Chang Jackie Ideologies of English Teaching and Learning in Taiwan

IDEOLOGIES OF ENGLISH TEACHING
AND LEARNING IN TAIWAN
Submitted by
JACKIE CHANG
A thesis submitted in total fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Linguistics The University of Sydney
March, 2004
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincerest appreciation to the following people who have in a
myriad of ways, helped to make my studies at the University of Sydney both
successful and enjoyable. As well, they have made possible the completion of this
thesis.
Dr. Ingrid Piller, my academic supervisor, has patiently supported and constantly
encouraged me through the completion of this thesis. Her unfailing support, insights,
professional supervision and constant encouragement in helping all her students have
earned my deepest respect, admiration, and appreciation. Without her, this thesis
would not have been completed.
Mr. Donald Goudie, an intellectual and a good friend, has kindly proof read my work.
His comments on my writing style and his editing have been invaluable in my writing
this thesis. His efforts were very helpful and are truly appreciated.
Mr. Joe Green, my soul mate, was instrumental in getting me started on my Ph.D.
program. His confidence in me and his constant support will never be forgotten.
Above all, I must acknowledge the debt I owe to my parents, for their unflagging
support. Without the love and support of my parents, the task of completing this thesis
would have been overwhelming. My love and appreciation for them is beyond
description.
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ABSTRACT
This study is motivated by a critical need to engage in socio-linguistic analysis, within
the field of English language teaching (ELT) and second language acquisition (SLA)
in English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) countries. The ideologies alluded to in my
title are: ‘English-as-the-global-language’; ‘the-ideal-English-teacher’; ‘the-ideal-
English-teaching-methodology’; ‘American-English-as-standard-English’; and ‘the-
younger-the-better’. The methodology used in this research is Critical Discourse
Analysis (CDA). I am employing this methodology to investigate language school
promotional materials that may, at first cursory examination, seem mundane and even
ideologically naive, but which in fact convey these very concepts. Source material is
drawn from a corpus of advertising materials for private language schools in Taiwan
specifically: school fliers, websites, television commercials and television English
teaching programs. They all deal with English teaching and learning. The premises
of English language teaching and learning in Taiwan are based on the assumption that
English language mastery is the key to achieving a better life and future for the
aspiring individual, particularly in the context of globalization. However, the study
reveals that English teaching and learning has, in fact, resulted in wide spread social,
cultural, educational, and linguistic inequalities in contemporary Taiwanese society. A
search for the reasons and possible ramifications of these disparities would appear to
be more than justifiable, on both pedagogical and humanitarian grounds.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………...1

1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………….1
1.1 The Role of English in the World……………………………………….2
1.2 The Role of Language Schools…………………………………………...4
1.3 Language Schools and Globalization…………………………………...7
1.4 Conclusion and Research Questions …………………………………….9
1.5 Overview of the Thesis ………………………………………………….10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………13

2.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………..13
2.1 Ideologies of English Teaching and Learning …………………………14
2.1.1 English-as-the-Global-Language …………………………………….15
2.1.1.1 Linguistic Imperialism ………………………………………16
2.1.1.2 Linguistic Capital ………………………………………………19
2.1.1.3 Language Policy ……………………………………………21
2.1.2 The-Ideal-English-Teacher …………………………………………..23
2.1.2.1 Native Speaker Fallacy ………………………………………24
2.1.2.2 Native Speaker Model ………………………………………26
2.1.2.3 Implications for English Teachers …………………………28
2.1.3 Ideal-English-Teaching-Methodology ………………………………29
2.1.3.1 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ………………29
2.1.3.2 English-Only Immersion Method ………………………………33
2.1.3.3 Context-Based Approach ……………………..…………………35
2.1.4 American-English-as-standard-English ……………………………...36
2.1.4.1 Accent ………………………………………..…………………39
2.1.4.2 World Englishes (WE) ………………………..…………………42
2.1.5 The-Younger-the-Better ……………………………………………44
2.1.5.1 Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) ……………………………..45
2.1.5.2 Early English Education in EFL Countries ………………48
2.1.6 Conclusion …………………………………………………………..50
2.2 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Media Discourses …...51
2.2.1 Discourse Analysis vs. Critical Discourse Analysis …….…...51
2.2.2 Media Discourses ……………………………………………………52
2.2.2.1 Marketized English …………………………………………53
2.2.2.2 Critical Linguistics – Systemic Linguistics ………………56
2.3 CAL and CDA ……………………………………………………...60
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2.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………62
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ………………………………………...63

3.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………..63
3.1 Rationale for Research Method ………………………………………..63
3.2 Data Collection ………………………………………………………..65
3.2.1 English Teaching Job Ads …………………………………………66
3.2.2 School Fliers …………………………………………………………69
3.2.3 Websites ……………………………………………………………..71
3.2.4 Television Commercials and Television English Teaching Programs 74
3.2.5 Summary …………………………………………………………….76
3.3 Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………77
3.3.1 Classified Ads Register (CAR) ……………………………………...78
3.3.2 Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) ……………………………….79
3.3.3 Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MDA)………………………….82
3.4 Transliteration and Coding …………………………………………….85
3.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….87
CHAPTER FOUR: ENGLISH IN TAIWAN ……………………………………88

4.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………..88
4.1 Background on Taiwan …………………………………………………88
4.1.1 Location ……………………………………………………………...88
4.1.2 People and Languages ……………………………………………….89
4.1.3 Colonialism ………………………………………………………….89
4.1.4 Economy ……………………………………………………………90
4.2 Current Educational System …………………………………………...90
4.2.1 The Goals and Legal Basis of the Education System ……………90
4.2.2 Educational Administrative System …………………………………92
4.2.3 An Educational Overview …………………………………………...92
4.2.3.1 School Classification …………………………………………92
4.2.3.2 English Curriculum, Textbooks, and Materials ……………93
4.2.3.3 English Teacher qualification ………………………………94
4.2.4 Current English Language Policies ………………………………95
4.3 Ideologies and English Language Policies ……………………………..96
4.3.1 English as an Instrument of Social Stratification …………………97
4.3.1.1 Education ……………………………………………….…98
4.3.1.2 Employment ………………………………………………103
4.3.2. Linguistic Inequality ……………………………………………106
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4.3.2.1 Monolingual Language Policies …………………………106
4.3.2.2 English Language Policy – Implicit Monolingual
Language Policies ………………… ……………………108
4.3.2.3 English as Quasi-official Language…………………… 111
4.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………114
CHAPTER FIVE: “ENGLISH-AS-THE-GLOBAL-LANGUAGE” ………….116

5.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………116
5.1 Data Analysis …………………………………………………………..117
5.1.1 TC7 Television Commercial ……………………………………….117
5.1.2 Slogans and Short Paragraphs ……………………………...120
5.1.2.1 Foreign Language Words – English as a Marketing Strategy 122
5.1.2.2 Semiotic Construction ……………………………………124
5.1.2.3 Grammatical Choices in English Texts …………………..…125
5.1.2.4 Grammatical Choices in Mandarin Texts ………………..…131
5.1.3 Still Images ……………………………………………….…139
5.1.3.1 English-as-the-Global-Language in Still Images ……..…140
5.1.3.2 Symbolism – Things …………………………………………142
5.1.3.3 Symbolism – People …………………………………………144
5.1.3.4 Symbolism – Places …………………………………………147
5.1.3.5 Point of View – Direct and Indirect Address ………………148
5.1.4 School Names ………………………………………………150
5.1.4.1 English as a Marketing Strategies in School Names …………152
5.1.4.2 English-as-the-Global-Language in School Names ………154
5.1.4.3 Symbolism – School Names …………………………………156
5.1.4.4 Symbolic Quality ……………………………………………156
5.1.4.5 Commemorative Names ……………………………………158
5.1.4.6 Fame, Achievement, and Ability ……………………………159
5.3 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………...159
CHAPTER SIX: THE “IDEAL-ENGLISH-TEACHER” ……………………161

6.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………161
6.1 Overview of the Data and Introduction to Analysis………………162
6.1.1 Television Commercials and Television English Teaching
Programs………………………………………………………..…. 162
6.1.2 English Teaching Job Ads ………………………………………….162
6.1.3 Slogans and Short Paragraphs ……………………………………...163
6.1.4 Body Texts …………………………………………………………165
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6.1.5 Still Images …………………………………………………………166
6.1.6 School Names ………………………………………………………166
6.2 Analysis ………………………………………………………………167
6.2.1 The Native Speaker Ideology ………………………………………168
6.2.1.1 TC5 Television Commercial ………………………………168
6.2.1.2 TET1 Television English Teaching Program ……………172
6.2.1.3 Names ………………………………………………………174
6.2.2 Native and Non-native Division …………………………………..…175
6.2.2.1 English Teaching Job Ads …………………………………176
6.2.2.2 School Fliers and Websites ………………………………177
6.2.3 White and Non-white Division …………………………………….180
6.2.3.1 English Teaching Job Ads, School Fliers, and Websites ……180
6.2.3.2 The Job World ………………………….……………………..182
6.3 Who is an Ideal-English-Teacher? ……………………………………184
6.3.1 Are Teachers Born or Made? ………………………………….185
6.3.2 Native English Speaking Teacher (NEST) …………………………185
6.3.3 Non-native English Speaking Teacher (NNEST) ………………….192
6.3.4 Native and Non-native Can Be Ideal-English-Teachers …………...195
6.3.4.1 Competence in the Target Language …………………………195
6.3.4.2 Knowledge of Grammar ………………………………………196
6.3.4.3 Competence in the Local Language …………………………197
6.3.4.4 Other Aspects of Professional Development ……………..…198
6.4 Implications for English Teachers ……………………………………199
6.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………...201
CHAPTER SEVEN:
THE “IDEAL-ENGLISH-TEACHING-METHODOLOGY”………202
7.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………….202
7.1 Current English Teaching Methodologies in Taiwan ……………….204
7.1.1 Television Commercial and Television English Teaching Program 204
7.1.1.1 TC1 Television Commercial ………………………………204
7.1.1.2 TET2 Television English Teaching Program ………………207
7.1.3 Body Texts …………………………………………………………212
7.1.4 Still Images …………………………………………………………214
7.1.5 School Names ………………………………………………………216
7.2 Focus-on-Form vs. Focus-on-forms in Taiwan ……………………..217
7.2.1 Focus-on-form in Practice ………………………………………….217
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7.2.1.1 English-only Immersion Method ……………………………217
7.2.1.2 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ………………222
7.2.2 Focus-on-forms in Practice ………………………………………...231
7.3 There Is No Best Teaching Method …………………………………234
7.3.1 It All Depends on Teaching Context ……………………………….234
7.3.2 There Is Some Truth to Every Method ……………………………..235
7.3.3 We Need to Rethink What “Best” Might Mean ……………………237
7.4 A Critical Perspective on English Teaching Methodology ………… 240
7.4.1 The Global and the Local Relationship …………………….241
7.4.2 Glocalization ……………………………………………………….243
7.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………...245
CHAPTER EIGHT:
“AMERICAN-ENGLISH-AS-STANDARD-ENGLIS”…………………247
8.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………247
8.1 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………..248
8.1.1 TC9 Television Commercial ……………………………………….248
8.1.3 Body Texts …………………………………………………………253
8.1.4 Still Images …………………………………………………………254
8.1.5 School Names ………………………………………………………257
8.1.7 Television English Teaching Program ……………………………..260
8.2 American English Ideology ………………………………………260
8.2.1 English Language Teaching and English Culture Teaching ……….261
8.2.1.1 American English and American Culture ……………………261
8.2.1.2 American English and American Culture in EFL Classroom …262
8.2.2 North American Accent …………………………………………….263
8.2.2.1 KK (Kenyon and Knott) System ……………………………264
8.2.2.2 North American Accent in ELT and SLA …………………265
8.2.2.3 Taiwanese English and North American Accent ………………267
8.2.3 USA Degree …………………………………………………….270
8.2.4 American Curriculum, American English Learning
Environment, American Teaching Method and Material …….274
8.3 The Spread of American English in Taiwan …………………………276
8.3.1 British English and American English ……………………………..277
8.3.2 USA and Taiwan Relations ………………………………………..278
8.3.3 American English and Ideology in ELT …………………………...280
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8.4 World Englishes (WE) ……………………………………………282
8.4.1 EIL in Practice in the World ………………………………………284
8.4.2 EIL in Practice in Taiwan …………………………………………..286
8.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………...288
CHAPTER NINE: “THE-YOUNGER-THE-BETTER” ………………..290

9.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………290
9.1 Data Analysis …………………………………………………………..291
9.1.1 Television Commercials ……………………………………………291
9.1.1.1 TC3 Television Commercial …………………………………291
9.1.1.2 TC4 Television Commercial …………………………………293
9.1.2 Slogans and Short Paragraphs …………………………………….295
9.1.3 Body Texts …………………………………………………………296
9.1.4 Still Images …………………………………………………………296
9.1.5 School Names ………………………………………………………297
9.1.7 Summary …………………………………………………………...300
9.2 Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) …………………………………300
9.2.1 The Younger, the Better ……………………………………………302
9.2.1.1 Age – the Primary Factor …………………………………303
9.2.1.2 Children – Better Second Language Learners ……………304
9.2.1.3 A Turning Point of Age ………………………...………………305
9.2.2 The Younger, the Better? …………………………………………..306
9.2.2.1 First Type of Challenge ……………………………………307
9.2.2.2 Second Type of Challenge ………………….………………308
9.2.2.3 Third Type of Challenge ………………………………………309
9.2.3 Pedagogical Implications ………………………………………….310
9.2.3.1 Native-Like Mastery …………………………………………310
9.2.3.2 Objective of English Education ……………………………311
9.2.3.3 ESL Vs. EFL Countries ……………………………………311
9.2.3.4 Optimal Age of English Language Learning ………………312
9.3 Pedagogical Challenges ………………………………………………..313
9.3.1 Teaching Resources ………………………………………………...313
9.3.1.1 1,000-Word List ……………………………………………314
9.3.1.2 Contents of English Textbooks ……………………………..314
9.3.1.3 English Textbooks in Urban and Rural Areas ………………..316
9.3.2 Curriculum and Classroom Practice ………………………………317
9.3.2.1 Curriculum Design ……………………………………………317
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9.3.2.2 The Shortage of Elementary English Teachers ……………318
9.3.2.3 Assessment, Teaching Method, and Students
with Different Levels……………………………………319
9.3.2.4 English Instruction Hours ……………………………………..320
9.3.3. Impact on Mother Tongues ……………………………………….321
9.3.3.1 Chinese in Early English Education …………………………322
9.3.3.2 Negative Impact on Chinese ………………………………323
9.3.3.3 Impact for English Learning ………………………………324
9.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………325
CHAPTER TEN: CONCLUSION ……………………………………………….326

