be required to enable normal system operation.
However, maintenance or servicing will typically be triggered by:

(a) an obvious fault that has developed;
(b) an alarm or error message that has been triggered;
(c) concern from a customer about erratic or poor system behaviour;
(d) a scheduled service interval;
(e) a requirement for periodic testing; or
(f) a change in system ownership.
18.1 Scheduled maintenance

Scheduled maintenance will depend on the system in question and any scheduled maintenance
requirements of its constituent parts. Typical scheduled maintenance tasks include:
Draft for Comment

(a) cleaning of inverter fans and ventilation systems;
(b) array cleaning (typically only common on ground-mounted systems);
(c) cleaning of irradiance sensors (where monitoring systems are fitted);
(d) checking battery fluid levels (battery systems only); and
(e) greasing of bearings etc (tracking systems only).
Scheduled maintenance may be linked to service contacts, warranty conditions or performance

guarantees.
18.2 Periodic verification

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Periodic verification is scheduled to ensure that the solar PV system remains in a satisfactory
operational condition. The inspection and test regime that comprises periodic verification is
typically the same or similar to that utilised during initial commissioning.
The interval between periodic verifications may be specified by the client, by the installation
company or linked to service contacts, warranty conditions or performance guarantees.
For installations on buildings, as a general rule, the interval between verifications should be no
longer than that required by the AC system the solar PV system is connected to.
18.3 Regular inspections

The purpose of a regular inspection is to ensure that the system is operating normally. It may be
performed by the system owner or by a PV specialist. Regular inspections may include
maintenance tasks and some of the test procedures used in a full periodic verification.
All sites, no matter the scale, will benefit from an inspection regime. Faults do occasionally
develop in even the best installed and specified PV systems. Missing a fault, or any delay in
identifying a fault, can result in significant loss of income from the PV system.
NOTE: the most obvious fault is usually an inverter failure – if a system has only one inverter this can be seen by a
complete drop in system output. Most customers spot such problems pretty quickly; however, even complete failures
may go unnoticed for fairly long periods of time. This can be exacerbated by a lack of system monitoring/metering, or
due to overly complicated or poorly sited displays.

Poor system performance is sometimes difficult to spot and gets more difficult on larger systems
with multiple strings – where the loss of just one string can easily be missed. String-level
monitoring can detect such faults, but is not installed on all systems.
Sites that typically opt for a regular inspection from a PV specialist include: large systems; systems
on public buildings; and systems with multiple strings that have no string level monitoring.

NOTE: for systems with multiple strings that have no string-level monitoring, part of the regular inspection routine
would typically include an electrical test on each individual string to ensure that all strings remain operational.
18.4 The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive

The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) is an EU directive that regulates
the disposal of electrical and electronic equipment. PV modules were introduced in the 2012
revision of the WEEE directive, which was subsequently adopted into UK law.
Under WEEE, PV companies have to ensure the recycling of damaged or end-of-life modules.
WEEE compliance can be ensured by participation in a service such as that offered by PV CYCLE
(www.pvcycle.org.uk).
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Annexes
Annex A - Checklist for solar PV system design and installation (based on flowchart/key
recommendations)
Editor’s Note: To complete following DPC.
Annex B – References, national and international regulations and standards


• BS7671
• BS EN 62446
• Eurocode 1: Actions on structures – BS EN 1991
• Eurocode – Basis of structural design, BS EN 1990
Annex C – Site survey form

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Annex D – System labels
This section illustrates typical system labels (as described elsewhere in the text). Labels need to
be clear and constructed to remain legible and affixed for the lifetime of the system.

Draft for Comment
Draft for Comment



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Code of Practice for Grid-connected

COPYRIGHT © The IET

Version 1.6 :: 15/09/2014

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Text in green: Editor’s Notes / queries

Most diagrams will be redrawn prior to publication

NOT FOR COMMERCIAL USE OR REPRODUCTION

Should you require an accessible electronic format of these documents,

Solar PV CoP :: v1.6 :: Page 1 of 138

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3 Solar PV array and module operating characteristics and behaviour ...................................... 15

NOT FOR COMMERCIAL USE OR REPRODUCTION

4 System performance ............................................................................................................... 21

5.4 PV array overcurrent protection ....................................................................................... 31

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5.10 PV array functional earthing ............................................................................................ 39

NOT FOR COMMERCIAL USE OR REPRODUCTION

6.4 Data or control circuits .................................................................................................... 47

Solar PV CoP :: v1.6 :: Page 3 of 138

8.2 General BS 7671 requirements ....................................................................................... 57

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10.5.2 Switchgear padlocking ............................................................................................. 73

NOT FOR COMMERCIAL USE OR REPRODUCTION

10.7 Earthing arrangements .................................................................................................... 78

Solar PV CoP :: v1.6 :: Page 4 of 138

11.2.2 Snow loads .............................................................................................................. 91

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12.1.2 Generation and export monitoring .......................................................................... 108

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12.6 Displays ........................................................................................................................ 110

Solar PV CoP :: v1.6 :: Page 5 of 138

14.2 Building control ............................................................................................................. 121

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Solar PV CoP :: v1.6 :: Page 6 of 138

1.1 Scope and purpose

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NOT FOR COMMERCIAL USE OR REPRODUCTION

1.2 Document structure

• Text in blue indicates mandatory and/or broadly recognised requirements (‘shall’).

1.3 Normative references and definitions

Editor’s Note: Left blank at this stage; to complete following DPC.

Solar PV CoP :: v1.6 :: Page 7 of 138

2 Overview of solar PV systems, components and architectures

2.1 Solar PV Modules

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2.1.2 PV roof tiles

NOT FOR COMMERCIAL USE OR REPRODUCTION

2.1.3 Bespoke building integrated PV (BBIPV)

• a glass rear sheet: this allows the module to be transparent.

Solar PV CoP :: v1.6 :: Page 8 of 138