4

NOISE CONTROL ENGINEERING

4.1 CONCEPTS AND OPTIONS

Much industrial noise can be controlled through simple solutions. It is important, however, that
all individuals administering abatement projects have a good understanding of the principles of
noise control and proper use of acoustical materials. Industrial hygienists, safety professionals,
facility engineers, and others can make significant progress in reducing equipment noise levels
and worker noise exposures by combining their knowledge of acoustics with an understanding of
the manufacturing equipment and/or processes.
Reducing excessive equipment noise can be accomplished by treating the source, the sound
transmission path, the receiver, or any combination of these options. Descriptions of these
control measures follow.

4.2 HIERARCHY OF CONTROLS FOR NOISE

The hierarchy of controls for noise can be summarized as: 1) prevent or contain the escape of the
hazardous workplace agent at its source (engineering controls), 2) control exposure by changing
work schedules to reduce the amount of time any one worker spends in the hazard area
(administrative controls), and 3) control the exposure with barriers between the worker and the
hazard (personal protective equipment). This hierarchy highlights the principle that the best
prevention strategy is to eliminate exposure to hazards that can lead to hearing loss.

4.2.2 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

I. SOURCE TREATMENT

The best long-term solution to noise control is to treat the root cause of the noise problem. For
source treatment to be effective, however, a comprehensive noise-control survey usually needs to
be conducted to clearly identify the source and determine its relative contribution to the area
noise level and worker noise exposure. At least four methods exist for treating the source:
modification, retrofit, substitution, and relocation.

a) Modification
For the most part, industrial noise is caused by mechanical impacts, high-velocity fluid flow,
high-velocity air flow, vibrating surface areas of a machine, and vibrations of the product being
manufactured.

i. Mechanical Impacts
To reduce noise caused by mechanical impacts, the modifications outlined below should be
considered. For any of these options to be practical, however, they must not adversely affect
production:
  Reduce excessive driving forces.
 Reduce or optimize speed.
 Minimize distance between impacting parts.
 Dynamically balance rotating equipment.
 Maintain equipment in good working order.
 Use vibration isolation when applicable.

ii. High-Velocity Fluid Flow

High-velocity fluid flow can often create excessive noise as the transported medium passes
through control valves or simply passes through the piping. Frequently, noise is carried
downstream by the fluid, and/or vibratory energy is transferred to the pipe wall. A
comprehensive acoustical survey can isolate the actual noise source so that the appropriate noise-
control measures can be identified. When deemed practical, some effective modifications for
high velocity fluid-flow noise include:
 Locate control valves in straight runs of pipe.
 Locate all L's and T's at least 10 pipe diameters downstream of a valve.
 Ensure that all pipe cross-section reducers and expanders are at an included angle of 15 to
20 degrees.
 Eliminate sudden changes of direction and influx of one stream into another.
 Limit the fluid-flow velocity to a maximum of 30 feet per second for liquids.
 Maintain laminar flow for liquids (keep the Reynolds Number less than 2,000).
 When vibratory energy is transferred to the pipe wall, use flex connectors and/or
vibration isolation for the piping system and/or acoustical insulation.
 When excessive noise in the fluid cannot be controlled by any of the options above,
install an in-line silencer.

iii. High-Velocity Air Flow (Pneumatic or Compressed Air Systems)

One of the most common noise sources within manufacturing equipment is pneumatic- or
compressed-air-driven devices such as air valves, cylinders, and solenoid valves. High-velocity
air is also a major contributor to worker noise exposure where hand-held air wands or guns are
used to remove debris from work areas. Finally, compressed air nozzles are often used to eject
parts from a machine or conveyor line. All these forms of pneumatic systems generate
undesirable noise as the high-velocity air mixes with the atmospheric air, creating excessive
turbulence and particle separation. It is important to note that the intensity of sound is
proportional to the air flow velocity raised to the 8th power. Therefore, as a source modification,
it is recommended that the air pressure setting for all pneumatic devices be reduced or optimized
to as low a value as practical. As a general guideline, the sound level can be reduced by
approximately 6 dBA for each 30% reduction in air velocity. Additional noise controls for high
velocity air are presented in the retrofit and relocation sections below.