10.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………..326
10.1 Summary of Findings ………………………………………………..326
10.2 Implications ……………………………………………………….…..331
10.2.1 Political Implications …………………………………… …...331
10.2.2 Economic Implications ……………………………………………333
10.2.3 Cultural Implications ……………………………………………...335
10.2.4 Social Implications ………………………………………………..337
10.2.5 Educational Implications ………………………………………….339
10.2.6 Summary: ELT in Taiwan ………………………………………...341
10.2.7 Applied Linguistics ……………………………………………….342
10.3 Limitations ……………………………………………………………343
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………346
DOCUMENTATION ……………………………………………………………371
APPENDIX A: SCHOOL FLIERS ………………………………………………385
APPENDIX B: SCHOOL WEBSITES …………………………….…………….391
APPENDIX C: ENGLISH TEACHING JOB ADS ………………….…………397
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
The focus of my research interest is English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Taiwan,
in particular, the social, cultural, and political contexts of EFL. Much of EFL research
has been conducted in relation to English teaching methodologies and student
learning behaviors in Taiwan (Liu, 2000). However, ideologies of English language
teaching (ELT) and second language acquisition (SLA) have been given very little
attention. The aim of this research is to investigate ELT and SLA ideologies
responding to the imperatives of globalization in Taiwan. I view my research as
essentially concerned with escaping these ideologies. This research fills a lacuna,
because, to the best of my knowledge, there exists no other published work
investigating ideologies of ELT and SLA in Taiwan through media discourses, and
particularly through the promotional materials of private language schools.
The central argument of this research is that private language schools, the promoters
of English teaching and learning, are critical to the promotion of ideologies of ELT
and SLA. The ideologies identified in this research are English-as-the-global-
language, the ideal-English-teacher, the ideal-English-teaching-methodology,
American-English-as-standard-English, and the-younger-the-better. These
ideologies have become fundamental driving forces in the acquisition of English in
Taiwan and have concomitantly contributed to various forms of social inequality. To
investigate these ideologies, we need to begin by examining the role of English in the
world, the role of English in Taiwan, and the role of language schools. I will do this in
the following three sections of this introductory chapter. Finally, this chapter will
present the questions proposed for this research and provide an overview of the thesis.
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1.1 The Role of English in the World
Many researchers (Brutt-Griffler, 2002; Crystal, 1997; Kachru, 1992; Smith, 1983;
Widdowson, 1997) argue that English has spread to become a global language.
Crystal (1997: 2) claims that “a language achieves a genuinely global status when it
develops a special role that is recognized in every country”. This special status can be
achieved either by making it an official language of a country or by a country giving
special priority to learning it as a foreign language. English has obviously achieved
this global status (Crystal, 1997). According to Crystal (1997: 57–61), an estimate of a
total of 337 million people have learned English as a first language (L1) and an
estimate of a total of 235 million people have learned English as a second language
(L2). Dependent upon how great a command of English is considered acceptable to
count as a speaker of English, estimates of the number of people who have learned
English as a foreign language (EFL) range between 100 and 1,000 million. There is
no denying that English is now spoken across the world. Although, there are very few
accurate figures to support exactly who is learning English, English is the most
frequently studied modern language across the world (Graddol, 1997), and is a
required school subject in almost every country in the world.
Moreover, there is ample evidence in studies and surveys that English is the global
language. In 1996, the British Council predicted that “By the year 2000 it is estimated
that over one billion people will be learning English. English is the main language of
books, newspapers, airports and airtraffic control, international business and academic
conferences, science, technology, diplomacy, sport, international competitions, pop
music and advertising” (Graddol, 1996: 181). Similarly, Crystal (1997) argues that
English has achieved a global status because English is the language for several
important arenas such as international relations, the mass media, international travel,
2
international safety, education, and communications. Smith (1983: 9) points out that
“English is a means of communicating identity, culture, politics, religion, and ‘way of
life’”. In yet another survey, Fishman (1996: 28, as cited in Bamgbose, 2001: 357)
focuses on the use of English in 20 countries. The result shows that “the world of
large scale commerce, industry, technology, and banking, like the world of certain
human sciences and professions, is an international world and it is linguistically
dominated by English almost everywhere, regardless of how well-established and
well-protected local cultures, languages, and identities may be”.
Clearly, English is the international language and it seems to be sufficient for most
purposes. One very significant factor of the global spread of English is via second or
foreign language acquisition (Brutt-Griffler, 2002). Kachru (1992) questions what it is
that draws an increasing number of people in the world to the study of English.
Many studies (e.g., Alm, 2003, for Ecuador; Friedrich, 2000, for Brazil; Kubota, 2002;
for Japan; Nielsen, 2003, for Argentina; Nino-Murcia, 2003, for Peru; Yong and
Campbell, 1995; for China) conducted in EFL countries show that English holds a
special place because it is generally associated with status and modernity. Taiwan is
no exception. The Taiwanese government and many scholars (e.g., Chen, 1998; Chow,
2001; Dai, 2002, as citied in Chou, W., 2002; Lee, M. F., 2000; Wong, 1998; Zen,
1998) believe that English is an essential instrument to access the world of finance,
economy, technology, and science which Taiwan needs for social modernization,
economic growth, and internationalization. I shall look at the role of English and its
association with power and status in Taiwan in detail in Chapter 4.
As mentioned earlier in the Introduction, the central argument of this research is that
language schools are critical to the promotion of ideologies of ELT and SLA.
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Taiwanese residents who want to learn English can easily find a language school that
claims to meet their needs. Next, I shall look at ways in which language schools
respond to globalization.
1.2 The Role of Private Language Schools
Language schools or cram schools (Buxiban in Mandarin) have sprung up to meet the
need for English language instruction. The schools vary widely in their approach and
specialization. Some provide English for all age groups, children and adults. Others
prepare students for English proficiency tests which are required for foreign students
to study in an English speaking country. Although English is taught as a subject in
Taiwan, the private language schools fill a gap for students who have special
objectives such as working on their oral fluency or preparing for an exam.
Language schools are a necessary part of life. Many people attend these schools at
least once in their lifetime, from students wanting to improve their English to office
and factory workers (Liu, L., 2002). People who are not familiar with English
education in Taiwan may question the need for these language schools since English
is taught from primary schools to senior high schools. The main reason is that
inadequate English language instruction in public schools has made the language
schools extremely popular.
Given the international prominence of English as described above, Taiwanese people
will readily agree that Taiwan needs more competent English language speakers now.
However, Taiwanese English language teaching has a very negative reputation for
producing less than competent speakers of English. It is widely believed that three
obstacles to English teaching – unqualified English teachers, inappropriate teaching
4
materials, and traditional teacher-centered teaching methodologies – have caused
problems in English learning in Taiwan (Chen, 1998; Huang, 1998; Lee, 1998; Lin,
1992; Liu, 1992; Mao, 1993; Wong, 1998; see Chapter 4 for further details). Another
major obstacle to the mastery of spoken English in Taiwan has been the lack of
opportunity to speak (Her, 2002).
Next, I will show the differences between language schools and public schools in
terms of their teaching methods and teaching and learning environments.
English teaching in Taiwan’s schools has been accused of putting too much stress on
grammar, vocabulary, reading and writing, while neglecting the importance of
speaking proficiency. Most Taiwanese English educators have been following the
same teaching methodology for decades. Researchers (e.g., Shu, 1988; Su, 1998; Yang,
1992) point out that the traditional style of teaching in Taiwan, either a grammar-
translation-method or rote memorization, is an absolutely teacher-centered method, so
Taiwanese classrooms provide a stultifying atmosphere and the learners are spoon-fed
and passive. Consequently, the traditional English teaching method cannot produce
fluent English speakers. On the other hand, the methods used in private language
schools focus on active participants in learning processes, and as a result, a variety of
teaching materials or aids, handouts, activities, and games are heavily used to help
learners to acquire English proficiency (Su, 1998). Students learn to use the language
as a tool of communication rather than viewing it as one more subject to be learned,
and the teaching methodologies provided by language schools are claimed to help
them to achieve their goals.
In many EFL countries there are not enough properly trained English teachers
5
available (Bailey, 2001). The use of native speaking English teachers is another factor
in the success of private language schools. Liu (2000: 151) argues that Taiwanese
people seek help from private language schools because they provide native speakers
who have superior teaching methods.
Another factor in the success of language schools is the learning environment. The
creation of an ideal learning environment, with small class sizes of under 15 students,
or even under ten, as provided by language schools contrasts with the existing big
class sizes in public schools in which the chances of honing communicative skills are
slim. There are 33 students and 44 students respectively in a typical elementary school
and secondary school class, and things are not much better at college level (Chang,
1998: 31). In contrast to public schools, where students are seated in a traditional
classroom setup, with seats arranged in rows facing the blackboard at the front of the
classroom, the chairs in most of the private language schools are arranged in a U
shape which makes them very different in terms of teaching and learning environment.
It is believed that one very important advantage of small sized classes is that teachers
can give personalized attention to individual students’ needs.
Finally, by attending language schools, children are exposed to the foreign language at
an early age. They grow up with English. The school provides an environment that is
similar to an immersion situation. This kind of learning environment is regarded in
Taiwan as English-only, rather than Chinese environment (Her, 2002). Parents want
their children to become competent in English at any cost. Language schools are
highly competitive and expensive, but parents consider it worth the effort.
There is obviously an enormous demand in government schools for good English
6
learning environments, especially when compared with language schools. The
public schools have to learn some valuable lessons from language schools (Her, 1998),
but find it hard to compete with them in terms of trained staff, equipment, and
teaching aids due to budgetary restrictions (Her, 1998). Because of these budgetary
restrictions in public education, private English language schools are widely seen as
an important contribution to the improvement of English proficiency.
Language schools are regarded as the solution to the problems of English teaching
and learning in Taiwan. English is viewed in Taiwan as the key to globalization. In
other words, language schools are viewed as a very important factor in Taiwan’s
globalization. The central argument of this research is that ideologies of English
teaching and learning in private language schools (micro domain) stem from the role
of English in the world or English as the key to globalization (macro domain). Next, I
shall look at the relationship between language schools and globalization before I
present my research questions in 1.4.
1.3 Language Schools and Globalization
English is seen as the most useful and powerful language for international
communication in Taiwan. Mastering English not only makes Taiwanese people
citizens of the world but also fulfills their emerging practical needs. English is seen to
be the solution to current economic and social problems. However, some scholars
(Chang, 2000; Chang, S. E., 2003; Liao, 2000; Liao, 2003, as citied in Chang, M. C.,
2003; Wang, 2002) argue that the provision of English instruction in schools is not a
panacea.
Wang Wei-ming (Wang, 2002), an assistant professor at Nan-Jeon Institute of
7
Technology, claims that Taiwanese people do not have a clear understanding of
globalization, nor of the crucial role English plays in globalization. Moreover, he
argues that widespread use of English is not an economic panacea. Liao (2000), a
professor at National Taiwan University, points out that the globalization slogans
currently popular in Taiwan are aimed exclusively at economic globalization which is
a form of “neo-colonialist globalization” led by the Western World. Western-led
globalization substitutes old colonialist power with a form of economic colonialism.
He also argues that Taiwan does not need this kind of globalization but it needs a
“critical globalization” with cultural and humanitarian characteristics. Liao (2000) and
Wang (2002) worry that if the teaching of the English language in lower grades is
implemented and English becomes a second official language with no complementary
measures to get students firmly rooted in native cultures, Taiwan will soon become a
colony of neo-colonialist globalization. As a result, Taiwan will turn into a globalized
society where everything is led by commercialized capitalist values from the West.
However, Taiwanese people have reached a general consensus that English is the key
to globalization. English learning “has become almost a mania with the government,
the schools, and the people themselves all clamoring for more English” (Her, 2002).
Liu, L. (2002) describes English learning as a “national obsession”. In this research, I
will explore how the ideology of English-as-the-global-language making it “natural,
neutral and beneficial” (Pennycook, 1994a) is discursively constructed in Taiwan. As
pointed out in the previous section, one of the most extraordinary results of
English-as-the-global-language in ELT and SLA in Taiwan is the large number of
language schools that have mushroomed throughout the island and the ever increasing
number of native speakers of English who keep coming to teach English mainly, in
language schools. More and more parents send their pre-school children for English
8
programs at language schools. The language school’s role in building up social
institutions and welding together disparate English teaching and learning phenomena
has yet to be researched.
Taiwanese people who are learning or teaching English are dealing with more than a
language; in fact, they are dealing with a set of ideologies. Ideologies of ELT and SLA
deserve more attention from lay people as well as from English educators and
researchers, since these ideological concepts have a powerful impact on the
educational system. English teaching and learning cannot be viewed as merely
teaching or learning a language. Taiwanese people need to take into consideration
political, cultural, and social factors in both micro (local) and macro (global) domains.
1.4 Conclusion and Research Questions

Based on the objectives and the problems identified in the previous sections the major
questions and sub-questions posed for ideologies of ELT and SLA in Taiwan in the
context of globalization are:
(1) What are the underlying ideologies of English teaching and learning in Taiwan?
Sub-questions:
A. How has English become a form of “linguistic capital” in Taiwan?
B. What kind of English is taught in Taiwan and how?
C. How are these ideologies perceived as solutions to the problems of
English teaching and learning?
(2) Why are English teaching and learning regarded as essential elements of social
change in Taiwan?
Sub-questions:
9
A. How does English teaching and learning affect the traditional Chinese
teacher-student relationship?
B. Why are English teachers assessed on other than their linguistic and
pedagogical ability and how are they judged?
(3) What are the implications of English teaching and learning in Taiwan in the 21st
century?
Sub-questions:
A. Why do English teachers and learners need to take the sociolinguistic
and social pedagogical context into consideration in the terms of English
teaching and learning?
B. Why do English teachers and learners need to be aware of ideologies of
English teaching and learning?
C. How can English teachers and learners work together towards the goal of
escaping these ideologies?
D. What are the implications of English teaching and learning for EFL in
Taiwan?
1.5 Overview of the Thesis
This chapter has identified the ideologies of ELT and SLA and research questions, it
has noted the current status of English in the world and in Taiwan, and the role of
language schools. It has outlined the major themes of this research.
Chapter Two provides a review of previous work relevant to the present research. It
explores power, inequity and ideologies of ELT and SLA in the context of
globalization. The chapter examines critical discourse analysis, as a useful theoretical
10
framework. Then the chapter argues for the need of a critical media discourse analysis
for ELT and SLA.
Chapter Three presents the major themes of the study then it describes the
methodology used in the research. Next, it explains how the data were collected,
and provides background information and descriptions of the data. The chapter ends
with an analysis of features of the data.
Chapter Four describes the English language situation in Taiwan in its historical and
social contexts. Then, the chapter argues that current English language policies have
resulted in social, educational, and linguistic inequalities.
In Chapters Five to Nine, I report findings from this research on five major ideologies:
English-as-the-global-language (Chapter 5), the ideal-English- teacher (Chapter 6),
the ideal-English-teaching-methodology (Chapter 7), American- English-as-standard-
language (Chapter 8), and the-younger-the-better (Chapter 9).
Chapter Five argues that globalization has made English a highly valued commodity
and ELT and SLA are viewed from an economic perspective. This has resulted in
structural and cultural inequalities in Taiwan.
Chapter Six looks at such issues as the native speaker fallacy; the native and
non-native division, and white and non-white native speakers and ideal-English-
teachers. These issues shape the lives of learners, teachers, policy makers, and every
individual, since they are embedded in the social, economic, and political context.
Chapter Seven argues that there is no single best English teaching method. The best
11
teaching method depends on the teaching context.
Chapter Eight points out that the ideology of American-English-as-standard-English
has more social and political causes than linguistics ones. This ideology implies that
Taiwan needs to maintain a dependency relationship with the USA for pedagogical
advice.
Chapter Nine argues that English for young Taiwanese learners may be negative and
can be counterproductive, since there is a lack of well-designed teaching materials, a
well-designed curriculum, qualified English teachers, and appropriate English
proficiency assessments.
Chapter Ten concludes the thesis by outlining findings and implications in this
research. Aspects of the contribution of this research, limitations of this research and
suggestions for future research are discussed at the end of the chapter.
12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This literature review looks at English language teaching and learning as part of the
complex social, political, and economic system of the world. The spread and
influence of the English language worldwide has drawn much recent interest. Not
unexpectedly, there is a considerable literature on English language teaching and
learning and on globalization, but as Phillipson (2002: 10) points out there is an
alarming absence of literature that brings the two together. To bring the two together,
a multidisciplinary approach to the analysis of language and power is needed (ibid.:
10). A multidisciplinary approach to ideology is based on the premise that cognition,
society, and discourse are related to each other in highly complex ways (van Dijk,
1998: 5). Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a multidisciplinary approach devoted
to the study of relations between discourse, power, dominance, and social inequality.
CDA aims to reveal how texts operate in the construction of social practice by
examining the choices that discourse offers (Kress, 1991). CDA also aims to demand
urgent attention to persistent problems of oppression, injustice, and inequality in
society.
This chapter attempts to bring globalization, English language teaching and learning,
power, and ideologies together. This literature review will first deal with different
theories or academic studies regarding ideologies of ELT and SLA in the context of
globalization. Then, the chapter will focus on Critical Discourse Analysis, critical
applied linguistics, and critical approaches to ELT and SLA. A novel critical media
discourse approach to ELT and SLA will then be suggested for this research which
focuses on ideologies of ELT and SLA as evidenced in promotional materials of
language schools.
13
2.1 Ideologies of English Teaching and Learning
Fairclough (1993: 136) argues that ideology is pervasively present in language, so the
ideological nature of language should be one of the major themes in modern society.
He (1989: 2) also points out that “ideologies are closely linked to language”, because
language is the major means used for the operation of power. Tollefson agrees (1991:
10) that “ideology is connected to power” and adds that, “in modern societies,
language policy is used to sustain existing power relationships, i.e., it is ideological”
(ibid.: 11). As Fairclough (1989: 33) states, we are not aware that our everyday
practices constitute “ideological power”. Other researchers also suggest similar
terms to describe ideologies in ELT and SLA, such as “taken for granted practices”
(Auerbach, 1993), “common-sense assumptions” (Tollefson, 1991) and “everybody
knows” (Lightbow, 2000: 433). Therefore, concepts such as English-as-the-global-
language, native speakers as the ideal-English-teachers, the ideal-English-teaching-
methodology, American-English-as-standard-English, and the-younger-the-better
which have been taken for granted as natural and common sense in Taiwanese society
are ideologies. The ideologies in Taiwan mainly coincide with five basic tenets in the
Makerere Report which emerged from a conference held in Uganda in 1961 by the
British Council (Phillipson, 1992a: 185). These five basic tenets are:
1. English is best taught monolingually.
2. The ideal teacher of English is a native speaker.
3. The earlier English is taught, the better the results.
4. The more English is taught, the better the results.
5. If other languages are used too much, standards of English will drop.
In reviewing the ideologies of English teaching and learning in Taiwan, I find the five
14
basic tenets in the Makerere Report useful to maintain such as distinction, as will be
made clear in the following sections.
2.1.1 English-as-the-Global-Language
Fishman (1996: 8, as citied in Clayton, 1999: 143) claims that the spread of English is
neutral and beneficial. English does not directly serve purely Anglo-American
territorial, economic, or cultural expansion. Crystal (1997: 110) argues that the
primary reason for the spread of English is that it has “repeatedly found itself in the
right place at the right time”. He speaks of the ‘taken for granted’ status of English,
and “the emergence, by the end of the century, of a climate of largely unspoken
opinion” that “English [was] the natural choice of progress” (ibid.: 75). However,
Phillipson (1992a: 71–72) and Pennycook (1994a: 146) point out that the
development of English language teaching worldwide can be traced back to British
neocolonial policies in which political and economic benefits are involved. They
claim that the development of ELT as a profession in the world is a response to a
political imperative. ELT can no longer be taken as simply concerned with teaching
language. Rather, the assertion that the spread of English is “natural, neutral and
beneficial” is in itself ideological (Pennycook, 1994a: 9). The spread of English is
central to the ideologies of English teaching and learning (Tollefson, 1995: 2).
The questions raised by the spread of English are diverse and complex. However,
there are two main challenges – the political and the economic. First, globalization
has changed the terms in which people debate issues of language and power (Block &
Cameron, 2002: 6). Second, people have learned English for economic reasons,
because English competence represents “linguistic capital”, a term used by Bourdieu
(1991, as cited in Block & Cameron, 2002: 5). As a result, English language teaching
15
and learning have become more political and ideological, because they are discussed
in terms of economics and politics.
Next, I will look at linguistic imperialism, linguistic capital, and language policy
paradigms to further examine power and inequality in the terms of the global spread
of English.
2.1.1.1 Linguistic Imperialism
The term “linguistic imperialism” arose in the 1930s as part of the Basic English
movement (Read, 1974, as cited in Clayton, 1999: 139). Basic English was a
simplified form of English briefly promoted internationally by the British Council as a
“universal second language” (Pennycook, 1994a: 87). Currently, the term “linguistic
imperialism” is most closely associated with the work of Robert Phillipson.
Phillipson (1992a: 52) follows Galtung’s (1988) theories on imperialism in which a
distinction is made between a “dominant Center (the powerful Western countries and
interests) and dominated Peripheries (the underdeveloped countries)”. The dominant
groups consist of native speakers of English, such as the British and the Americans
and the dominated periphery groups consist of former colonial countries such as
Nigeria, India, Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and EFL (English as a Foreign
Language) countries such as Taiwan, Japan, or the countries of Scandinavia. The
spread of English was a deliberate policy of the dominant Center to maintain
dominance over the dominated Periphery. Phillipson uses the term “linguistic
imperialism” to describe the linguistic relations between the Center and the Periphery.
Linguistic imperialism is a sub-type of cultural and social imperialism (Phillipson,
1992a, 1998). English linguistic imperialism involves “the establishment and
continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and
16
other languages” (1998: 104). Structural refers to “material properties” and cultural
refers to “immaterial or ideological properties” (ibid.: 104). Phillipson (1992a)
looks upon the ELT enterprise as imperialistic, because it is seen as a way for those
with power to oppress those who are powerless. He shows how ELT is defined to
favor the professionalism and expertise of western academics. The dominant
professional tenets such as “the ideal teacher of English is a native speaker of
English” (see, 2.1.2, chapter 6), “English is best taught monolingually” (see 2.1.3,
chapter 7), “the earlier English is taught, the better the results” (see 2.1.5, chapter 9)
and “the more English is taught, the better the results” (see chapter 4) serve vested
interests of center expertise.
Another significant contributor to the discussion on linguistic dominance is Braj
Kachru (1985, 1986, 1992). Much of his work deals with local or nativized varieties
of English or new Englishes. He views World Englishes as consisting of 3 concentric
circles: native speaking countries (the Inner Circle), second-language speaking
countries (the Outer Circle), and foreign language speaking countries (the Expanding
Circle). Both Phillipson’s ‘Center’ and ‘Periphery’ distinction and Kachru’s concentric
circle model reflect language and power relations in these contexts.
Kachru warns of the danger of centralized linguistic power. “In the past, the control
and manipulation of international power have never been in the hands of users of one
language group” (Kachru, 1986: 14). This one group, the Inner, controls in different
ways in different situations. First, the monolingual contexts of the Inner Circle are
the result of extreme linguistic dominance. In other words, the method of control is by
displacing native languages altogether and replacing them with English. Second,
English as a colonial language is linguistic imperialism in its most literal sense.
English may not displace the native language and may even concede dominance to it
17
in certain areas, but English establishes itself as the official language. Examples are
the countries in the Outer circles. Finally, the Outer or Expanding Circle is affected by
the English dominance in the Inner Circle. Native-speaker standards of English have
become the model, even though the countries in the Outer and, to a lesser degree,
Expanding Circles have developed local varieties of English. The Inner Circle claims
that the Outer and Expanding varieties are impure leading to the Outer and Expanding
Circles constantly having to purify their English against a standard found only in the
Inner. For example, Bolton (2000b: 445) points out that Hong Kong English has
frequently been linked to studies of error analysis.
There are obvious similarities between the two theories: Phillipson’s ‘Center’ and
‘Periphery’ and Kachru’s concentric circle model (Inner, Outer, and Expanding
Circles). First, English teaching and learning must be examined within the context of
the spread of English as a world language. Second, the central issue in the spread of
English is power. Third, English teaching and learning in the context of globalization
is an outcome of power struggles and an arena for those struggles. Fourth, English
teaching and learning is associated with political, social, economic, and linguistic
inequality. Fifth, the spread of English is also associated with national, social, and
cultural identity, that is, how people perceive themselves and the world. Sixth, the
spread of English involves a threat to existing languages. Seventh, a critical pedagogy
of English is needed in the context of English-as-the-global-language.
In short, the central argument of the linguistic dominance paradigm is the relationship
between English and political and economic power. In the following section, I shall
discuss how English is viewed from an economic perspective and especially, how
English competence constitutes a form of “linguistic capital”.
18
2.1.1.2 Linguistic Capital
Many researchers (Canagarajah, 1999a, 2002; Garcia, 1995; Phillipson, 1992a;
Pennycook, 1995; Tollefson, 1991, 1995, 2000; Watson-Gegeo & Gegeo, 1995) argue
that the spread of English is part of wider social, political, and economic processes
that contribute to economic inequity. They show that the English speaking countries
have an interest in supporting the concept of English-as-the-global-language which
affords them “symbolic power” (Bourdieu & Boltanski, 1977, as cited in Loos, 2000:
39).
Bourdieu (1992, as cited in Loos, 2000) uses economic metaphors like “capital” and
“market” to explain people’s positions and interrelations in a community. Bourdieu
(1992: 43–65, as cited in Loos, 2000: 38) distinguishes four different kinds of capital:
economic capital (material wealth), cultural capital (knowledge, skills and other
cultural acquisitions), and symbolic capital (that is, accumulated prestige or honor).
“Linguistic capital” is related to Bourdieu’s view of “cultural capital” and develops
out of linguistic imperialism (Bourdieu, 1976, as cited in Morrison & Lui, 2000: 473).
Linguistic capital can be defined as “fluency in, and comfort with, a high-status,
world-wide language which is used by groups who possess economic, social, cultural
and political power and status in local and global society” (ibid.: 473). Linguistic
capital affords its holders symbolic power (Loos, 2000). Symbolic power is
exercised on markets and it enables actors to convert one form of capital into another
(Bourdieu & Boltanski, 1977, as cited in Loos, 2000: 39).
If a peripheral country possesses English (linguistic capital), it raises its national
competitiveness and then it gets access to world wide economic markets (economic
capital) and accelerates towards globalization (symbolic capital). If a society d
19
offers access to a high status language – English (linguistic capital) – there are better
life chances (economic capital) for those who can master that language. This
benefits those who already possess linguistic capital and so have a better opportunity
to be successful in the local or global society (symbolic capital).
As a result, English has been viewed as linguistic capital in many regions, such as the
European Union (Loos, 2000), Ecuador (Alm, 2003), Hong Kong (Morrison & Lui,
2000), Peru (Nino-Murcia, 2003), Singapore (Chew, 1999, as cited in Rubdy, 2001:
343–344), and Ukraine (Bilaniuk, 2003). The variety of descriptions of English
demonstrates the power of English. In Argentina, English has become a “means of
social ascension” (Friedrich, 2000: 222, as cited in Nielsen, 2003: 199). English is
viewed as ‘a more valued economic commodity’ (Gimenez, 2001) or ‘a highly
marketable commodity’ (Rajagopalan, 2002) in Brazil, in Canada (Heller, 2002), in
Japan (Kubota, 2002), and in Taiwan (Ho, 1998; Li & Lee, 2004; Troester, 1990). In
this linguistic commodity market, English has higher value than other languages.
Consequently, people need and want to acquire this commodity. “The hunger for
learning the language – with whatever degree of competence - is simply insatiable”
(Kachru, 1997: 69, as cited in Seidlhofer, 2001: 141). Kachru argues that “knowing
English is like possessing the fabled Aladdin’s lamp, which permits one to open, as it
were, the linguistic gates to international business, technology, science and travel. In
short, English provides linguistic power” (1986: 1). The possession of English is an
issue of power. English provides its speakers with linguistic, economic, and symbolic
capital.
Those with less linguistic capital have fewer opportunities for improving their lives.
Morrison and Lui (2000: 473) argue that “social stratification and patterns of
20
domination and subordination are reproduced albeit by a school system initially
intended to provide equal opportunity to all”. Tollefson (1991: 8–9) also points out
that if English is viewed as a means for getting better jobs with higher salaries and as
one criterion for determining which people will complete different levels of education,
it results in “unequal social and economic relationships”. In many countries (see
above) English has become a highly converted form of linguistic capital providing
access to education, employment, and economic advantages for those who are
proficient in it. As a result, English proficiency has created an educational hierarchical
and a social hierarchical system.
The concept of linguistic capital manifests itself in language policies. Language
policies are linked to the struggle for power and they structure unequal educational,
social, economic, and linguistic relationships (Tollefson, 1991, 1995, 2000). Next, I
shall examine some paradigms of language policies.
2.1.1.3 Language Policy
Both Tollefson (1991, 1995, 2000) and Tsuda (1994, as cited in Phillison &
Skutnabb-Kangas, 1996: 436) explore the relationship between language policy and
language education with a particular emphasis on power and inequity. Tollefson (1995)
points out how current language policies are influenced by globalization and the
spread of English, and how language policy and political power are inextricably
linked. He argues that English language policies are often associated with “a rhetoric
of equality and opportunity”, but, in reality, they create unequal social and economic
relationships (ibid.: 3).
Tsuda (1994, as cited in Phillison & Skutnabb-Kangas, 1996: 436) posits two global,
21
contemporary language policy options which show power relationship between the
center and the periphery. The following are Tsuda’s language policy options.
Diffusion-of-English Paradigm
1. capitalism
2. science and technology
3. modernization
4. monolingualism
5. ideological globalization and internationalization
6. transnationalization
7. Americanization and homogenization of world culture
8. linguistic, cultural, and media imperialism
Ecology-of-Language Paradigm
1. a human rights perspective
2. equality in communication
3. multilingualism
4. maintenance of languages and cultures
5. protection of national sovereignties
6. promotion of foreign language education
The Diffusion-of-English paradigm is associated with “capitalism” and “science and
technology”. “Modernization” and “globalization and internationalization” are
marketed as the key to the future success of an economy and culture. This paradigm
entails the promotion of “monolingualism” – one language (American English) and
one culture (American culture) at the expense of others. Clearly, there is an unequal
22
power relationship between the dominant and the dominated, that is, Western values
in the guise of language education rather than empowerment of the individual.
The Ecology-of-Languages paradigm, by contrast, attempts to ensure equality for
speakers of all languages. In other words, this paradigm promotes “linguistic human
rights” (Phillipson & Skutnabb-Kangas, 1996).
If we relate Tsuda’s diffusion-of-English paradigm to English teaching and learning in
EFL countries, the next questions are: Should English be taught monolingually (see
2.1.3) by native speakers of English (see 2.1.2)? Moreover, should American English
be the standard (see 2.1.4)?
Next, I shall start with the ideological concept of ideal-English-teacher (see 2.1.2),
before moving on to other ideological concepts.
2.1.2 Ideal-English-Teacher
Another issue in relation to language and power is that the spread of English has also
led to questions of “the ownership of English” (Widdowson, 1994). Who really owns
English? The answer to this question has implications for a variety of issues in
relation to ELT and SLA such as how English should be taught (see 2.1.3), what
standards of English are acceptable (see 2.1.4), when English should be taught (see
2.1.5), and who is the ideal-English-teacher (this section). The spread of English has
created a tremendous demand for ever increasing numbers of teachers of English.
When Medgyes (1992: 344) poses the question “Who’s worth more: the NEST (native
English speaking teacher) or the non-NEST (non-native English speaking teacher)?”,
the implications are that there is a native and non-native dichotomy and there is a
23
concept of the ideal teacher for English learners. Next, I will look at concepts
regarding this issue such as the “native speaker fallacy” and the “native speaker
model”.
2.1.2.1 Native Speaker Fallacy
Much of the SLA research focus on the success and failure of L2 learners is often
measured against the native speaker’s language use (Cook, 1999: 189). Freudenstein
(1991, as cited in Phillipson, 1992b: 13) and Quirk (1990, as cited in Phillipson,
1992b: 13) support the concept that ideal English teachers are native speakers because
they have better knowledge of the target language. Stern (1983: 341) argues that “The
native speaker’s ‘competence’ or ‘proficiency’ or ‘knowledge of the language’ is a
necessary point of reference for the second language proficiency concept used in
language teaching”. As a result, native speakers of English are taken for granted as
better English teachers and as the ideal model for non-native speakers. Phillipson
(1992a: 185) describes this phenomenon as the “native speaker fallacy”. He also
argues that the native speaker fallacy in ELT is closely linked to the concepts of center
and periphery in neocolonial policies. The British Council is a typical example of an
organization where “the native speaker has been sent worldwide to teach, train
teachers and advise” (Phillipson, 1992b: 14). For Phillipson, native English speaking
teachers are vectors of cultural and linguistic imperialism.
More and more researchers (Braine, 2000; Brutt-Griffler & Samimy, 1999;
Canagaragjah, 1999a; Cook, 1999; Kaplan, 1999; Kirkpatrick, 1997; Liu, 1999;
McKay, 2003a; Medgyes, 1992; Pennycook, 1998; Phillipson, 1992a; Rampton, 1990)
challenge the concept of the native speaker ideal. For example, Phillipson (1992a: 194)
claims that many of the qualities native speakers possess such as fluency, appropriate
24
usage, and knowledge of the cultural connotations of the language can be acquired
through training. He claims that non-native speakers possess certain qualifications
which native speakers may not have, such as the experience of acquiring English as a
second (foreign) language and insights into the linguistic and cultural needs of their
learners (ibid.: 195). Rampton (1990: 97) has outlined five features of expertise
regarding native speakers and demonstrates that it is special education or training that
makes one an expert in one field or another. A native speaker is not necessarily
qualified and has not necessarily acquired the “expertise” required in the language
classroom. In other words, training and experience play a greater role in defining a
teacher’s success in a language classroom (Brutt-Griffler & Samimy, 1999; Cook,
1999; Kirkpatrick, 1997; Liu, 1999; Medgyes, 1992; Nunan, October/November 1999,
Phillipson, 1992a; Rampton, 1990). Medgyes (1992: 346–347) argues that
non-NESTs have the following advantages as English teachers.
a. Only non-NESTs can serve as imitable models of the successful learner of
English .
b. Non-NESTs can teach learning strategies more effectively.
c. Non-NESTs can provide learners with more information about the English language.
d. Non-NESTs are more able to anticipate language difficulties.
e. Non-NESTs can be more empathetic to the needs and problems of their learners.
f. Only non-NESTs can benefit from sharing the learners’ mother tongue.
Some researchers (Medgyes, 1992; Singh, 1998, as cited in Martohardjono, 2001:
1644) try to get rid of the native and non-native speaker dichotomy. Medgyes (1992)
argues that both native and non-native speakers have an equal opportunity to become
successful teachers. He argues that the ideal English teacher is a NEST who “has
achieved a high degree of proficiency in the learner’s mother tongue”; or a
25
non-NEST who “has achieved near-native proficiency in English” (ibid.: 348–349).
2.1.2.2 Native Speaker Model
Although the above researchers object to the concept of the native speaker fallacy, in
practice, the native speaker ideal or model remains firmly entrenched in ELT and SLA
(Cook, 1999; Seidlhofer, 2001). Especially in the job market, native speakers of
English are given preference in hiring both inside and outside western settings (Braine,
2000; Govardhan et al., 1999; Kaplan, 1999; Liu, 1999; McKay, 2003a; Rampton,
1990). In addition, native English speakers without teaching qualifications are more
likely to be hired than qualified and experienced NNESTs, especially outside the
Center countries (Bamgbose, 1998; Braine, 2000; Cook, 2000; Kirkpatrick, 1997;
Rampton, 1990). The main reason is that there is a widespread belief that they are
superior to non-native English speaking teachers in language teaching, because of
their language ability, in particular, their accent (Canagarajah, 1999a; Flynn, 1999;
Lippi-Green, 1997; Mawhinney & Xu, 1997; Tang, 1997). Quirk (1995: 26, as cited
in Brutt-Griffler & Samimy, 1999: 8) states that “The implications [of the alleged lack
of adequate competence of NNS] for foreign language teaching are clear: the need for
native teacher support and the need for non-native teachers to be in constant touch
with the native language”. Here are some examples of the native speaker model in
ELT and SLA.
Govardhan et al. (1999) found that in their survey of ads for teaching English abroad,
the main and common requirement was to be a native speaker of English. A study of