iv. Surface- or Panel-Radiated Noise

Machine casings or panels can be a source of noise when sufficient vibratory energy is
transferred into the metal structure and the panel is an efficient radiator of sound. Typically,
machine casings or large metal surface areas have the potential to radiate sound when at least one
dimension of the panel is longer than one-quarter of the sound's wavelength. Conducting a
thorough noise-control survey will help in identifying the source of vibration and in determining
the existence of any surface-radiated sound. When a machine casing or panel is a primary noise
source, the most effective modification is to reduce its radiation efficiency. The following noise-
control measures should be considered:
 Divide vibrating surface areas into smaller sections.
 Add stiffeners to large unsupported metal panels such as rectangular ducts or large
machine casing sections.
 Add small openings or perforations to large, solid surfaces.
 Use expanded metal, when practical, in place of thin metal panels.
 Add vibration damping material.

b) Retrofit Products and Applications

A variety of commercially available acoustical products and applications can be applied on or
relatively close to noise sources to minimize noise. The Noise and Vibration Control Product
Manufacturer Guide should be consulted for a partial list of the manufacturers of these products
and applications. Specific retrofit materials and/or applications include the following:

i. Vibration Damping
Vibration damping materials are an effective retrofit for controlling resonant tones radiated by
vibrating metal panels or surface areas. In addition, this application can minimize the transfer of
high-frequency sound energy through a panel. The two basic damping applications are free-layer
and constrained layer damping. Free-layer damping, also known as extensional damping,
consists of attaching an energy-dissipating material on one or both sides of a relatively thin metal
panel. As a guide, free-layer damping works best on panels less than ¼-inch thick. For thicker
machine casings or structures, the best application is constrained-layer damping, which consists
of damping material bonded to the metal surface covered by an outer metal constraining layer,
forming a laminated construction. Each application can provide up to 30 dB of noise reduction.
It is important to note that the noise reduction capabilities of the damping application are
essentially equal, regardless of which side it is applied to on a panel or structure. Also, for
practical purposes, it is not necessary to cover 100% of a panel to achieve a significant noise
reduction. For constrained-layer damping, the damping material again should be the same
thickness as the panel; however, the outer metal constraining layer may be half the thickness of
the base layer.
Some common applications for vibration damping include:
 Hopper bins and product chutes
 Resin pellet transfer lines (provided they are metal pipe)
 Thin metal machine casings or panels that radiate resonant tones
 Metal panels being impacted by production parts (e.g., drop bins)
 Metal enclosure walls
 Fan and blower housings
 Gear box casings (constrained-layer damping required for thick substrates)

ii. Vibration Isolation

Most industrial equipment vibrates to some extent. Determining whether or not the vibrating
forces are severe enough to cause a problem is accomplished through a comprehensive noise
and/or vibration survey. As machines operate, they produce either harmonic forces associated
with unbalanced rotating components or impulsive forces attributed to impacts such as punch
presses, forging hammers, and shearing actions. Excessive noise can be one result of the
vibratory energy produced; however, potential damage to the equipment itself, the building,
and/or the product being manufactured is more likely. Quite often, vibration problems are clearly
identified by predictive-maintenance programs that exist within most industrial plants. Assuming
that the root cause or source cannot be effectively modified, the next option for controlling
undesirable vibration is to install vibration isolation. Isolators come in the form of metal springs,
elastomeric mounts, and resilient pads. These devices serve to decouple the relatively "solid"
connection between the source and the recipient of the vibration. As a result, instead of the
vibratory forces being transmitted to other machine components or the building, they are readily
absorbed and dissipated by the isolators.
Some common applications for vibration isolation are:
 Pipe hangers
 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment
 Flex connectors for piping systems
 Rotating machinery mounts and bases for electric motors, compressors, turbines, fans,
pumps, and other similar equipment
 Impact equipment such as punch presses, forging hammers or hammer mills, and
shearing presses
 Enclosure isolation

iii. Silencers
Silencers are devices inserted in the path of a flowing medium, such as a pipeline or duct, to
reduce the downstream sound level. For industrial applications, the medium typically is air.
There are basically four types of silencers: dissipative (absorptive), reactive (reflective),
combination of dissipative and reactive, and pneumatic or compressed air devices. This section
will address the absorptive and reflective type; a separate section will discuss the pneumatic or
compressed air silencers. The type of silencer required will depend on the spectral content of the
noise source and operational conditions of the source itself.