non-native speaking professionals in TESOL in the USA conducted by Liu (1999:
89–91) reports on seven participants who have ESL/EFL teaching experiences
ranging from 5 to 10 years. All of them had taught English in both ESL and EFL
26
settings but did not necessarily agree that being a non-native speaker was beneficial.
All of them had experienced discrimination in hiring practices in the USA.
In the USA, the Director of the Credit ESL Division at Glendale Community College
points out that any non-native English speaker (NNES) who wishes to teach ESL in
the US needs to have some basics. One of them is an easy-to-understand accent. If an
NNES can sound more native-like, “he or she moves up a notch in the eyes of both
colleagues and students” (Flynn, 1999: 7). Lippi-Green (1997) found that teachers
with non-native accents are perceived as less qualified and less effective, if compared
with their native-English-speaking colleagues in the US.
In Canada, Mawhinney and Xu (1997) conducted a study on the relationship between
native and non-native English speaking teachers in terms of their language proficiency.
Non-native speaking English teachers were constantly questioned about their accents
in English. One principal claimed, “If these teachers want to be accepted in my school,
they must totally get rid of their accent because the students will have trouble
understanding them” (ibid.: 636). Non-native English speaking teachers felt that they
were subject to discrimination. In the words of one teacher, “Talk about difference?
The only difference is that I am not white” (ibid.: 637).
In Sri Lanka, accent is one of the major issues in ELT, as Canagarajah (1999a: 84–85)
points out:
Many Periphery professionals feel compelled to spend undue time repairing their pronunciation or
performing other cosmetic changes to sound native. Their dominant concern is in effect “How can
I lose my accent?” rather than “How can I be a successful teacher?” The anxiety and inhibitions
about their pronunciation can make them lose their grip on the instructional process or lack
rapport with their students.
27
2.1.2.3 Implications for English teachers
Despite the many challenges for NNESTs, they are beginning to be viewed by others
as equal partners in ELT. In 1998, TESOL, the international professional association
that represents teachers of English to speakers of other languages, approved the
formation of the Non-native English speakers in TESOL Caucus (Braine,
February/March 1999). According to the NNEST caucus website (http://www.unh.
edu/nnest; last accessed on May 5, 2003), the major goals of the caucus are:
1. to create a nondiscriminatory professional environment for all TESOL members
regardless of native language and place of birth,
2. to encourage the formal and informal gatherings of non-native speakers at
TESOL and affiliate conferences,
3. to encourage research and publications on the role of non-native speaker
teachers in ESL and EFL contexts,
4. to promote the role of non-native speaker members in TESOL and affiliate
leadership positions.
The aim of the caucus is to strengthen effective teaching and learning of English
around the world (Braine, February/March 1999). However, as the Caucus states there
is a persistent native and non-native dichotomy. Particularly, non-native English
speaking teachers are discriminated against in terms of employment in L1 and L2
environments, research, and publication.
The complexity of the native and non-native issue needs to be explored further so as
to help the teaching and learning process. Next, I shall explore how the native speaker
ideology is closely linked to the ideal-English-teaching-methodology (see 2.1.3), the
standard English ideology (see 2.1.4) and the younger-the-better ideology (see 2.1.5).
28
2.1.3 Ideal-English-Teaching-Methodology
Another area of English language pedagogy that has been influenced by a tendency to
rely on a native speaker model is English language teaching methodology (McKay,
2003a: 13). If native speakers of English are considered as the ideal teachers of
English that also implies that English should be taught monolingually (Phillipson,
1992a: 185). Tollefson (1991: 83) argues that the spread of English is closely linked
to what he terms “modernization theory”. According to this theory, “Western societies
provide the most effective model for ‘underdeveloped societies’ attempting to
reproduce the achievements of ‘industrialization’”. In other words, the ideal
English-teaching-method is linked to the cultures of the Center countries and is based
on a native speaker model. I shall investigate two popular teaching methodologies,
CLT and English-only immersion, the premises of which are based on a native
speaker model.
2.1.3.1 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
The spread of English has led to the widespread promotion of CLT as the ideal-
English-teaching-methodology (McKay, 2003a; Tollefson, 1991, 1995, 2000). CLT is
based on the notion of “communicative competence” as introduced by Hymes (1971,
as cited in Hyde, 1998) in the early 1970s, and the notion has been the most
significant influence on the language teaching curriculum design almost everywhere
in the world. CLT can be characterized by the following features (Nunan, 1991: 279):
1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on the
learning process itself.
4. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements
29
to classroom learning.
5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside of the
classroom.
Many researchers (Breen, 1985; Breen & Candlin, 2001; Brown; 1994; Harmer, 2003;
Long, 1991; Richards & Rodgers, 1985; Savignon, 2003), particularly in Inner Circle
countries, argue that CLT is and should be the dominant method in ELT. As a result,
CLT has been largely promoted by both private language schools and governments in
Inner Circle countries, as well as Outer and Expanding Circle countries. Take some
EFL countries for examples. The CLT method has been promoted by governments in
Chile (McKay, 2003b), China (Yu, 2001), Indonesia (Lamb, 1995; Pasassung, 2004),
Japan (LoCastro, 1996; Matsuya, 2004), Korea (Li, 1998), Morocco (McKay, 2002)
and Vietnam (Sullivan, 2000). Taiwan is no exception. There, CLT has been promoted
since 1996’s Nine-year Comprehensive Curriculum. However, the widespread
acceptance of CLT has not gone unchallenged. Current research findings indicate that
CLT in Outer and Expanding countries has been generally difficult to implement
(Burnaby & Sun, 1989; Ellis, 1996; Lamb, 1995; Li, 1998; McKay, 2002; Medgyes,
1986, as cited in McKay, 2002; Pasassung, 2004; Yu, 2001). The following are some
Confucian-influenced countries that found it difficult to implement the CLT.
In China, a survey was conducted by Burnaby and Sun (1989). They found that CLT
would not help students to pass the traditional grammar-based examinations. Many
Chinese students felt that some CLT activities seemed more like games rather than
serious learning. Large class size, limited resources and equipment made it difficult to
implement. In addition, English teachers have deficiencies in oral English and
sociolinguistic and strategic competence. Even now, a number of educators,
30
researchers, and practitioners are skeptical whether or not CLT is really superior to the
traditional analytical approach (Yu, 2001). Yu argues that current constraints on CLT
in China include the low incomes of English teachers, big class size, a Confucian
view of teachers as holders of knowledge, and a shortage of qualified teachers. The
most recent research conducted by Liu & Gong (as cited in Yu, 2001) shows similar
findings to Burnaby and Sun’s (1989) survey.
In Japan, LoCastro (1996) argues that several factors make CLT problematic.
Japanese teachers are ill prepared for communicative instruction, although the
curriculum aims to emphasize communication skills. Japanese students’ motivation
may not support CLT, since most Japanese study English in order to pass tests for
university and employment (Matsuya, 2004). Pacek’s (1996) research on introducing
CLT to experienced Japanese secondary teachers of English, found that CLT was not
implemented by many teachers, due to student, peer, and parental resistance and poor
textbooks. The teachers had to use the grammar-translation method to help students
pass exams.
In Korea, Li (1998) interviewed Korean secondary school teachers on the difficulties
involved in implementing CLT. The difficulties fell into four categories: “those caused
(a) by the teacher, (b) by the students, (c) by the educational system, and (d) by CLT
itself” (ibid.: 686). First, the teachers felt their deficiency in spoken English and
sociolinguistic competence, their lack of relevant training and limited time for
material development. Second, students’ low English proficiency, little motivation for
communicative competence and resistance to class participation made it difficult to
implement CLT. Third, the difficulties related to the educational systems were large
class size, grammar-based examinations, insufficient funding and lack of support for
31
teacher education in the implementation of CLT. Finally, CLT’s inadequate account of
EFL teaching and lack of effective and efficient assessment instruments also
contribute to the difficulties of CLT implementation.
In Vietnam, Sullivan (1996a, as cited in Sullivan, 2000) points out that Vietnamese
teachers want to learn the newest and best methods of teaching. Many have taken part
in workshops on CLT. However many have also complained that CLT just does not
work for them. The main reason is that Vietnam has a strong Confucian heritage,
and in Confucianism teachers are viewed as knowledge holders. As a result, the
Vietnamese English class is mostly “uncommunicative” since the class is generally
teacher-fronted with whole-class responses, and there is little group work, pair work,
or use of authentic materials (Sullivan, 2000: 130).
In China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam, the appropriateness of CLT has been challenged.
The main reason is that a particular culture plays an important role in teaching
methodology. Some researchers (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Ellis, 1996; Flowerdew &
Miller, 1995; Scollon & Scollon, 1995, as cited in Liu & Littlewood, 1997) argue that
CLT is not feasible in some Asian countries because Confucian values still prevail.
Other important factors that make CLT impracticable are pedagogical goals and
national examination systems. Pedagogical goals play an important role in
determining which teaching methods should be applied. The purpose of ESL is
primarily designed to help individuals function and survive in an English speaking
community “with little or no curricular demands and pressure of examinations”. On
the contrary, EFL is usually a part of the school curriculum and depends on “national
curriculum goals” (Ellis, 1996: 215). Therefore, communicative competence
32
probably is not the main goal in EFL, but other proficiencies, such as translation,
reading and writing or grammar are needed. In addition, examinations in EFL
countries test for grammar and translation skills.
2.1.3.2 English-Only Immersion Method
The tenet that English should be taught monolingually reflects the notion that
ideal-English-teachers are native speakers of English. It is assumed to be the goal of
English education to achieve native-like competence. The English-only immersion
method is probably the most popular method in Taiwan. It is derived from the Natural
or Direct method (Auerbach, 1993; Howatt, 1984). An immersion program aims to
educate a child principally in a language that is not his or her mother tongue (Obadia,
1981: 270, as citied in Berthold, 1990: 31).
Immersion language programs have grown in popularity since their origins in the mid-
1960s in Canada (Walker & Tedick, 2000). Clearly, the concept of language
immersion is well accepted and encouraged by many researchers (Berthold, 1990;
Genesee & Cloud, 1998; McCarty, 1993; Swain & Johnson, 1997). The advocates of
the immersion method argue that there is extensive and widely accepted research
supporting bilingual education for children.
However, many researchers (Auerbach, 1993; Cummins, 1986a; Lotherington, 1996;
Lucas & Katz, 1994; Morrison & Lui, 2000; Rothstein, April/May 1999; Wiley &
Lukes, 1996) believe that a monolingual approach to teaching English is ideological.
Auerbach (1993: 12) argues that monolingual approaches in the USA are determined
by “political rather than pedagogical factors”, because of the increase in immigration
since the 19th century. Monolingual instruction became a means to “enhance loyalty”
33
to the USA (ibid.: 12). According to Auerbach (1993: 9, 15), English-only immersion
methods are rooted in a “particular ideological perspective” and rest on “unexamined
assumptions”. She indicates that much research on children becoming bilinguals is
through an “immersion program”, not in EFL settings and these immersion programs
initially allow learners to use their L1 to communicate with each other and their
teachers.
Lotherington (1996) questions the appropriateness of English language immersion
education in three Micronesian countries, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Nauru.
In none of these countries is English used as a community language. According to
Lotherington (1996: 355), English immersion in these three Micronesian countries
promotes subtractive bilingualism and puts Melanesian children at risk of poor
educational achievement. The English immersion programs have led to early
fossilization of non-standard English forms, since they attempt to require students of
very limited English to use English in early immersion programs. In addition, there is
a lack of community and home support of children’s schoolwork in English.
Using students’ native languages in schooling can help them develop English
proficiency (Auerbach, 1993; Cummins, 1986b; Lucas & Katz, 1994; Morrison & Lui,
2000). Research by the Education Department of Hong Kong (Morison & Lui, 2000:
480) both worldwide and in Hong Kong demonstrated that (1) students learn better
through their mother tongue; (2) they are more motivated to learn in their mother
tongue; (3) those who learn in the mother tongue generally achieve better than their
counterparts who use English. This implies that L1 literacy or schooling can be
beneficial at all levels of English learning.
In short, CLT and English-only immersion methods do not provide a solution to
34
English teaching problems in EFL countries. Moreover, some essential conflicts will
arise in the transfer of a Western teaching approach into an EFL context. This also
implies that a Western teaching approach needs to be applied with care. Therefore,
more and more researchers argue that a context-based approach is needed in EFL
countries.
2.1.3.3. Context-Based Approach
Most English language teaching methodologies, theories and practices, based on a
native speaker model, which have originated from the Center countries have been
taken for granted by many English educators in the world without critical
examinations of the local classroom context (Cook, 1999). The above studies (see
2.1.3.1 & 2.1.3.2) have raised the need for English educators to critically review their
teaching practice and find workable teaching approaches which are responsive to their
own classroom texts. An ideal-English-teaching-methodology should be consistent
with the local cultural context (Bax, 2003; Brown & Baumgardner, 2003; Cortazzi &
Jin, 1996; Cook, 1999; Ellis, 1996; Flowerdew & Miller, 1995; Hall & Eggington,
2000; Holliday, 1994; Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996; Kubota, 1998; Lantolf, 2000;
McKay, 2002; Prabhu, 1990; Rockwell, 1998, as cited in Bax, 2003: 282; Sullivan,
2000). Kramsch and Sullivan (1996: 211) argue that an appropriate pedagogy is in
keeping with the political motto “think globally, act locally”. An appropriate teaching
method is both global and local. The implication is that English educators need to
consider how English teaching is embedded in the local context. Prabhu (1990: 161)
argues that “there is no one best method” in ELT, and the best teaching method is
based on its own teaching context.
The first priority of a context-based approach is to identify key aspects of a teaching
35
environment, such as learning needs, strategies, coursebooks, local conditions, the
classroom culture, school culture, and national culture before deciding what and how
to teach (Bax, 2003: 285). Moreover, teaching materials and language testing need
to be localized to meet learners’ needs (Bax, 2003). Therefore, a context-based
approach raises another important issue, that is, “which English should be taught?”
since all three Circles must take the local context into consideration (Brown &
Baumgardner, 2003: 249). The question of method is closely related to the question of
“which English”, which I shall address in the next section.
2.1.4 American-English-as-standard-English
Standard English is “a sociolinguistic construct, reflecting both the reality that English
is a pluricentric language, and the popular notion that one or another variety has
greater social cachet” (Kaplan, 1999: 5). There has been a debate over standards in
English in the global context. Two key figures, Randolph Quirk and Braj Kachru,
expressed very different views on this issue (Quirk & Widdowson, 1985). Quirk
(1985: 6) argues for the recognition of a single global standard for both the Inner
Circle and those outside the Inner Circle. Kachru (1985), on the other hand, argues
for a recognition of a multiplicity of standards both in native speaking communities
and those in the Outer Circle. Both Quirk and Kachru agree that in the Expanding
Circle, where “English does not have an official role, its use should be
norm-dependent since there is no regular internal use of the language” (McKay, 2002:
54). In Kachru’s Expanding Circle, English is learned as a foreign language for
international communication, relying on Inner Circle norms (Alm, 2003; Bex, 1993;
Friedrich, 2000; Nino-Murcia, 2003; Petzold, 2002).
In Expanding Circle countries, central to this debate is what standard English is and
36
which model of English should be taught and learned. There are two main standard
varieties for the Expanding Circle countries – British and American English (Trudgill
& Hannah, 2002). Standard English is the language of “the educated”; “educated
speakers as the sole possessors of the standard language”; “all variants that are used
by educated speakers”; and “the form of English taught in school”. These are some
definitions from three well-known dictionaries (Merriam Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary, Cambridge International Dictionary of English, and Chambers
Dictionary, as citied in Lippi-Green, 1997: 54–55). Lippi-Green uses these definitions
to demonstrate that standard English is mythical and ideological. These definitions
create an educated and less-educated or uneducated dichotomy and suggest that the
educated group serves as the model for other groups in terms of both spoken and
written forms. Standard language ideology has been defined as “a bias toward an
abstracted, idealized, homogenous spoken language which is imposed from above …,
which takes as its model the written language” and, which has as its goal the
“suppression of variation” (Lippi-Green, 1994: 166). In other words, access to
standard English means access to power.
Bhatt (1997: 12, as cited in Brutt-Griffler, 1998: 384) asserts that “the teaching of
English, with the entire framework and institutions that support it world-wide, is a
critical site where the dominant – Standard English – ideology is constantly evolving
and continuously bargaining with the secondary ideologies for power”. As a result,
native speakers of English are “the only valid referees to establish and authorize the
rules of correct English around the world” (Bhatt, 1997: 1, as cited in Brutt-Griffler,
1998: 384). Not surprisingly, many ESL teachers believe so-called standard English is
the only acceptable language for communication in the classroom (Auerbach, 1995).
When a country chooses a pedagogical model, there is acceptance of the beliefs and
37
behaviors of the speakers of the model (Petzold, 2002). Terms such as
“McCommunication” and “McDonaldization” have been used to describe the current
influential SLA paradigm, and the associated method, task based language teaching,
which originated in the USA and has been used world wide (Block, 2002).
Researchers (Gary, 2002; Matsuda, 2002) investigated ELT coursebooks and they
found that a majority of English textbooks are produced in either Britain or the USA.
Although the textbooks are designed for use as core texts around the world, the
content is generally based on Anglo-American culture.
Taiwan views American English as the standard English. This is a strictly perceptual
and ideological issue. When analyzing the English used in the rest of Asia and many
other countries, a completely opposite perception is held. In these countries, British
English is the standard English. Reasons for these contradictory views are normally
associated with a country’s history and their relationship with native speaking
countries (Bex, 1993; Dalton-Puffer et al., 1997; Friedrich, 2002; McHenry, 2002;
Preisler, 1999). For example, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore use British
English because they were once British colonies. American English in Taiwan is
associated with its political and historical relationship with the USA.
American-English-as-standard-English in Taiwan reinforces the view that language
both reflects and reinforces ideologies and the ideologies are mainly constructed out
of the socio-historical relationship of USA and Taiwan and educational policies (see
chapter 8).
The concept of standard English has pedagogical implications for English teaching
and learning. First, for those who want a single English language, the achievement of
native-like competence is often the goal for English learners. Users of English still
38
regard a native speaker model of pronunciation as having greatest prestige (McKay,
2002). Second, for those who treat English not as a single language but who recognize
all varieties of English or adopt a World Englishes approach, the goal of English
teaching and learning is cross-cultural communication. Therefore, since “English
belongs to its users, there is no reason why some speakers should provide standards
for others” (McKay, 2002: 126). Next, I shall look in detail at two implications of the
concept of standard English – accent and a World Englishes approach.
2.1.4.1 Accent
Crystal (1995: 110, as cited in Mesthrie et al., 2000: 21) lists essential characteristics
of modern standard English, but matters of pronunciation are excluded. “Standard
English is not a matter of pronunciation, rather of grammar, vocabulary and
orthography” (ibid.: 21). In a similar vein, there is no standardized accent associated
with standard English in Strevens’s (1983: 88) definition of standard English.
A particular dialect of English, being the only non-localized dialect, of global
currency without significant variation, universally accepted as the appropriate
educational target in teaching English; which may be spoken with an
unrestricted choice of accent (Strevens, 1983: 88).
However, an early debate on the autonomy of World Englishes began in applied
linguistics in the 1960s. Halliday, MacIntosh and Strevens (1964: 292, 296, as cited
in Bolton & Lim, 2000: 430) argued that “during the period of colonial rule it seemed
totally obvious and immutable that the form of English used by professional people in
England was the only conceivable model for use in education overseas”. Similarly, “to
speak like an Englishman is by no means the only or obvious target for the foreign
learner”. These quotes clearly show that the relationship between accent and identity
39
is an intriguing one. Fairclough (1989: 57–58) argues that standard English is viewed
as “correct” English and “an asset” because “its use is a passport to good jobs and
positions of influence and power in national and local communities”. This applies to
both written and spoken forms. Lippi-Green (1997: 41) suggests the notions of
“non-accent” and “standard language” are myths and they are “magical and powerful
constructs, because they can motivate social behaviors and actions which would
otherwise be contrary to logic or reason”. Lippi-Green’s claim asserts that accent, one
of many linguistic myths, is powerful enough to create discrimination or stereotypes
among people in a society.
Lippi-Green (1997: 50) argues that accent reduction courses in the USA make an
implied promise: “Sound like us, and success will be yours. Doors will open: barriers
will disappear”. She denies the effectiveness of this course of action by showing that
claims that it is possible to eliminate an accent are unfounded. Secondly, she argues
that the promise implies that discrimination is purely a matter of language and that it
is primarily the “right” accent that stands between “marginalized social groups and a
world free of racism and prejudicial treatment” (ibid.: 50). As a result, not many
people realize that the idea of a standard English, like American English or accent, is
an abstraction, a myth. A “one-size fits-all language” does not exist, except “as an
ideal in the minds of the speakers”. Most importantly, accent has little to do with what
is generally called “communicative competence or the ability to use and interpret
language in a wide variety of contexts effectively” (Lippi-Green, 1997: 44, 48).
However, for the majority of English learners, to achieve native-like pronunciation is
a benchmark of achievement. A study was conducted by Timmis (2002: 242–243) on
native-like English pronunciation. The questionnaire drew 400 responses from 14
40
countries and it was supported by 15 interviews. The main finding was that none of
the interviewees expressed a positive preference for the accents of their countries. In
addition, 68% of the 400 respondents stated that although they currently use English
more with non-native speakers than with native speakers of English, they want to
pronounce English just like a native speaker.
In another study conducted in Malaysia, Gill (1993: 232–234, as cited in Bamgbose,
1998: 7) found that 95.9% of the respondents opted for Received Pronunciation (RP)
as the model that should be taught. In Norway, Christophersen (1992, as cited in
Bamgbose, 1998: 7) found that Norwegian students would like to sound as close as
possible to native speaker of English. In the USA, a study was conducted at the
University of Illinois by McKay (1995, as cited in Bamgbose, 1998: 10) on 15
international ESL students’ preferences for two groups of teaching assistants. The
result showed that native speaker instructors were preferred over non-native speakers.
The desirability of having a native speaker instructor was ranked on a 3-points scale
as follows: highest (2.93) for Pronunciation, followed by Conversation (2.87),
Listening Comprehension and General Purpose ESL (2.53, 2.53) and lowest for
Grammar (1.93). In Austria, advanced Austrian EFL learners display negative
attitudes towards their own non-native English accent. Native accents – British or
American are firmly in place as models for EFL learning and teaching (Dalton-Puffer
et al., 1997). Moreover, some studies in Section 2.1.2.2 show that learners perceive
native speaking English teachers as ideal English teachers, because of their standard
native accents.
Jenkins (1998, 2002), a scholar of World Englishes approaches, promotes
intelligibility in the use of English as an international language. She argues that there
41
is nothing wrong with L2 pronunciation that does not conform to a native speaker
accent, if the accent is intelligible. In short, the central argument of standard English
tends to focus primarily on the importance of native speaker norms. However, a World
English approach argues that if English as an international language belongs to every
culture, then there are no reasons for promoting a particular variety of Englishes. Next,
I shall examine this approach more fully.
2.1.4.2 World Englishes (WE)
Non-native speakers of English using English for international communication
outnumber its native speakers (Crystal, 1997; Kachru, 1996; Graddol, 1997). This
shift has major implications for ELT and SLA. The study of World Englishes (WE)
began in the late 1960s (Gupta, 2001) and it is conceivable that the plurality of
varietal Englishes will soon replace the singular English. English no longer belongs to
America or Britain. World Englishes or English as an International Language (EIL),
known by several other names with similar conceptual frameworks, have been
proposed as a substitute for a wide range of English language users. Among the
proposed models are English as an International or Intranational Language (EIIL,
Smith, 1983), English as an International Auxiliary Language (EIAL, Smith, 1983)
and English as a World Language (EWL, Nunan, December 1999/January 2000).
Central to the EIL approach is the assumption that EIL is being learnt for
cross-cultural, international, multicultural and intercultural communication (Jenkins,
2002; McKay, 2003a; Modiano, 2001a, b; Smith, 1983). In addition, English learners
around the world need to view English as their own language of additional
communication rather than as a foreign language controlled by the Center countries
(Jenkins, 1998; Warschauer, 2000; McKay, 2002; Modiano, 2001a, b). The EIL
approach seems to be an attractive option for many EFL countries (Matsuda, 2002;
42
Modiano, 2001a, b).
However, some researchers (Bamgbose, 1998; Brown, 1993; Hill & Parry, 1994;
Jenkins, 1998; McHenry, 2002; Petzold, 2002;) predict it will be difficult to
implement EIL in the world. Petzold (2002) argues that choice of a pedagogical model
involves political, cultural and economic factors. Even if a community decides to
teach a local variety, several conditions make this hard to achieve: few non-native
varieties are codified (Bamgbose, 1998; Petzold, 2002); the proficiency tests do not
exist (Hill & Parry, 1994; Petzold, 2002); and the scarcity of materials available to
teach the Outer and Expanding Circles (Brown, 1993; Jenkins, 1998; Petzold, 2002).
McHenry (2002: 452) points out that the majority of the world’s English users live in
the Expanding Circle, but little research has been done in relation to the pedagogical
functions of a World English approach in EFL countries. As a result, two main
standard Englishes – British and American – will continue to be the models for
English teaching and learning in EFL countries.
If the two main standard Englishes continue to be models for EFL countries, then the
goal of English teaching and learning will continue to focus on native-like
competence. Another crucial issue in relation to the native speaker model is that
English should be learnt at an early age so as to acquire native-like competence. In the
next section, I will examine the ideological concept of the-younger-the-better.
2.1.5 The-Younger-the-Better
Not only has English as a foreign language been started early in elementary schools in
European countries (Phillipson, 1992a), but the practice has also been implemented in
elementary schools in many Asian countries such as China, Japan, South Korea and
43
Thailand (Su, 1998; Tucker, 2001; Zen, 1998). Taiwan started English instruction in
all grade five and six classes nation-wide in September 2001.
“The more English is taught, the better the result” is a tenet well-supported in many
countries around the world. The notion of the earlier English is taught, the better the
results is described by Phillipson (ibid.: 185) as “the early start fallacy”. Nunan
(June/July 1999) and Tucker (2001) however argue that research into the education of
immigrant children in the USA and Canada supports the concept of the-younger-the-
better. Relating to the concept of the-younger-the-better of English instruction in
EFL countries have not been sufficiently researched (Cameron, 2001; Nunan,
June/July 1999; Ong, 2003; Snow, 2001; Tucker, 2001).
Kirkpatrick (1997) argues that the earlier English is taught the better, is based on the
experience of first language learning. Bhatt (2002: 80) argues that the theoretical
assumptions in SLA underlie the construction of standard English ideology. Native
speakers represent standard languages (Davis, 2003: 197). Therefore, there is a
widespread belief that the ultimate goal of English language learning is to achieve
native-like competence. Cook (1999) argues that “SLA research has often fallen into
the comparative fallacy (Bley-Vroman, 1983, as cited in Cook, 1999: 189) of relating
the L2 learner to the native speaker. For example, the view that fossilization and
errors in L2 user’s speech add up to ‘failure to achieve native-speaker competence”.
The studies and research mentioned in 2.2.2 and 2.4.1 also demonstrate that ideal
English teachers are native speakers of English and the L2 learner’s goal is to achieve
native-like competence. In ELT and SLA, people take it for granted that the native
speaker has become the yardstick of language proficiency. As far as early childhood
acquisition is concerned, the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) has been used by
44
many researchers to judge an L2 learner in relation to native speaker status (Davis,
2003).
2.1.5.1 Critical Period Hypothesis
The Critical Period Hypothesis was first proposed by Penfield and Roberts (1959, as
cited in White & Genesee, 1996: 233). They claim that there is a critical period that
terminates around 9-12 years old, after which it is difficult or unlikely to achieve
complete or native-like mastery of a first (L1) or second language (L2). Later,
Lenneberg (1967) refined the hypothesis. Since then, researchers have argued either
for or against the existence of maturational constraints and a critical period for
language learning. Davis (2003: 178) labels pro-CPH arguments as a “psycho”
approach and anti-CPH arguments as a “socio” approach to language learning and the
native speaker. Researchers who favor a “psycho” approach argue for an absolute
distinction between native speakers and non-native speakers and, for the existence of
a critical period. Those who favor a “socio” approach argue that “the appropriate
social context can bring about native-speaker capacities” even after the onset of the
critical period (ibid.: 178). The “psycho” party believes in the early child learning.
However, the “socio” party argues there is no such thing as an absolute biological
constraint on second language learning. Both parties have examined L2 performance
across various linguistic domains such as phonology, lexicon, morphology and syntax,
or grammar and language in use, to support their arguments.
Many studies (Long, 1990; Moyer; 1999; Oyama 1976, as cited in Moyer, 1999;
Patkowski, 1990; Scovel, 1988, as cited in Bongaerts et al., 1999) have found that
starting earlier is better for acquiring second language pronunciation. For example,
Scovel (1988: 101, as cited in Bongaerts et al., 1997: 448) argues that there is a
45
critical period for the acquisition of the pronunciation of an L2, because pronunciation
is “the only aspect of language performance that has a neuromuscular basis”. If an L2
learner starts to learn an L2 later, they will never be able “to pass themselves off as
native speakers “ and will “end up easily identified as non-native speakers of that
language” (Scovel, 1988: 185, as cited in Bongaerts et al., 1999: 448).
In grammar learning, many researchers (DeKeyser, 2000; Harly & Hart, 1997;
Johnson & Newport, 1989; Weber-Fox & Neville, 1999) state that individuals past the
critical period are worse than younger individuals at learning a language. The study
has drawn widespread attention and one of most frequently cited references in SLA
acquisition is to Johnson and Newport’s study. Johnson and Newport (1989)
administered a grammaticality judgment test with a wide variety of basic
morphosyntactic structures of English to a group of 46 native speaker of Chinese and
Korean who had begun to learn English at different ages (3–39). The subjects were
professors, research associates, and graduate students at an American University. They
had all been in the USA for at least 5 years. Johnson and Newport found there was a
strong relationship between an early start to language learning and performance in the
second language. Older learners will not have native-like English and are more likely
to differ greatly from one another. However, Singleton argues:
The notion that L2 age effects are exclusively neurologically based, that they are associated with
absolute, well-defined chronological limits, and that they are particular to language looks less and
less plausible. (Singleton, 2001: 85 as cited in Davis, 2003: 179)
In summation, age limits on language acquisition, post puberty or older L2 learners
are always distinguishable from theose who have learned the language beginning in
their early childhood. These studies indicate quite clearly that there are age-related
46
effects on L2 proficiency.
However, many researchers (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1999; Bongaerts et al., 2000;
Birdsong, 1999; Coppieters, 1987, as cited in Davis, 2003; Hyltenstam &
Abrahamsson, 2000; Juffs & Harrington, 1995; Krashen et al., 1979; Lightbown, 2000;
Marinova-Todd et al., 2000; Piller, 2001b, 2002; Singleton, 1989; Slavoff & Johnson,
1995; White & Genesee, 1996) argue that the CPH needs to be refined.
Many researchers argue that late or adult learners can achieve native-like proficiency
in various linguistic domains, when conditions are favorable. In the phonological
domain, many researchers (Bongaerts, 1999; Bongaerts et al., 1997 & 2000; Flege et
al., 1999; Flege & Liu, 2001; Slavoff & Johnson, 1995) argue that it is possible for
post-critical period learners to achieve a native-like pronunciation. For example,
Bongaerts (1999) reports evidence that 11 adult Dutch speakers of British English
escaped the clutches of the critical period clutches and achieved a native-like accent.
In the grammatical and lexical domain, some researchers (Birdsong, 1992; Ioup et al.,
1994; White & Genesee, 1996) show that adult learners can achieve linguistic
competence which is indistinguishable from native speakers. For example, White and
Genesee (1996) tested 19 native, 44 near-native, and 45 non-native speakers of
English on their knowledge of some aspects of universal grammar. The average age of
subjects (non-native) was 29 years old, with a range of 16–66. The average age of
controls (native) was 28 years. Their results suggest that native-like attainment is
possible regardless of age of initial exposure to the L2.
Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson (2000) argue that a number of questions in relation to
47
the CPH remain. As far as maturational constraints in second language acquisition are
concerned, they question “Who can become native-like in a second language? All,
some, none?” (ibid.: 150). From a pro-CPH perspective, only younger learners can
achieve native-like proficiency in L2, while later learners can never become
native-like. On the other hand, from an anti-CPH perspective, everyone can become
native-like. However, in reality, few second language learners (both younger and late
learners) achieve native-like proficiency. Next, I shall argue that the relevance of
the CPH in EFL countries is questionable.
2.1.5.2 Early English Education in EFL Countries
Many researchers (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1999; Birdsong, 1999; Davis, 2003;
Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2000; Lightbown, 2000; Marinova-Todd et al., 2000;
Piller, 2001b) argue that, in the context of EFL, the relevance of the CPH is
ideological.
Lightbown (2000: 48) argues that “Even when learners begin at an early age, the
reality is that perfect mastery of a target language is rarely attained”. There are many
reasons for this. First, there is a lack of qualified English teachers, that is, many
English teachers may not provide a native-like language model (Bailey, 2001;
Cameron, 2003; Lightbown, 2000; Lightbown & Spada, 1994; Murphey,
September/October/November 2003; Nunan, June/July 1999; Ong, 2003; Takada,
April/May 1999; Tucker, 1999; Tucker, 2003). As a result, all other input, coming
from learners like themselves, may not provide an adequate level for learners to aim
at (Lightbown, 2000; Lightbown & Spada, 1994; Wong Fillmore, 1991). Second,
there is a lack of time available for contact with the language (Cameron, 2003;
Lightbown, 2000; Lightbown & Spada, 1994). Learners within an English speaking
48
environment have the opportunity to practice their English skills immediately outside
the classroom, but EFL learning is limited to classroom instruction and the number of
hours is limited. Third, when learners begin learning English at an early age and then
do not continue with the language, the proficiency they have developed may be lost
(Cameron, 2003; Lightbown, 2000; Lightbown & Spada, 1994; Stern, 1983). Finally,
if the total amount of English instruction time is limited, some researchers (Cummins,
1981; Harley & Hart, 1997, Krashen, 2001; Krashen et al., 1979; Lightbown, 2000;
Lightbown & Spada, 1994; Singleton, 1989) argue that it is likely to be more effective
to begin instruction when learners have reached an age with established L1 literacy
skills, since they can make use of a variety of learning strategies, including their L1
literacy skills.
Phillipson (1992a: 209) points out a number of examples in underdeveloped countries,
which have opted for English from early on in the primary system, either as a subject
or as a medium, and where the results have been disappointing. In addition, many
researchers (Gonzales, 1998, as cited in Tucker 1999; Hakuta, as citied in Tucker
1999; Swain & Johnson, 1997; Swain, 1996; Tucker, 1999, 2003) argue that L1
proficiency is the basis for learning a second or additional language. Learners who
start learning a foreign language at an early age do not necessarily have an advantage.
Tucker (2003: 466) points out that “the best predictor of cognitive/academic language
development in a second language is the level of development of cognitive/academic
language proficiency in the first language”.
Advancing the starting age for English learning creates more jobs for teachers of
English. Phillipson (1992a: 215) suggests that the notion of the-younger-the-better
strengthens dependence on aid and expertise from the core countries. There is an
49
ideological dependence on the Center for teaching. It is believed that not only
foreign or Western expertise, but also norms, teaching methods, teaching materials
and aids, and anything in relation to English education and by implication language
policy will rely heavily on English speaking countries. The aim of an earlier start for
English education is assumed to lead to modernization and internationalization in
many EFL countries, but before achieving this goal, it creates an unequal relationship
among the people in the society, and a division between Center and Periphery.
2.1.6 Conclusion
The central theme of this research is that language school promotional materials
reflect and construct ideologies of English teaching and learning which play a key
role in Taiwan’s social, educational, and economic inequalities. The focal point
throughout this research is that language school promotional discourses, on the one
hand, and the ideologies of ELT and SLA, on the other, although they may be
perceived to be distinct and separate, do, in fact, reflect and reinforce each other.
The ideologies and the advertisements are in a symbiotic relationship – each feeding
into the other and each feeding on the other. The ideologies inform the advertisements
and the advertisements encourage acceptance of the ideologies. The relationship is
self-sustaining and self-nourishing, becoming ever more naturalized and self-evident,
and ever less open to critique, or subject to contradiction. To examine the complex
interaction between language school promotional discourses and academic theories of
ideologies of ELT and SLA, a critical media discourse analysis is needed.
2.2 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Media Discourses
To explore these ideologies of ELT and SLA set out in previous sections, a critical
discourse approach is needed. The following sections provide a theoretical framework
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of CDA and media discourse. Before moving on to critical media discourse, it is
necessary to examine the differences between discourse analysis (DA) and critical
discourse analysis (CDA).
2.2.1 Discourse Analysis vs. Critical Discourse Analysis
Gee (1990: xix) argues that discourses are a “way of behaving, interacting, valuing,
thinking, believing, speaking, and often reading and writing that are accepted as
instantiations of particular roles by a specific group of people”. CDA considers “the
social, cultural, economic and political ways in which people are inequitably
positioned” and “how the production and reception of texts is ideologically shaped by
relations of power” (Pennycook, 1997: 23, 28). Van Dijk (1993: 279) suggests that
CDA can only make a significant and special contribution to society if it is able to
provide “an account of the role of language, language use, discourse or
communicative events in the (re)production of dominance and inequality”.
Fairclough (1992b: 12) points out the difference between critical approaches and
non-critical approaches by stating that CDA does not just describe discursive practices,
but shows “how discourse is shaped by relations of power and ideologies, and the
constructive effects discourse has upon social identities, social relations and systems
of knowledge and belief, neither of which is normally apparent to discourse
participants”. A critical approach on discourse analysis explores issues such as class,
cultural difference, ethnicity, ideology, identity, gender, and power, and how they are
manifested in particular texts. Moreover, it is believed that awareness of the
ideological effects of discourse can lead to changes in discourse practice that will
result in greater social equality and justice (Fairclough, 1992a: 10). CDA is an
important tool for critical applied linguistics (CAL) (Pennycook, 2001: 13). I will
look at the role CDA of particular media discourses plays in CAL in 2.3. Next, I shall
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explore media discourses.
2.2.2 Media Discourses
Analyses in the field of CDA often focus on media texts, such as television,
newspaper reporting, advertising, and so on, and “critical linguists go one step further
in looking more closely at the social forces behind the linguistic persuasion”
(Mesthrie et al., 2000: 327). Advertising is an inescapable fact of life in today’s
consumer societies and advertisements are everywhere, such as on TV, radio and the
Internet, in newspapers, pamphlets and fliers, on buses and trains and so on.
“Advertising can be expected to reflect pretty closely the current trends and value
systems of a society” (Vestergaard & Schroder, 1985: 10). “Advertising has actually
provided models for consumer needs, values, tastes and behavior” (Fairclough 1989:
207). An important aspect in advertising is the use of persuasive strategies which are
reflected in the use of language and/or images. As a result, audiences or readers may
be influenced consciously or unconsciously through the persuasive strategies used.
Hence, the persuasive strategies used by media constitute an important aspect in the
study of media discourse (Beasley & Danesi, 2002; Cook, 2001; Fairclough, 1989;
Goddard, 1998; Leiss et al., 1986; Myers; 1999; Sutherland & Sylvester, 2000;
Vestergaard & Schroder, 1985).
In the following sections, I shall first look at how media discourses produced by
language schools market ideologies of English teaching and learning to their
customers. Then, the Critical Linguistics’ framework (Halliday, 1978, 1985;
Fairclough, 1992b; Martin, 2000; Kress & van Leeuwen, 1990, 1996, 2000), which is
regarded as a pioneer in media discourse analysis (Garrett & Bell, 1998: 5), will be
52
discussed in 2.2.2.2.
2.2.2.1 Marketized English
Wernick (1991) sees contemporary culture as “promotional culture” which has been
used as a means or tool for selling commodities, services, and organizations.
“Marketized English” (Goodman, 1996b: 164) and “Selling English” (Pegrum, 2004:
3) are concerned with the reasons why English has been marketed as a product or
commodity and the different media channels used to persuade customers to buy the
product. As Fairclough (1995b: 38) suggests, there are important differences between
“different type of media in their channels of communication and the technologies they
draw upon”. Before turning to examine how media channels are used by language
schools to market their product, it is necessary to look at how educational institutions
come increasingly to operate as if they are ordinary businesses competing to sell their
products to their customers.
Wernick (1991: 155–178) shows how old and established universities, as well as
newer ones, use advertising constantly to promote themselves for student recruitment.
Fairclough (1993: 144–159) uses some advertisements for academic posts published
by universities in England to demonstrate how the universities use “promotional
discourse” to sell their products, such as courses and degrees to their customers –
students. Wernick (ibid.: 164) particularly points out that the “course outline
(containing course aims, reading lists, lecture schedule, and grading schema) which,
circulated beforehand, sometimes in great numbers, can be a crucial promotional
device”. Fairclough (ibid.: 155) uses Lancaster University’s undergraduate
prospectuses for the years 1967-8 and 1993 to show how the aims of university
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prospectuses have changed from a “take-it-or-leave-it” basis in the 1967-8
prospectuses to a “promotional function” as the first primary goal in the 1993
prospectuses. When Lancaster University revised its prospectus in the late 1980s,
the number of applicants went up by 15 percent for two successive years, because the
content and form were designed based on market research, that is, on what applicants
most want to know.
As far as language schools in Taiwan are concerned, although there is a bull market
for English language schools, generally speaking, student fees are the language
schools’ only source of income, so the competition is great among old and
well-established, and newer language schools. The older ones have a considerable
advantage, because their inherited status can guarantee a substantial number of
students, as well as teaching and administration quality. A high reputation cannot be
created overnight, so newer English language schools have to portray an image of
higher or tighter academic standards to show their excellence by hiring qualified and
experienced teachers, applying the most up-to-date teaching methods, providing the
best learning outcomes and so on.
The differences in channel and technology have “significant wider implications in
terms of the meaning potential of the different media” (Fairclough, 1995b: 38). The
significant wider implications used by different media all indicate that the aim of
language schools is “to persuade potential customers that the publicized product or
service is worth at least the price of purchase” (Wernick, 1991: 27).
54
One of the most effective means of print advertising is “direct advertising” (Beasley
& Danesi, 2002: 79). Print advertising includes “all forms of sales appeals mailed,
delivered, or exhibited directly to the prospective buyer of an advertised product or
service” (ibid.: 79). Using school fliers is deemed to be a necessity for every language
school in Taiwan. School fliers are used intensively in great number, especially before,
during and after winter and summer vacations. Students are indeed consumers, just as
different English classes or courses are commodities and different language schools
are different brands. Whatever the rhetoric about excellence in language school fliers,
the messages are essentially ideologies of ELT and SLA; and their main point is
equally promotional: to attract more customers so as to sell more products.
Television advertising is the most effective contemporary medium for delivering
products because it communicates directly to consumers through a combination of
different modes: spoken and written words, music, images and graphics (Beasley &
Danesi, 2002; Myers, 1999). Television advertising can reach a vast and nationwide
audience, but it is not available to every language school; in fact, the majority of
language schools cannot afford television advertising. In particular, a smaller size
language school that is limited in capital or advertising budget and dependent on
expanding its business has to use a quite different approach, such as fliers and
websites.
The Internet has become a highly effective medium of advertising since its advent in
the 1990s (Beasly & Danesi, 2002; Myers, 1999). All media produced by language
schools can be interactive. The Internet offers a new way of response and
participation which other advertising media cannot provide. Myers (1999: 138–139)
sees the web as an “interactive catalogue”. For example, normally customers do not
55
directly buy products from language school websites, but a customer may certainly
use it as part of his or her research before going to any particular language school.
To investigate how advertising techniques such as language, pictures, graphic design
and so on used in promotional materials to market English as a product, a critical
approach to media discourse is needed. Next, I will look at Critical Linguistics – a
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) approach which will be used in analyzing
language school promotional materials.
2.2.2.2 Critical Linguistics – Systemic Linguistics
“Critical linguistics” is an approach developed by a group of researchers in the 1970s.
They tried to marry a method of linguistic text analysis with a social theory of the
functioning of language in political and ideological processes, drawing upon
functionalist linguistic theory – the systemic functional model of Michael Halliday
(1978, 1985) and known as “systemic linguistics” (Fairclough, 1992b: 25).
Halliday’s systemic functional model is one of the most important approaches of CDA.
This model has proved a very useful model in a number of areas of applied linguistics
and the range of applications is growing all the time (Martin et al., 1997: 2). In order
to know how society and discourse shape each other, the analytical modal employed
in my research is Halliday’s (1978: 33) systemic functional model or
three-metafuction model – “field”, “tenor” and “mode”. According to Halliday (1978:
112–113, 1985: 9–12),
Field – the social action: “What is actually taking place?” This is the ideational component and it
expresses “the phenomena of the environment: the things – creatures, objects, actions, events,
qualities, states and relations of the world and of our own consciousness ”.
56
Tenor – the role structure: “Who is taking part?” This is the interpersonal component.
Speakers express “their own attitudes and judgments and seek to influence the attitudes and
behavior of others.”
Mode – the symbolic organization: “what role language is playing?” This is the textual
component and it “expresses the relation of the language to its environment, including both
verbal environment – what has been said or written before – and the non-verbal, situational
environment.”
Halliday (1978, 1985) points out that every clause or simple sentence of a text is
multifunctional and is a combination of ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings.
People make choices of their clauses to “signify (and construct) social identities,
social relationships and knowledge” (Fairclough, 1992b: 76). Moreover, based on
Halliday’s three-metafunction model, Martin (2000: 1) represents these three
metafuncations diagrammatically (Figure 2-1 & 2-2) to illustrate how language
realizes the social context.
Figure 2-1: Language Realizing Social Context (Martin, 2000: 1)
Social context
Language
57
Figure 2-2: Metafuncational Diversification (Martin, 2000: 1)
mode
field
textual
ideational
tenor
interpersonal
Fairclough’s (1992b: 73) three-dimensional conception of discourse and Kress and
van Leeuwen’s (1990, 1996, 2001) language and visual communication model apply
Halliday’s systemic functional model. Fairclough (1992b: 73) uses “three dimensional
conceptions of discourse” to present discourse as simultaneously involving three
dimensions – text, “discourse practice and social practice” (see Figure 2-3).
According to Fairclough (1992a: 10; 1993: 135–136), ‘Text’ refers to a language text,
which may be spoken, written or signed. “Discourse practice” is involved with text
production and text interpretation. Social practice refers to wider social, cultural and
political relations.
Figure 2-3: Three-dimensional Conception of Discourse (Fairclough, 1992b: 73)
TEXT
DISCURSIVE PRACTICE
(production, distribution, consumption)
SOCIAL PRACTICE
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Fairclough also demonstrates the relationships among “text”, “discourse practice” and
“social practice” by using “a three-dimensional view of discourse analysis” (Figure
2-4). The relationship between social action and text is mediated by interaction. That
means the nature of the interaction, how texts are produced and interpreted, depends
upon the social action in which they are embedded (Fairclough, 1992a: 10).
Figure 2-4: A three-dimensional View of Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 1992a:

10)
Process of production
Text Description
Process of interpretation Interpretation

Interaction
Explanation
Social action
Fairclough (1993: 36) argues that “any text can be regarded as interweaving
‘ideational’, ‘interpersonal’ and ‘textural’ meanings”. Therefore, his three-
dimensional framework for exploring a particular discursive event based on
Halliday’s systemic functional model is used for the analysis of text – form and
meaning analysis (Fairclough, 1992b).
In their discussions of visual images, Kress and van Leeuwen (1990: 5) point out that
“texts composed of different media show these social differences in contrasting
encodings in the different media”, so that in a text using images and writing, the
writing may carry one set of meanings and the images another. While Kress and van
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Leeuwen (1990, 1996, 2001) analyze images of texts or visual communication, their
visual grammar is also based on Halliday’s systemic functional model as well (see
also chapter 3).
In short, CDA is used in this study to provide tools for a critical media analysis of
language school promotional materials. In the next section, I will look at the role of
CDA in critical applied linguistics.
2.3 CAL and CDA
Critical Applied Linguistics is a critical approach to applied linguistics (Pennycook,
2001: 1). Recently, some researchers (Auerbach, 1995; Canagarajah, 1999a; Kubota,
2002; Pennycook, 1994a, b; Peirce, 1995; Phillipson, 1992b) argue that there is a need
for a critical approach in ELT and SLA. More importantly, these researchers have
attempted to persuade ESL/EFL educators that English teaching and learning is part
of wider social, political and economic processes that contribute to social, political
and economic inequalities. They argue for a critical approach that would empower
teachers and learners, and consequently result in greater social, political and economic
equality and justice.
Pennycook (1994b: 691) points out three important features of critical pedagogical
research to ELT and SLA in CAL. First, the aim of critical pedagogical research is not
merely descriptive or interpretive, but rather it is transformative. Secondly, a goal of
critical pedagogical research would be “to change those conditions of inequality that it
describes; it requires research to be answerable to a broader politics of social
transformation”. Finally, critical pedagogical research attempts to pursue different
60
possibilities of research and a self-reflexivity. Self-reflexivity means “raising a host of
new and difficult questions about knowledge, politics, and ethics” (Pennycook, 2001:
8).
In addition, Pennycook (2001) points out that some researchers have used critical
approaches to present their different critical concerns in ELT and SLA, such as,
critical approaches to language teaching, critical approaches to language testing, and
critical approaches to language planning and language rights. These studies have
different critical concerns such as the relationships between language and identity,
language and culture, language and power. In a recent study, Pegrum (2004: 3–9)
analyzed advertisements by universities, English textbook and English dictionary
publishers, and English testing services (TOEFL, TOEIC and IELT) from English
speaking countries in four well-known ELT publications: IATEFL (UK-based,
International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language), TESOL
Matters (US-based, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages), ET Gazette
(UK-based), and Language Travel Magazine (UK-based) to investigate how the inner
circle countries make huge profits from “selling English” (ibid.: 3) to the outer and
expanding circle countries. His main finding is that ELT is ideological, since English
is promoted as a native speaker’s asset (cf. chapter 6), an “inevitable concomitant of
modernization, globalization, self-development and a cosmopolitan enjoyment of life”
(cf. chapter 5). However, the media discourse used by language schools in EFL
countries that have ideological and political functions of ELT and SLA have not yet
been researched.
In many EFL countries, English is considered indispensable for social and
professional success and private language schools are numerous (Friedrich, 2001;
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Alm, 2003). The media perform a function which is both ideological and political
(Kress, 1983). In this research, I hope to demonstrate the value of analyzing
promotional materials of language schools to show linkages between discourse
practices, social relations, and ideologies of ELT and SLA.
2.4 Conclusion
This chapter has introduced the ideological concepts of ELT and SLA such as
English-as-the-global-language, the ideal-English-teacher, the ideal-English-teaching-
methodologies, American-English-as-standard-English, and the-younger-the-better,
which have been virtually non-existent until recently in Taiwan. These ideologies
stem from the global spread of English that contributes to significant social, political,
and economic inequalities. To explore these inequalities, a critical discourse analysis
approach is needed. CDA seeks to show how social, political, economic, and cultural
inequalities are grounded in discourse. The ultimate goal of CDA is to help people
become aware of the use of language in the exercise of power and, in many instances,
the victimization of individuals. Therefore, I will explore the close interrelationship
between English language schools and society as reflected in discourse practices. To
explore how language school promotional materials convey ideologies of ELT and
SLA, a critical media research method is needed. Next, I will provide a description of,
and the rationale for, the research methods used in this study.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
The aim of this study is to discover current ideologies of English teaching and
learning in Taiwan as expressed in media discourses, and particularly promotional
discourses for language schools. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used
to analyze language school promotional materials. The materials may seem mundane
and ideologically innocent at first sight, but in fact they convey ideological concepts
of English teaching and learning. The examples are drawn from a corpus of
advertising materials, English teaching job ads, language school fliers, English and
Mandarin Chinese websites, television commercials, and television English teaching
programs. A quantitative method is used to yield numerical data which are treated
statistically to determine whether significant relationships exist between variables
(Taylor, 2000: 164). A qualitative method is used to “generate rich, detailed and
valid data” (Steckler, 1992, as cited in Taylor, 2000: 171) to obtain a holistic picture
of ideologies of ELT and SLA in Taiwan.
There are three parts in this chapter. The first part of this chapter deals with the
rationale for the research method. The second part provides background information
and description of the collected data. The last part of the chapter focuses on the
methods of data analysis.
3.1 Rationale for Research Method
Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991) argue that researchers should choose a research
method or approach based on their study.
63
What is important for researchers is not the choice of a priori paradigms, or methodologies, but
rather to be clear about what the purpose of the study is and to match that purpose with the
attributes most likely to accomplish it. Put another way, the methodological design should be
determined by the research question (ibid.: 14).
Therefore, the established themes identified in the previous chapters and the aims of
the research were important in determining what research methods would be used.
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were jointly employed in my research
based not only on the nature of the identified problems and aims of the research but
also on mutual dependence of quantitative and qualitative research methodologies
(Reichardt & Cook, 1979, as cited in Chaudron, 1988: 15; Taylor, 2000: 181). There is
no simple dichotomy between quantitative and qualitative methods, so a multiplicity
of orientations to research exists (Cumming, 1994: 673; Lazaraton, 1995: 464; Taylor,
2000: 179). Research methods are selected according to the purposes that guide
specific projects or are appropriate to particular contexts. Cumming (1994: 674)
argues that one designated research orientation might actually entail a variety of
potentially different analytic units and methods.
To investigate ideologies of English teaching and learning, a critical approach is
employed. Critical research does not imply a particular approach or research method
but rather is concerned with the extent to which research is answerable to larger moral
and political questions (Pennycook, 1994b: 692). A critical discourse approach will
be employed in the study to investigate the relationships between English language,
power and inequity which are central to the field of English teaching and learning,
and to investigate how these ideologies stem from larger political, social, and
64
economic contexts.
3.2 Data Collection
“Indefinite triangulation” is a research strategy which “provides details on how
various interpretations of ‘what happened’ are assembled from different physical,
temporal, and biographically provided perspectives of a situation” (Cicourel, 1974: 5).
In this study, in order to provide multiple sources or “triangulation” of more accurate
and convincing evidence than a single source of information, a corpus of texts
advertised by language schools, such as English teaching job ads (102 texts), language
school fliers (79 texts), English and Mandarin Chinese websites (73 texts), television
commercials (9 texts) and television English teaching programs (2 texts) were
collected.
Additional data are provided by media discourses on the World Wide Web (see
documentation). There are four online sources: Taiwanese government publications,
English newspapers in Taiwan, English teaching and learning related websites in
Taiwan, and the government websites. The Taiwanese government publications are
Taiwan Headline, Taipei Journal, Taipei Review, and Sinorama. The English language
newspapers are the Taipei Times and China Post. Other English teaching and learning
websites are, generally speaking, English teachers’ websites, such as Murphy’s
Teaching in Taiwan or Banerjee’s Teach English in Taiwan or websites for English
teachers, such as oriented.org.com and teach-in-Taiwan.com. The government
websites refer to those hosted by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of the
Interior. The additional data were not analysed quantitatively, as the promotional
materials are. Rather, they were used as further qualitative evidence to triangulate
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the results of the analysis of the advertisements, and also other themes in this
research.
The rest of this section describes the main corpus, language school advertisements, in
detail.
3.2.1 English Teaching Job Ads
As the introduction indicates, Taiwan is actively recruiting ever more native speakers
of English, seeking their involvement in ELT to help the Taiwanese people to acquire
better English so as to accelerate the process of internationalization. Different ways
can been used by native speakers of English to get an English teaching job in Taiwan.
Some are recruited through agencies or organizations overseas such as Fulbright,
Teach Taiwan, and other branches of major language schools such as Hess and Joy.
The majority of native speakers of English come to Taiwan on visitor visas and then
get teaching jobs in language schools. Many World Wide Web sites
(e.g., www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Flats/7974/teachtai.htm, www.geocities.com/Athens/
Delp
hi/1979/index.html, http://users.evl.net/~turton/mainindex.html, www.geocities.com
/Tokyo/Towers/5657/ FAQ.html) point out that the most common method of finding
an English teaching job in Taiwan is through English language daily newspapers in
Taiwan and the Internet, because both private language schools and many colleges
hire native English speaking teachers by advertising in Taiwan’s English language
press, or on the Internet (Taiwan Headlines: August 28, 2001, http://th.gio.gov.tw
/show.cfm? news_id=10801; last accessed on October 18, 2001).
There are three English language newspapers in Taiwan: China Post, Taipei Times,
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and Taiwanese News. In terms of English teaching job ads, the papers are fairly
similar and there does not seem to be any one day which features more job
advertisements than the others. The above-mentioned websites suggest that China
Post is the best source for English teaching job seekers. Some websites also provide
English teaching job ads, such as www.linguistlist.org and www.teach-in-Taiwan.com.
The job service of www.linguistlist.org advertises English teaching jobs mainly for
college or university level throughout the world. Therefore, it has been set up for
various countries in the world and it is not specific to any area or country. The latter is
specifically for people who are interested in English teaching jobs in Taiwan. It is
probably the most popular Internet source for all levels of English teaching in Taiwan.
Therefore, in this study, English teaching job ads from the China Post and teach-in-
Taiwan.com were collected and analyzed.
Taiwan Headlines states “Summer a language opportunity” (Taiwan Headlines: July
11, 2000, http://th.gio.gov.tw/ show.cfm? news_id=4270; last accessed on October 18,
2001). This is so because students are free to pursue language studies during the
summer period and consequently teaching opportunities during the summer period are
more numerous than at any other time during the year. The data for English job ads
were therefore collected from two sources during the summer vacation in 2001; China
Post and www.teach-in-Taiwan.com. There are 102 advertisements for English
teaching job ads in this study and 54 of them are drawn from the July 19, 2001 China
Post and 48 of them are drawn in July and August, 2001 from www.teach-
in-Taiwan.com. The date July 19, 2001 was randomly selected. On July 19, 2001,
as many as 62 jobs which required English proficiency were advertised on page 16
and 17 in the classified section of China Post. 8 (13%) of 62 job ads were not related
to English teaching jobs. 54 (87%) of them were English teaching jobs. Therefore, a
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total of 54 job ads were analyzed. Another 48 job ads appearing during the summer
vacation – July and August 2001 – on www.teach-in-Taiwan.com were also added to
the corpus.
A typical English job ad (see Figure 3-1) in China Post runs about 6 to 7 lines and
very few have only 3 or 4 lines. English job ads with larger headings and boxed are
very common in English newspaper advertising in Taiwan. The format of English
teaching job ads on teach-in-Taiwan.com is different from China Post. There is a
certain format on Teach-in-Tawian.com, i.e., two boxes for advertisers to complete
(see Figure 3-2). The first box contains job title, school location, number of viewers,
school’s location, school’s or employment service’s name, and date of ads advertised.
The second box is the content of job advertisements. There are no limits to words or
lines in the content part. Some ads are as short as 3 lines with less than 30 words,
some are as long as 37 lines with more than 370 words. In three job ads in the data,
school homepages are provided and viewers are asked directly to log on their
homepages for detailed information. There is a “read more – comment>>” function at
the bottom right corner of the second box. Viewers can apply for the jobs they are
interested in on the Internet by clicking this button. The following are two examples.
School address, school names, phone numbers, email addresses, and contact people
are excluded and the symbol “XXX” is placed to protect their identities.
Figure 3-1: C25 English Teaching Job Ad from China Post, July 19, 2001
__________________________
English teachers wanted,
XXX area, Mon. to Fri, 9:30 –
11:40 a.m. Western look is a
must, American accent preferred.
Call XXX at XXX
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___________________________
Figure 3-2: T17 English Teaching Job Ad from teach-in-Taiwan.com, July 18, 2001
English teacher (views:111)
Location: XXX
Email School: XXX American Children School (XXX)
This job was added on Wednesday July 18th 2001 @ 09:02 AM EST
We are looking for native speakers, North American