Dissipative silencers use sound-absorbing materials to surround or encompass the primary air
flow passage. These silencers' principal method of sound attenuation is by absorption. The
advantages and disadvantages of dissipative silencers include:

Advantages:
 Very good medium-frequency (500-2,000 Hz) to high-frequency (>2,000 Hz) attenuation.
 Low-to-medium pressure loss.
 They are a standard design.

Disadvantages:
 Poor low-frequency (<500 Hz) attenuation.
 Very sensitive to moisture and particulates in the air stream.
 They can be a difficult retrofit.
Reactive silencers use sound reflections and large impedance changes (area variations) to reduce
noise in the airflow. The principal method of attenuation is through sound reflection, which
cancels and interferes with the oncoming sound waves. The advantages and disadvantages of
reactive silencers include:

Advantages:
 Good low-frequency attenuation.
 Can be designed to minimize pure tones.
 Can be used in high-temperature and corrosive environments.
Disadvantages:
 Usually there is a high cost when fabricated from corrosion-resistant materials.
 Sensitive to particulate and moisture contamination.
 Relatively narrow range of attenuation.
 High-to-medium pressure loss.
 They can be a difficult retrofit.
 They can be expensive because they are typically a custom design.
The combination dissipative and reactive silencer is essentially a reactive silencer with sound
absorption added to provide high-frequency attenuation capabilities. The advantages and
disadvantages are similar to those listed for each type.

Typical applications for silencers include:

 High-pressure gas pressure regulators, air vents, and blow downs
 Internal combustion engines
 Reciprocating compressors
 Centrifugal compressors
 Rotary positive displacement blowers
 Rotary vacuum pumps and separators
 Industrial fans
 HVAC systems
 Totally enclosed, fan-cooled electric motors
 Gas turbines

c) Substitute for the source

Another source treatment involves using alternative equipment or materials that are inherently
quieter yet still meet the production needs. This option is called substitution for the source.
Often, equipment manufacturers have alternative devices that perform the same function at lower
noise levels. These quieter devices typically cost more. However, as they require tighter
tolerances and more precision as they are manufactured. Therefore, when applicable, it will be
necessary for the user to determine if the noise reduction benefit justifies the additional cost. The
supplier's or the manufacturer's website should be consulted to learn if quieter equipment is
available and at what additional cost.
 Gears
 Bearings
 Fans or blowers
 Control valves
  Air compressors
 Conveyors
 Electric motors
 Pumps
There might also be opportunities to replace equipment with different devices or materials. Here,
the user should investigate whether alternative and quieter ways exist to accomplish the task or
intended service. Where practical, examples of source substitution include:
 Using belt drives over gears.
 Using belt conveyors instead of rollers.
 Employing mechanical parts ejectors or pickups over compressed air.
 Substituting quiet air nozzles for open-ended pipe or air lines.
 Replacing omnidirectional fans on electric motors with unidirectional aerodynamic fans.
 Substituting metal or steel parts with materials having high internal-damping properties,
such as wood, nylon, or stiff plastic components.
 Using perforated or meshes panels in place of solid panels.

d) Relocation of the Source

Controlling noise by locating or relocating the source should be considered for the design and
equipment layout of new plant areas and for reconfiguring existing production areas. A simple
rule to follow is to keep machines, processes, and work areas of approximately equal noise level
together, and separate particularly noisy and quiet areas by buffer zones having intermediate
noise levels. In addition, a single noisy machine should not be placed in a relatively quiet,
populated area. Reasonable attention to equipment layout from an acoustical standpoint will not
eliminate all noise problems, but it will help minimize the overall background noise level and
provide more favorable working conditions. Examples.
 Rerouting all pneumatic or compressed air discharge ports from outside to the inside of
machine cabinets.
 Using pipe extensions to relocate pneumatic exhausts away from the immediate area and
into unoccupied spaces.
 Locating blowers (e.g., dust collectors, vacuum pumps) on the building roof or in
routinely unoccupied areas, and using extended ductwork to service
 The process or equipment of concern.
 Conducting reclaim or material scrap grinding in routinely unoccupied areas.