accent, college degree, love to teach children
age 3-8 years old. Part time/ Full time,
for more information, Please call XXX/XXX
option 1. near Howard Prince Hotel (XXX)

option 2. near Morrison Academy (XXX)
read more--comment>>
3.2.2 School Fliers
With regard to written advertisements, language schools in Taiwan normally do not
use either glossy brochures or prospectuses or detailed course outlines, but school
fliers. Like glossy brochures, prospectuses, detailed course outlines or other forms
of written advertisements, school fliers which contain various information are
designed to sell the school’s courses to potential customers. School fliers are the most
popular promotional devices. They have been used as an important marketing strategy
to make contact with potential and existing customers.
A total of 79 school fliers was collected in three cities, mainly Tainan, Kaohsiung, and
Pingtung, in the southern part of Taiwan, by visiting these locations in July and
August 2001 and 2002. 32 out of the 79 are English language school fliers, 31 of them
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are buxiban fliers and 16 of them are for other kinds of language schools such as
kindergarten, nurseries and language schools specializing in English camps.
School fliers normally present not only written text but also pictures or images to
demonstrate how, where, when, what and by whom English is taught. School fliers
provide useful and factual information of English teaching and learning based on
perceived students’ desires or social trends. The following is a description of school
fliers.
As far as layout of school fliers is concerned, a standard size of a language school
flier is A4. Some schools use smaller sizes such as A5 or B5 and some use bigger
sizes such as A3 and B4. Some fliers have a border around them. Every flier is printed
on colored paper. The fliers with images or pictures, generally speaking, are
multicolored and in larger sizes. The fliers without pictures in them are plain and
normally in smaller sizes. Established or leading schools do not necessarily use bigger
sized and multicolored school fliers. Some images are accompanied by a written text
and some images do not have a written text, but a heading. Some images are used as a
background to the flier without an accompanying written text or heading. The
language used in the fliers is mainly Mandarin Chinese and some English is also used.
Mandarin in the data will be transliterated into English with the transcription system,
Pinyin. More detailed information about Mandarin Chinese analysis in this study
will be provided later in this chapter (see 3.4).
Generally speaking, the content of school fliers has four parts: the school name and
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logo; a slogan and/or short paragraph; body text; and contact information. First,
a school flier starts with its school logo followed by its school name (both in
Mandarin Chinese and English). Following the school logo and school name
normally is a school slogan and/or a short paragraph which provides information
about the school or anything related to English teaching and learning. However, some
schools in the corpus provide their slogans at the bottom of their fliers. Following that,
language schools present a body text. A body text provides information such as how,
where, when, what and by whom English is taught. In addition, it provides
information such as tuition fee, class size, school history, and school rules. School
fliers usually conclude with their contact information, such as school address,
telephone number, fax number, and website.
3.2.3 Websites
The World Wide Web has become an attractive environment for advertising. Websites
use both visual and audio channels and rely not only on technologies of photographic
reproduction, graphic design and printing but also on sound. Color pictures, audio,
and even video can be presented on the websites inexpensively if compared with
television advertising. Therefore, advertising on websites has proved to have
substantial advantages over other means of advertisements. For example, the web is a
very different medium; it is a high involvement and interactive medium. As far as the
advertisers are concerned, most importantly it is possible to build a wide audience
without extensive and costly promotion and advertising. According to Sutherland
and Sylvester (2000: 238), web advertising “accounts for about the same as outdoor
advertising, barely more than 1 per cent of all advertising expenditure”. Any brand
of any substance today has a website, and the company website often starts out its life
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as just one more way to advertise its products (ibid.: 238). The growing number of
language schools that provide their websites in their school fliers or English teaching
job ads demonstrates that the web is virtually the principal point of contact, the place
people know where to look for more information about the schools.
Prior to the invention of the web, if learners wanted to acquire some information on
courses provided by language schools, they had to visit the schools in person or by
phone. A visit to a language school involves considerable inconvenience and
traveling time. People are more likely to do something that takes less effort such as
dialing a language school, but they cannot obtain visual information by phone. With
web pages, inquirers can log on when it suits them and get both visual and verbal
modes. A survey conducted in the USA on people’s preferences on the Internet
revealed that the first preference is e-mail, and then news and the third preference is
advertising (Rutsohn, 2001). An Internet usage and behavior measurement firm
revealed in its recent survey report that Denmark had taken the lead in the world in
terms of household Internet market penetration, with 52.2 percent of households using
the Internet. The USA stood a close second with 52 percent, followed by Singapore
with 47.4 percent and Taiwan with 41.6 percent, among others (Rutsohn, 2001).
According to the results of another survey, a clear majority of Internet users in Taiwan
can accept the current level of advertising on the Net, 68.7% of a total of 1,949
respondents saying that the current amount of online advertising is reasonable. Close
to half of all Taiwanese Net surfers say they always or frequently click on
advertisements (Taiwan Headlines: October 19, 1999, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?
news_id=1170; last accessed on October 21, 2001). Today more and more people
locate language schools by logging on to the school’s website. Advertising on
websites from language schools is different from their school fliers. Sutherland and
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Sylvester (2000: 239) suggest that companies having web addresses are seen as “more
customer oriented and responsive; more informative; more sophisticated and hi-tech;
more geared to a younger market”.
www.kimo.com, www.yahoo.com.tw and www.yam.com are the most popular search
engines among Taiwanese people. People can use these search engines to explore the
subject of education and type in the search string “English education or language
schools” either in English or Chinese. The page that downloads will show their
search results – a list of websites of language schools in Taiwan. The search string
functions like a “product category” (Sutherland & Sylvester, 2000: 245). The search
string elicits not only the particular language school users want, but also alternatives
within the language school category. It can be said that web advertising elaborates
on the main features of school fliers, such as teachers, teaching methodology, class
sizes, teaching materials, and curriculums by providing pictures and more detailed
information. Many school websites are associated with information or news related to
English teaching and learning that users are currently interested in. The websites also
push their brand – school names – to the forefront, making them salient when learners
need to choose a language school.
A total of 73 websites was collected and downloaded
through www.kimo.com, www.yahoo.com and www.yam.com search engines in July
and August of 2001 and 2002. 39 of them are from English language schools, 27 are
from buxiban and 16 are from other language schools. Here I will use one language
school’s website to demonstrate how other websites look and how they have been
used to advertise their English products.
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When one links to the KNS Language Institute website (www.kns.com.tw), the
homepage starts with the school name and school logo, that is, the brand, and then it
goes on to a paragraph long introduction to this site. According to the introduction, it
is designed to provide information for both EFL teachers and learners. Then, the
homepage provides nine different graphics with different functions to direct people to
the school. If people are interested in some information about KNS’s teaching staff
they click on “KNS Summary” and then enter and browse. In the “Photo Gallery”
section is a brief summary of teachers with recent photos, and in the "Teacher's
Comments" section, the teachers talk about their fascinating, enlightening and
worthwhile teaching experiences at KNS. If people cannot find the information they
want, they ask interactively or leave a message by using the school’s e-mail address at
the bottom of the homepage. There is a frequency indicator at the bottom of the
homepage that indicates the number of people who have visited this website.
Although this homepage is designed bilingually, with both English and Chinese
versions, the Chinese version is “under construction”. Therefore, their target audience
is people who understand English.
3.2.4 Television Commercials and Television English Teaching Programs
When television began, advertisers started using the power of this new medium to
draw mass audiences in order to sell their products. The rise of television created an
instant demand for new forms of promotional expertise from the world of commercial
advertising. Since then television advertising has become “the privileged intermediary
of imaging everything” (Wernick, 1991: 138). However, only prominent and
well-established language schools use television advertising to sell their products. In
general, it is those which have economic power that have the access to television
(Fairclough, 1995b). In Taiwan, there are about six leading language schools that
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regularly advertise their products on television.
Another obvious and important feature of television advertising is that it is available
to the great majority of population. Choice of the most appropriate time slot to reach
their target audiences is crucial for advertisers. When advertisers buy time, they try to
buy it for particular programs (Myers, 1999: 116). “The different times are as
crucial to understanding television advertising as different spaces are in understanding
posters” (ibid.: 116).
Four out of nine television commercials were taped on television in August 2001 and
five were taped in August 2002. These commercials were shown on Dongsen Yoyo
Tai (ETTV Children Television Station) daily during summer in 2001 and 2002.
ETTV Children Television Station provides children programs such as cartoons,
educational programs, and movies for children. Clearly, advertisers’ target audiences
are school children. These television commercials are shown at commercial breaks in
children’s programs.
Two one-hour long English teaching programs by buxiban broadcasts on Saturday
mornings on TTV (Taiwan Television) were collected in August 2002. Their target
audiences are those who want to get higher marks in high school entrance
examinations.
According to a survey conducted by the Cabinet-level Council for Cultural Affairs
commissioned by the National Taitung Teachers College, watching television
dominates Taiwanese schoolchildren’s leisure time. A total of 1,794 respondents, from
second to sixth graders at 16 randomly selected elementary schools had more than
two hours of leisure time each day, and 73.4 percent spent most of their free time
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watching television, with cartoons the most popular shows (Taiwan Headlines:
January 6, 2000, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=240; last accessed on
October 29, 2001). According to an advertising director in a leading language
school in Taiwan, their commercial films are shown mainly at three periods of the
year – winter vacation, summer vacation, and fall (November). The frequency of
advertising is about 250 times per period and about 750 times a year. With such a
great number of exposures, one can imagine that advertisers would expect it to be
generating a reasonable return. Television advertising has a great effect on the choices
prospective learners will make. People have been exposed to television commercials
for English schools so much that they do not have to take the initiative to go the
schools’ physical addresses to inquire about their service.
Sutherland and Sylvester (2000: 191) point out that there are important seasonal
influences on advertising. Therefore, some products are advertised only in certain
seasons, such as winter, summer, or for seasonal events. Television commercials for
English language schools are seasonal, and normally advertised before, during and
after the winter and summer vacations, that is, February, March, July, August and
September. The television commercials analyzed in this study were shown intensively
during the winter and summer vacations in 2001, and/or 2002. Television English
teaching programs were broadcast every week on Saturday mornings in 2001 and
2002. The languages used in both television commercials and television English
teaching programs are both English and Mandarin.
3.2.5 Summary
The following table provides a summary of background information about the data. I
will discuss how the data are analyzed in the following section.
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Table 3-1: Background Information of the Data
English Teaching Job Ads
China Post www.teach-in-Taiwan.com Total
54 48 102
School Fliers
English Language School Buxiban Other Language School Total
32 31 16 79
School Websites
English Mandarin English Mandarin English Mandarin
15 24 3 24 2 5 73
Television Commercials
English Language School Buxiban Total
9 0 9
Television English Teaching Programs
English language School Buxiban Total
0 2 2
3.3 Data Analysis
A hybrid research method is used in analyzing the data. The data fell into five
categories: (1) English teaching job ads, (2) slogans and short paragraphs of fliers and
websites, (3) body texts of fliers and websites, (4) still images of fliers and websites,
and (5) television commercials and television English teaching programs. The data are
analyzed in the framework of Burthiaux’s Classified Ads Register (CAR) and
Hallidayan systemic functional grammar (SFG) using insights from discourse analysis,
critical linguistics, and critical discourse analysis. Bruthiaux’s CAR (1994, 1996) was
used to analyze English teaching job ads. Hallidayan SFG was used to analyze
slogans, short paragraphs and body texts of fliers and websites. Kress and van
Leeuwen’s semiotic visual analysis framework based on SFG (1990, 1996, 2001) on
reading images was employed on multimodal texts. I shall now discuss each of these
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frameworks in detail.
3.3.1 Classified Ads Register (CAR)
Bruthiaux (1996: viii) argues that newspaper ads analysis has not received much
attention from linguistics in general, nor from discourse analysis. Classified Ads
Register (CAR) has the following characteristics. First, “the language of
advertising is by definition nonreciprocal ” (Lakoff, 1982, as cited in Bruthiaux, 1996:
23) and CAR is no exception (Bruthiaux, 1996: 23). In other words, there is no
immediate feedback from readers (ibid.: 24). Second, the message of classified ads
must be “explanatory”, because “the medium offers no second chance for
clarifications” (ibid.: 24). They need to be attention grabbing, since persuasive
elements, such as catchy visuals, tend to be absent from these texts (ibid.: 24).
Finally, there are constraints on what and how much may be written in classified
advertisements (ibid.: 24). Therefore, classified ad writers concentrate on essential
information to fit these spatial constraints. In short, the language used in classified ads
reflects cognitive, functional and social conditions, and it is constrained by the
absence of feedback, and by spatial limitations (ibid.: 168).
Ferguson (1982: 49–66) introduces a typology of features characteristic of simplified
registers and they are adopted in Bruthiaux’s works (1994, 1996) analyzing classified
advertising. These features of linguistic simplification are: lexicon, syntax,
morphology, and phonology. The analysis of English teaching job ads will focus on
lexicon analysis. Bruthiaux’s (1996) study examines four different types of classified
ads. They are secondhand autos, personals, apartments for rents, and job offers. He
(ibid.: 88) indicates that the transparent semantics of “the specialized lexis” in job ads
makes referential assignment mostly non-problematic. Moreover, job ads tend to use
highly integrated nominal groups, for example, nice Hollywood office (ibid. 126).
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Therefore, “lexical collocations” which can be defined as “recurring combinations of
content words such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, normally containing no
prepositions, infinitives, or clauses” (Bruthiaux, 1996: 97) are used in analyzing
English teaching jobs. Figure 3-1 will serve to demonstrate how classified ads
register is used in analyzing English teaching job ads.
Figure 3-1: C25 English Teaching Job Ad from China Post, July 19, 2001.
__________________________
English teachers wanted,
XXX area, Mon. to Fri, 9:30 –
11:40 a.m. Western look is a
must, American accent preferred.
Call XXX at XXX
Lexical collocations in Figure 3-1 are English teachers (1 token), Western look (1
token), and American accent (1 token). After counting the occurrences of these lexical
collocations, they are classified into the five elements of job ads (Bruthiaux (ibid.:
126). These five elements are: target, recruiter, requirement, contact, and reward (see
also 6.1.2). For example, English teachers belongs to the target element and Western
look and American accents belong to the requirement element. The results of English
teaching job ads are presented based on these 5 elements. Finally, moving from
quantitative to a more qualitative interpretation of use, CDA is used to demonstrate
how the functions of these lexical collocations convey the ideologies of ELT.
3.3.2 Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG)
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) developed by Halliday (1985) is used in
analyzing slogans, short paragraphs and body texts of fliers and websites. SFG is a
social semiotic approach which views language as a “strategic, meaning-making
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resource” (Eggins, 1994: 1). There are four main theoretical claims about language:
“that language use is functional; that its function is to make meaning; that these meanings are
influenced by the social and cultural context in which they are exchanged; and that the process of
using language is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choosing” (ibid.: 2).
In addition, systemic linguistics is interested in authentic, every day texts of people
interacting in naturally occurring social contexts (ibid.: 3). In the next section, I will
demonstrate how language schools use language to make meaning in their
advertisements and how language itself is structured to enable those meanings to be
made.
Halliday (1985) argues that language is structured to make three main kinds of
meanings simultaneously. These three main kinds of meanings or three metafunctions
are ideational, interpersonal and textual (see 2.2.2.2). The interpersonal (social and
expressive) function of SFG is about how language is used by people to express their
interpersonal relationships, such as power, solidarity, intimacy, attitudes and judgment
(Eggins, 1994: 193). The main purpose of advertisements produced by language
schools is to persuade customers to buy their products. To achieve this purpose, the
language used in these advertisements is chosen to suggest that language schools have
authority and expertise. Power relationships in the interpersonal grammar of SFG
are realized through the systems of Mood and Modality. The systems of Mood and
Modality are the keys to understanding the interpersonal relationships between
interactants (Eggins, 1994: 196; Gerot & Wignell, 1994: 22). The following is a brief
summary of the Mood and Modality systems.
There are four types of speech functions: statement, question, offer and command in
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the Mood system (see Table 3-2). In Table 3-2 the arrows represent the realizational
move from semantic category or speech functions (statement, question, command,
offer) to grammatical one (declarative, interrogative, imperative). Take Let’s speak
English! (LWM16), a slogan from a language school website for example (see
5.2.2.1). The language school wants to demand some goods or services of the reader
“Let’s speak English!”. Therefore, an “imperative” rather than a declarative is used in
the slogan which shows the unequal power relations between the writer and reader. In
other words, by looking at the grammatical choices language schools make in the
Mood system is to understand the social role language schools play in ELT.
Table 3-2: Speech Function Choices and Mood Realizations

Good and services Information
Giving OFFER STATEMENT
(various) declarative
He will help me.
Demanding COMMAND QUESTION
imperative interrogative
Help me! wh- who will help me?
yes/no Will he help me?
Source: Martin et al. (1997: 58)
Modality also expresses interpersonal meanings. There are four kinds of modality:
probability, usuality, obligation and readiness (see Table 3-3). When modality is
used to argue “the probability or frequency of propositions”, it is referred to as
modalization. When modality is used to argue about “the obligation or inclination of
propositions”, it is referred to as modulation (Eggins, 1994: 179). In addition,
modalization is a way for speakers to express their attitudes towards what they are
saying and modulation is a way for speakers to express their judgments or attitudes
about actions and events (ibid.: 180, 188). The selections in Mood or speech functions,
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the choices of modalization or modulation contribute significantly to the meanings
being made in the advertisement texts.
Table 3-3: Kinds of Modality

Kind of modality Finite: Modal Mood Adjuncts
(modalization) May, might, can, could; will, Probably, possibly, certainly,
Probability would; should; must perhaps, maybe
Usuality May, might, can, could; will, Usually, sometimes, always,
would; should; must never, ever, seldom, rarely
(modulation) May, might, can, could; should; Definitely, absolutely, possibly, at
Obligation must all cost, by all means
Readiness: Inclination May, might, can, could; will, Willingly, readily, gladly,
Ability would; must; shall, can, could certainly, easily
Source: Martin et al. (1997: 64)
The following is BF16 a short paragraph which shows how the modal ‘will’ is used.
Nowadays in the 21st century, being a citizen of the world with excellent
foreign language skills will give a great advantage in study and self-
improvement, and give a head start in any chosen career. (BF16)
This short paragraph shows that the language school is projected as an expert, who
knows the facts and who has the right to say so. The audience is projected as receptive.
They are waiting to be told and they want to know. In this study, modality is mainly
used in analyzing slogans and short paragraphs (see 5.1.2.1).
3.3.3 Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MDA)
A text is traditionally viewed as a piece of written language. There was a “strong
tradition of prioritizing the strictly verbal over the pictorial” in the earlier twentieth
century because the images were considered to be less important than writing
(Goodman, 1996a: 39). Texts are not necessarily linguistic at all, “any cultural
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artefact – a picture, a building, a piece of music – can be seen as a text” (Fairclough,
1995a: 4). As texts in contemporary society are increasingly multi-semiotic, new
technologies are playing an important role in providing various types of visual forms
of communication and opening up new possibilities for persuasion. Television and
websites, which combine language with visual images, music and sound effects are
the most obvious examples. However, it is not only hi-tech media which provide
multi-semiotic texts, but also written texts are becoming multi-semiotic. The reason
is that written texts incorporate not only photographs and diagrams, but also the
graphic design of the text, such as layout techniques and typography (Fairclough,
1995a: 4; Goodman, 1996a: 39). As far as print material is concerned, “people
increasingly need to draw on knowledge of visual codes to interpret written
information” (Goodman, 1996a: 39). In this sense, texts are becoming increasingly
“multimodal – that is they use devices from more than one semiotic mode of
communication simultaneously” (ibid.: 39). Multimodal strategies used by advertisers
aim to create a friendly or informal style of presentation so as to make the texts more
readable, lively and accessible. There is no denying that texts are becoming
“market-oriented” (ibid.: 141), since multimodal strategies in all media draw
increasingly on strategies that have long been found in commercial advertising for a
long time.
As far as language school advertising is concerned, it is difficult or probably
impossible, to find a single text which uses solely verbal language. At least some
form of visual information alongside the verbal language is used in any form of
advertising such as television commercials, school fliers and websites. Generally
speaking, school fliers and websites contain numerous photographs, diagrams and
changes of typeface, and company letterheads usually contain graphic devices such as
83
logos or borders. Music can be found in school websites and television commercials
as well. This is because the advertisers aim to sell and to persuade their customers to
buy their products by using sophisticated technology to produce various forms of
glossy, professional looking advertising.
Many analysts, such as Fairclough and Kress & van Leeuwen, take a functional
approach and link the analysis of multimodal texts to Halliday’s (1978, 1985) SFG
theories. The Hallidayan framework is useful since a semantic dimension is added to
the analysis of the text (Goodman, 1996a: 52). Based on Halliday’s metafunctional
model, Kress and van Leeuwen (1990: 116) outline “a visual semiotics, a descriptive
framework” in which they demonstrate how images and visual design create meaning
and “the use of social semiotics as a tool for the critical reading of text”. Kress and
van Leeuwen’s social semiotic analysis “provides essentially a descriptive
framework” and the method is “effective in bringing out hidden meanings” (Jewitt &
Oyama, 2001: 154). In this study, school logos, photos, graphics and television
commercials were analyzed based on Kress and van Leeuwen’s social semiotic
analysis.
The visual semiotic approach is based on the three metafunctions of SFG. Any
semiotic mode (words, photos, graphics, and so on) can be used for fulfilling the three
metafunctions; ideational, interpersonal and textual. The ideational metafunction in
visual semiotic analysis means any semiotic system “has to be able to represent
objects and their relations in a world outside the representational system” (Kress &
van Leeuwen, 1996: 40). In other words, “what is actually taking place” in the world
(Martin, 2000: 10). The interpersonal function in the visual semiotic approach
demonstrates the complex relations that exist between viewer and image (Kress & van
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Leeuwen, 1990: 23). The interpersonal function is about interactions and relations
between the communicating parties (such as writers and readers, painters and viewers).
Horizontal and vertical angle, the choice between long shot and close up can be used
in still images as an indicator of social relations (see 5.1.3). Not only human figures
but also objects, size of frame can also show social relations between the viewer and
objects, buildings and landscapes. Finally, in a visual semiotic approach, textual
metafunction is about how images are composed, how meanings are sequenced and
integrated into dynamic texts. Two important integration codes of structuring texts are:
layout, the code of spatial composition, and the rhythm, the code of temporal
composition (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1990: 95).
Except for English teaching job ads, all other collected examples – school fliers,
websites, television commercials, and television English teaching programs – are
multimodal texts. Both Mandarin and English are used in these multimodal texts.
However, there are different types of romanization system of Mandarin Chinese, such
as Wade, Yule, Kwoyue Romatzyh, General and Pinyin. A standard, both
romanization system and coding, has to be set for the representation of the data. In the
following section, I will present the transliteration and coding system of the data.
3.4 Transliteration and Coding
The Chinese data are presented in Pinyin with English translations. Pinyin is the
transcription and official romanization system of the People’s Republic of China.
Pinyin is also the most widely used system in the media and scholarly writings on
Chinese in the West (Li & Thompson, 1981: xvi). My translation of Chinese data into
‘English’ is underlined and within single ‘ ’ quotation marks. Data that are in
English in the original are underlined only to distinguish them from the transliterated
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ones within single quotation marks. Mandarin in this data is presented in italics
within single quotation marks. The following are two examples of slogans from
school fliers.
‘Yong liuli de meiyu kuaiyi tita quanshijie.’ (LF5a)
‘To use fluent English, to travel around the world.’ (LF5a)
We live in English. (LF24a)
The following table provides an overview of the coding of the data.
Table 3-4: Coding of the Data