II. PATH TREATMENT

Assuming that all available options for controlling noise at the source have been exhausted, the
next step in the noise-control hierarchy is to determine ways to treat the sound transmission path.
Typical path treatments include adding sound-absorption materials to the room or equipment
surfaces, installing sound transmission loss materials between the source and receiver(s), using
acoustical enclosures or barriers, or any combination of these treatments. A description of each
treatment option follows.

a) Sound- Absorption Materials

Sound-absorption materials are used to reduce the buildup of sound in the reverberant field. The
reverberant field exists at all locations where sound waves reflect off relatively hard surfaces,
such as walls, ceilings, or inside enclosures, and then combine with the sound waves propagating
directly from the noise source. The added effect produces a higher noise level than the level that
would have existed in the absence of any reflecting surfaces.
Using sound absorption on a room's surfaces has both advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
 Provides a significant reduction in the reverberant sound buildup, especially in pre-
existing hard surface spaces.
 Works best in relatively small volume rooms or spaces (<10,000 ft ).
 Requires minimal maintenance after initial installation.
 Can be purchased and installed at a reasonable cost.
 Works best on middle-to high-frequency noise.
Disadvantages:
 Room treatment does nothing to address the root cause of the noise problem.
 Does not reduce noise resulting from direct sound propagation.
 The absorption can deteriorate over several years and may need periodic replacement
(perhaps every 7 to 10 years).
 Rarely does this form of treatment eliminate the need for hearing protection.

b) Sound Transmission Loss (TL) Materials

Sound TL materials are used to block or attenuate noise propagating through a structure, such as
the walls of an enclosure or room. These materials are typically heavy and dense, with poor
sound transmission properties. Common applications include barriers, enclosure panels,
windows, doors, and building materials for room construction.

c) Acoustical Enclosures
The acoustical enclosure is probably the most common path of treatment. Quite often enclosures
are used to address multiple noise sources all at once or when there are no feasible control
measures for the source. However, there are a number of advantages and disadvantages
associated with solid enclosures (no acoustical leaks) that must be considered by the user.
Advantages:
 Can provide 20 to 40 dB of noise reduction.
 Can be installed in a relatively short time frame.
 Can be purchased and installed at a reasonable cost.
 Provides significant noise reduction across a wide range of frequencies.
Disadvantages:
 Worker visual and physical access to equipment is restricted.
 Repeated disassembly and reassembly of the enclosure often results in the creation of
significant sound-flanking paths via small gaps and openings along the panel joints.
 Heat buildup inside the enclosure can be problematic.
 Internal lighting and fire suppression may need to be incorporated into the design.
 The long-term potential for internal surface contamination from oil mist or other airborne
particulates is high.
  The panels become damaged or the internal absorption material simply deteriorates over
time.
 Enclosures require periodic maintenance, such as replacement of seals and gasket
material, to keep the acoustical integrity at a high attenuation value.
d) Acoustical Barriers
An acoustical barrier is a partial partition inserted between the noise source and receiver, which
helps block or shield the receiver from the direct sound transmission path. For a partial barrier to
be effective, it is critical that the receiver be in the direct field, not the reverberant field. Should
the worker's location be primarily in the reverberant field, then the benefit of the barrier will be
negligible. The noise reduction provided by a barrier is a direct function of its relative location to
the source and receiver, its effective dimensions, and the frequency spectrum of the noise source.
The practical limits of barrier attenuation will range from 15 to 20 dB. For additional details on
calculating barrier insertion loss or attenuation, the user should review some of the references,
particularly The Noise Manual (AIHA, 2003; or latest edition). Recommendations for acoustical
barrier design and location to maximize noise reduction capabilities include:
 The barrier should be located as close as practical to either or both the source and
receiver.
 The width of the barrier on either side of the noise source should be at least twice its
height (the wider the better).
 The height should be as tall as practical.
 The sound transmission loss of the panel should be at least 10 dB greater than the
estimated noise reduction of the barrier.
 The barrier should be solid and not contain any gaps or openings.
 The worker(s) being protected by the barrier should work primarily in the direct sound
field.

III. RECEIVER TREATMENT

The final control option involves reducing noise at the receiver. When practical, personnel
shelters deemed can be installed or the receiver can be relocated to a relatively quiet area. It
is important to keep in mind that worker noise exposure is a function of both the magnitude
of noise and duration of exposure. Therefore, receiver treatment works best in areas with
high noise for those job activities that are fairly stationary or confined to a relatively small
area, and where significant time is spent throughout the workday.

a) Worker Enclosures
Enclosures, or personnel shelters, can provide a cost-effective means for lowering worker noise
exposure instead of lowering equipment noise levels. Control booths or rooms are commercially
available from a number of manufacturers. As a minimum requirement, all control rooms should
maintain an interior sound level lower than 80 dBA, which will minimize worker noise exposure.
Should there be a need to communicate with workers inside a control room, however, then a
better design criterion would be to limit sound levels to 60 dBA or less.

b) Reclocation
Finally, if it is not essential for the worker to spend significant time in the immediate vicinity of
noisy equipment, then another option for reducing noise exposure would be to relocate the
worker to a quieter area, when practical. Quite often, equipment operators will spend most of
their time up close to the production or process equipment, when in fact; they could stand back 5
to 7 feet, where the sound level might be a few decibels less. For relocation to work, however, it
is critical that the worker still be able to perform the same job function.
4.2.2 Administrative Controls
Administrative controls, defined as "management involvement, training of workers, and changes
in the work schedule or operations that reduce noise exposure," may also effectively reduce noise
exposure for workers. Examples include operating a noisy machine on the second or third shift
when fewer people are exposed, or shifting a worker to a less noisy job once a hazardous daily
noise dose has been reached.
Generally, administrative controls have limited use in industry because workers are rarely
permitted to shift from one job to another. Be aware that if noise levels are high enough, rotation
could increase the chances of hearing loss in more workers.

I. REDESIGN WORK SCHEDULES

Redesigning workers' work schedules to reduce the amount of time that any one worker is
located in the hazard area. To increase the effectiveness of this control, employers can also
ensure that noise exposure is kept to a minimum in nonproduction areas frequented by workers.
Select quiet areas to use as lunch rooms and work break rooms.

II. MAINTENANCE POLICIES

Maintenance should be scheduled frequently enough to minimize the noise produced by

equipment with parts that are loose or not lubricated. Regular maintenance should allow a piece
of equipment to operate within 2 dB(A) of its lowest potential operating noise level.
Maintenance workers can also be trained to observe and listen for noise sources in equipment.

III. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

Hearing protection devices (HPDs) are considered the last option for controlling noise exposures.
HPDs are generally used during the time it takes to implement engineering or administrative
controls, or when such controls are not feasible. Unless great care is taken in establishing a
hearing conservation program, workers will often receive very little benefit from HPDs. The best
hearing protector, when fitted correctly, is one that is accepted by the worker and worn properly.
If the worker exposure is above 85 dB(A)(8-hour TWA), hearing protection must be made
available, along with the other requirements in the hearing protection program.

a) Earplugs
Earplugs come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and materials and can be reusable and/or disposable.
(Figure 4.1). Earplugs are designed to occlude the ear canal when worn. All hearing protectors
are provided with an NRR. Although earplugs can offer protection against the harmful effects of
impulse noise, and some earplugs are designed specifically to reduce this type of noise, the NRR
is based on the attenuation of continuous noise and may not be an accurate indicator of the
protection attainable against impulse noise. Earplugs are better suited for warm and/or humid
environments, such as foundries, smelters, glass works, and outside construction in the summer.
 b) Earmuffs
Earmuffs are another type of hearing protector (Figure 4.1). They come in a variety of sizes,
shapes, and materials and are relatively easy to dispense, as they are one-size devices designed to
fit nearly all adult users. Earmuffs are designed to cover the external ear and thus reduce the
amount of sound reaching the inner ear. Care must be taken to ensure that the seal of the earmuff
is not broken by safety glasses, facial hair, respirators, or other equipment, as even a very small
leak in the seal can destroy the effectiveness of the earmuff.

c) Hearing bands
Hearing bands are a third type of HPD (Figure 4.1) and are similar to earplugs, but with a stiff
band that connects the portions that insert into a worker's ears. The band typically wraps around
the back of the wearer's neck, though variations are available. Hearing bands come in a variety of
sizes, shapes, and materials and are popular for their convenience. Hearing bands may not
provide the same noise attenuation as properly fitting earplugs, as the portions that fit into the
ears are stationary and cannot be twisted into place like earplugs.
Figure: 4.1