English Teaching Job Ads
China Post www.teach-in-Taiwan.com Total
C1 – C54 T1 – T48 102
School Fliers
LF1 – LF32 BF1 – BF31 OLF1 – OLF16 79
School Websites
English Mandarin English Mandarin English Mandarin
LWE1 – LWM1 – BWE1 – BWM1 – OLWE1 – OLWM1 – 73
LWE15 LWM24 BWE3 BWM24 OLWE2 OLWM5
Television Commercials
English Language School Buxiban Total
TC1 – TC9 0 9
Television English Teaching Programs
English language School Buxiban Total
0 TET1 – TET2 2
3.5 Conclusion
This study examines ideologies of English teaching and learning in Taiwan. Both
quantitative and qualitative methods are used. Triangulation, a research strategy, is
used to provide multiple sources and convincing evidence in the collection and
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analysis of data. The data consist of promotional texts emanating from language
schools, such as school fliers, websites, English teaching job ads, television
commercials and television English teaching programs. Additional data are
collected from media discourses from the World Wide Web. There are four main
sources of media discourses: Taiwanese government publications, English newspapers,
English teaching and learning related websites, and Taiwanese government websites.
Additional media discourse have been used as evidence to testify to issues raised in
this study. As far as the analysis of features is concerned, a quantitative method is
used to identify the occurrence and distribution of lexical collocations and semantic
and semiotic components of ideological concepts of ELT in these texts. For the second
examination of the data, a qualitative method, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is
used to analyze how the functions of these linguistic and semiotic features convey the
ideologies. The results of analyses are presented in Chapter 5 – English-as-the-
global-language, Chapter 6 – the ideal-English-teacher, Chapter 7 – the ideal-English-
teaching-methodology, Chapter 8 – American-English-as-standard-English, and
Chapter 9 – The-younger-the-better ideology. Before I present the analysis, Chapter 4
provides an overview of the socio-historical context in which English teaching and
learning takes place in Taiwan.
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CHAPTER FOUR: ENGLISH IN TAIWAN
4.0 Introduction
This chapter describes the status of the English language in Taiwan in its historical
and social perspective, as well as the English language policy implemented by the
government. Taiwan was never colonized by the British or the Americans. English
language use used to be discouraged, but now it is highly supported by the
government. Especially with Taiwan’s accession to the World Trade Organization
(WTO) in November 2001, the government argues that the importance of English
cannot be overstressed (Her, 2002). In accepting the ideology of English-as-the-
global-language, the Taiwanese government plans to make English the nation’s
quasi-official language over a period of six years. To understand the dramatic changes
in the status of English, several factors, including social, economic, educational, and
political need to be considered.
There are three parts in this chapter. First, to understand English teaching and learning
in Taiwan, some socio-historical factors need to be taken into consideration. Therefore,
I will give a general introduction to the Taiwanese socio-historical context. Second, I
shall present a brief introduction to the educational system and current English
language policies. Finally, I shall examine the ways these policies have resulted in
social, educational, and linguistic inequalities.
4.1 Background onTaiwan
4.1.1 Location
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Taiwan is a small island separated from southeastern China by 150 kilometers of the
Taiwan Strait. Taiwan’s neighbors are Japan to the north, the Philippines to the south,
and Mainland China to the west. Taiwan is 377 kilometers long and 142 kilometers
broad at its widest point. It has a total land area of nearly 36,000 square kilometers. It
is about the size of Switzerland.
4.1.2 People and Languages
The population of Taiwan is about 23 million. Taiwan is a multilingual and
multicultural country. Its population includes four ethnic groups: the Taiwanese or
Minnanren (Southern Min people), the Mainlanders, the Hakka and the
Austro-Polynesian aborigines. According to Huang’s estimate (1991: 21, as cited in
Tsao, 1999: 329), the percentage of each group is: the Taiwanese (73.7%), the
Mainlanders (13%), the Hakka (12%), and Austro-Polynesians (1.7%). The national
language is Mandarin Chinese. Hokkien is also widely spoken. Hakka and various
other Chinese dialects brought to Taiwan with the immigration of around two million
mainlanders in 1949 are heard around Taiwan as well. The aborigines speak a number
of Austro-Polynesian languages.
4.1.3 Colonialism
In 1517 Portuguese vessels sighted Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa – beautiful
island, but the Portuguese did not try to colonize it. In 1624, the Dutch (1624-1661)
invaded the south of the island and established colonial rule there. A year later, the
Spanish (1626-1642) invaded the north of the island and ruled the area until they were
driven out by the Dutch colonial government in the south. Zheng Cheng-gong
(Koxinga) drove out the Dutch in 1662. In 1683, the Qing Dynasty formally set up a
Taiwan prefecture. In 1895, Taiwan was ceded to the Japanese after China lost the
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Sino-Japanese war. 1945 was the last year of World War II and colonialism in Taiwan,
because Japan surrendered and Taiwan was returned to China. In 1949, the Nationalist
government (KMT - Kuomingtung) lost Mainland China to the Chinese Communists
and was forced to retreat to Taiwan.
4.1.4 Economy
Taiwan lacks natural resources, so its economy depends heavily on international trade.
The development of Taiwan’s economy in the 1970s and 1980s is often described as a
“miracle”. English is believed to be helping Taiwan create its second economic
miracle, since it is the language of international trade and commerce in this time of
globalization. Since entering the WTO, the gateway to the world market, the
Taiwanese government is well aware of the importance of its people mastering
English. Taiwan’s economic development and political stability depend on its
international competitiveness. And English is considered to provide competitiveness
(see 4.2.4 & Chapter 5).
4.2 Current Educational System
This section is about the current educational system with special emphasis on English
language learning. There are four parts in this section. They are: the goals and legal
basis, the educational administrative system, an educational overview, and current
English language policies.
4.2.1 The Goals and Legal Basis of the Education System
The goals of education in Taiwan are based on the national “father” Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s
Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and social well-being.
According to the Three Principles,
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Education is to improve the livelihood of the people, and ensure each individual’s
decent existence in the society; to pursue economic development and national
regeneration so as to achieve independence of the nation, implementation of
democracy, and advancement of social well-being, and to attain the ideal world of
universal brotherhood (http://www.edu.tw/statistics/english/d2.htm; last accessed
on August 1, 2003).
The legal basis for education is the Articles of Constitution of the Republic of China,
Taiwan and the following are some of them http://www.edu.tw/statistics/english
/d2.htm; last accessed on August 1, 2003).
Article 159
All citizens shall have equal opportunity to receive an education.
Article 161
The national, provincial, and local governments shall extensively establish
scholarships to assist students of good scholastic standing and exemplary conduct
who lack the means to continue their school education.
Article 163
The state shall pay due attention to the balanced development of education in
different regions, and shall promote social education in order to raise the cultural
standard of the citizens in general. Grants from the National Treasury shall be made
to frontier regions and economically poor areas to help them meet their educational
and cultural expenses. The Central Government may either itself undertake the
more important educational and cultural enterprises in such regions or give then
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financial assistance.
4.2.2 Educational Administrative System
There are two levels of educational administration: the Ministry of Education (MOE)
in the central government; and the Bureaus of Educations in the municipal
governments and in the county governments. The following is a brief introduction to
the powers and duties of these authorities (http://www.edu.tw/staistics/english/d3.htm;
last accessed on August 1, 2003).
The Ministry of Education (MOE)
(1) The MOE is in charge of nation-wide affairs in connection with academic,
cultural, and educational administration.
(2) The MOE provides direction and supervision to the highest local administrative
executives for the fulfillment of their responsibilities.
The Bureaus of Education
(1) in charge of school education
(2) in charge of social education
(3) supervising ventures operated by educational and academic institutions
(4) in charge of other educational administrative affairs
4.2.3 An Educational Overview
The following is a brief overview of Taiwan’s present educational system and current
English language polices.
4.2.3.1 School Classification
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The present education structure supports 22 years of formal study; 2 years of
preschool education, 6 years of elementary school, 3 years of junior high school, 3
years of senior high school or vocational high schools, 4-7 years of college or
university, 1-4 years of a graduate school program, and 2-7years of a doctoral degree
program. In addition, there is special education for the mentally and physically
challenged and the gifted.
Private cram schools or buxiban (bu - supplementary, xi - study, ban - classes or
schools) are not part of the official Taiwanese educational system, but are a common
sight in Taiwan. These schools charge relatively high tuition and have classes in every
imaginable subject and skill including foreign languages, rapid math calculation,
computers, art, music, calligraphy, swimming, dance, and so on. Cram schools also
prepare students for the high school entrance exam, university entrance exam, civil
service exam, TOEFL, GRE, and IELT tests. The terms ‘buxiban’ and ‘cram schools’
are used interchangeably in English in Taiwan. However, in this study, to avoid any
confusion, ‘English language schools’ refers to those that offer general English
courses for different age groups (such as preschool children, elementary, secondary
and tertiary students, adults) and whose purposes are not geared for academic tests.
‘Buxiban’ refers to schools that offer arduous supplementary English courses for test
purposes such as junior high, senior high school English, TOEFL, and GRE.
‘Language school’ is the generic term for both the ‘English language school’ and
‘buxiban’.
4.2.3.2 English Curriculum, Textbooks andTeaching Materials
Curriculum standards have been implemented for elementary, junior high, senior high
schools and vocational high schools. Universities and independent colleges set their
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own curriculum based on the Implementation Rules for the University Law. In 1996,
the integration of elementary schools and junior schools was called the Nine-year
Comprehensive Curriculum for Elementary and Junior High Education. As far as the
English curriculum for elementary and junior schools is concerned, the major
objective of English teaching at the elementary level is to cultivate students’ interest
as well as basic speaking and listening abilities. At the junior high school and high
school level it is to cultivate students’ four skills – speaking, listening, reading, and
writing.
Since 1996, the MOE has de-standardized elementary and junior high school
textbooks. Elementary school and junior high school administrators have the freedom
to choose their own English textbooks and teaching materials, which must be
approved by the MOE. Scholars have been contracted to compile and edit English
textbooks by the MOE for the senior high level for English curriculum standards.
Colleges and Universities have the freedom to choose their own English textbooks
and teaching materials based on their English curriculum standards.
4.2.3.3 English Teacher Qualification
Teacher education is divided into three categories. First, teachers colleges are
designed to train teachers for elementary schools. Second, normal universities are
designed to train teachers for secondary schools. Third, all public and private colleges
and universities which have colleges, departments and graduate schools specializing
in English education may participate in teacher education. All graduates are required
to pass the teacher qualification exam. After that they are eligible to be employed by
an elementary school or secondary school. To obtain an English teacher
qualification at elementary level, candidates have to pass the advanced level of the
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General English Proficiency Test (GEPT). Junior high and high school English
teachers are required to have a degree in an English related-field and are required to
pass the teacher qualification exam. College and university English teachers are
mainly from graduate institutes.
4.2.4 Current English Language Policies
Educational reform has been a major issue in recent years. The premises of current
English language policies are based on a widespread belief that English is necessary
for Taiwan to compete globally. The following are the current English language
policies and a critical examination of these English language policies will be provided
in the next section.
The MOE’s “Education Reform Action Program” was approved by the Executive
Yuan in May 1998. There are 12 projects in this education reform and two of them are
related to English learning. These two policies demonstrate that the government not
only encourages the study of English by younger age groups, but also encourages the
concept of English study for life by different age groups. First, Towards a Learning
Society, promulgated in March 1998, was designed to promote the concept of lifelong
education. There are 14 tasks in the White Paper, Towards a Learning Society. One of
the tasks is to promote foreign language learning. The follow-up campaign “English
learning for all people” or “whole nation learning English” has been promoted
nationwide by the MOE (Taiwan Headlines: April, 30, 2002, http://th.gio.tw/show.
cfm?news_id=13971; last accessed on July 2, 2002). Second, in order to promote the
internationalization of Taiwan, the MOE has started English instruction for all
elementary school 5th graders since September 2001.
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Another important English language policy is that the government wants to make
English Taiwan’s quasi-official language. “Since entering the WTO and generally
pushing for greater political and economic integration into the world community,
Taiwan’s government is well aware of the importance of mastering the global lingua
franca. In its formulated six year national development plan, Challenge 2008 … This
project, with a planned budget of NT34.2 billion (US$1 billion), emphasized the
ability to master foreign languages, especially English. The government also plans to
designate English as a quasi-official language within six years” (Her, 2002).
As far as assessment is concerned, The General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) is an
English test system developed by the Language Training and Testing Center (LTTC)
in 1999 under the commission of the MOE. The GEPT was developed as part of the
government’s lifelong learning project. Now it serves as a certification system to
check the language abilities of government workers, students and teachers (Her,
2002).
The MOE announced that, starting in the 2005 academic year, elementary school
students will have to pass general proficiency tests in Chinese, English, and
mathematics in order to graduate (Wu, 2002). Moreover, the MOE may soon require
university students to pass the high-intermediate level of the General English
Proficiency Test (GEPT) before they are allowed to graduate. According to Taipei
Times Online (October 13, 2002), starting from the new semester in September 2002,
several national universities, such as the National Taiwan University and the National
Sun Yat-sen University have already made English proficiency a requirement for
graduation (http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2002/10/13/175506;
last accessed on December 6, 2002).
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4.3 Ideologies and English Language Policies
In this section I will argue that the ideological assumptions of current English
language policies have contributed to social and linguistic inequalities. Tollefson
(1991: 16) views language policy as the “institutionalization of language as a basis of
distinctions among social groups (classes)”. Phillipson (1998: 104) argues that
educational language policy is of crucial importance “in social reproduction and
linguistic hierarchization”. The premises of English language policies in Taiwan are
based on the notion of English-as-the-global-language (see chapter 5). The
implication is that English is the key to internationalization of the economy. People
are expected to have a better life and a richer future, if they have a good command of
English. Therefore, English has been learnt by people for predominantly economic
and career reasons. When vastly more resources and power are allocated to English
than to other languages, including Chinese, that expectation is problematic not only in
the education system, but also in society.
In this section, two main issues will be discussed. First, current language policies are
a force towards further stratification in education and employment. Second, there is a
structural favoring of English in current language policies. As a result, the vigorous
promotion of English education has a direct and indirect impact on how Taiwanese
people view their mother tongues and identity.
4.3.1 English as an Instrument of Social Stratification
According to Article 159 of the Constitution of the Republic of China, Taiwan (see
4.2.1), “All citizens shall have equal opportunity to receive an education”. Clearly,
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education is for all people and not only for some particular groups. The campaign
‘English learning for all people’ or ‘whole nation learning English’ has been promoted
vigorously by the MOE (see 4.2.4). The implication is that the government wishes to
strengthen English language learning for the entire population to promote
internationalization. Although the campaign ‘English learning for all people’ is
based on the concept of “education for all”, in fact it is “education for some”
(Tollefson, 1991: 47). In the following section, I shall explain why that is.
4.3.1.1 Education
Two language policies are examined in the section, English for elementary schools
and the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) as the standardized requirement for
graduation and employment.
English for Elementary Schools
English courses have been a requirement for fifth and sixth graders since September
2001. Before that, students would have had their first official English lesson only
when they entered junior high schools. The reason for English learning at elementary
school level is that English is considered the key to the world. It is thought that
English needs to be learnt at an early age. The ideological concepts of English as the
key to the world and the-younger-the-better will be discussed in Chapter 5 and
Chapter 9 respectively. Liu I-chuan, the director-general of the MOE’s Department
of Elementary and Junior-High Education, points out “the newly formulated nine-year
comprehensive curriculum for elementary and junior high education places a special
emphasis on helping students acquire a global perspective – and English, as the
international language, is the bridge to the rest of the world” (Her, 2002). The
government intends to provide equal English opportunity for all, to narrow the gap in
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English education between the urban and rural areas, because many elementary
schools in cities had started English courses long before the government’s
implementation of English courses in September 2001 (see chapter 9).
English education at the elementary level does not bridge the education gap between
the urban and rural areas, but widens the gap. “Elementary schools in seven counties
and cities in Taiwan have included English courses in their first grade curricula,
instead of the third grade as prescribed by the Ministry of Education. Many parents
are sending their children to bilingual kindergartens, fearing their kids will fall
behind” (Taipei Times Online: November 22, 2001, http://www.taipeitimes.com/
News/edit/archives/2002/11/22/180514; last accessed on November 23, 2002). As the
Education Minister points out, many urban children begin going to bilingual and
English language schools as early as kindergarten. In contrast, children from rural
areas do not have English classes until the fifth grade. As a result, their English ability
lags far behind their urban counterparts (Taiwan Headlines: May 14, 2002,
http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id =14125; last accessed on September 12,
2002).
The gap between the urban and rural areas probably will keep widening, because rural
areas do not have enough qualified English teachers and they have fewer resources
(see 9.3). For example, elementary schools in the eastern coastal county of Haulien
and Taitung, Pingtung county on the southern tip of the island, and the mountainous
Nantou county in central Taiwan are having difficulty recruiting qualified English
teachers for their fifth-graders (Taipei Times Online: October 13, 2002, http://www.
taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2002/10/13/175506; last accessed on
December 6, 2002). To solve this problem, the MOE will import native speakers of
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English with very high salaries to teach in these rural areas in 2004. This policy raises
another issue – the native speaker ideology which will be discussed in Chapter 6. On
the other hand, urban areas have a huge advantage, since parents in these areas are
more eager to have their youngsters learn English at an earlier age. Urban schools in
general will start an English teaching program earlier with parents’ support.
Another troubling effect of English education at elementary school level is that the
poor and lower middle class families feel pressure to produce English-speaking
children. The government’s intention in expanding English education to elementary
schools is to bridge the education gap between rich and poor. This assumes that each
family can afford for their children to have after-school learning in language school to
enhance the student’s performance in class. Rich parents spend a lot of money for
their preschool children to learn English, but those children whose parents cannot
afford to do the same will find themselves in an inferior position on their first day in
school. If poorer children or Aboriginal students, have trouble finding the extra
resources to master English, they will remain poor because they cannot afford, or
don’t have ready access to, after-school learning. Inequality in English is not
responsible for the existence of the gap between rich and poor in current society in
Taiwan, but the problem will become worse if more impoverished students give up
learning English because of their financial difficulties.
This economic and geographical separation between the rich and the poor is often
accompanied by linguistic separation as well. As a result, students in urban areas are
much more likely to speak English, and English may be a criterion for schooling and
employment in these areas. In contrast, students in rural areas often do not speak
English and may have no opportunity to learn it. Because of the inevitable unbalanced
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distribution of educational resources between urban areas and remote regions, there is
a resultant great imbalance in English teaching in urban and rural areas. The
government needs to provide rural areas with more resources in order to minimize the
differences between urban and rural students.
The General English Proficiency Test
Madaus (1990, as citied in Shohamy, 2001: 18) points out that tests reflect the values
of test makers, test users and policy makers and have the potential to perpetuate
current social and educational inequality. An important policy of the MOE is that
elementary school students and university students have to pass the General English
Proficiency Test (GEPT) before they are allowed to graduate (see 4.2.4). The
implication is that the purpose of learning English is to graduate. Therefore,
students with English ability have significant advantages in all levels of education in
Taiwan. Clearly, the GEPT does not provide educational equality. I shall now discuss
the view that the GEPT has “detrimental effects on test takers” and that it is used as a
“disciplinary tool” (Shohamy, 2001: 15).
The GEPT is used to measure the English-language aptitude of candidates applying
for college admissions, government promotions, and jobs in the private sector. Chang
Han-liang, a professor of semiotics at the National University and the Language
Training and Testing Center’s executive director, believes that “The GEPT is a
positive and practical development since our mentality is so dominated by the
propensity to learn English” (Chang, V., 2002). However, the GEPT has detrimental
effects on test takers by creating “winners and losers, successes and failures,
rejections and acceptances” (Shohamy, 2001: 15). Test scores are often the sole
criterion for determining whether students will be allowed to continue in their futures
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studies, for being accepted to higher education and for obtaining jobs. People who do
well on the GEPT can go to better universities. Doing well on the GEPT may mean
that a person can be classified as a success, while doing poorly may mean that he or
she will be classified as a failure. In other words, English proficiency is becoming of
the utmost importance in every discipline. Even students who possess outstanding
specialist ability cannot graduate without English proficiency. The detrimental effects
of tests in shaping the future of students are described by Madaus (1990: 5, as cited in
Shohamy, 2001: 16).
a single standardized test score independently triggers an automatic admission, promotion,
placement, or graduation. These decisions are non-negotiable even in the act of contradictory
judgments from educators about what a student knows or can do.
Tests can be used as disciplinary tools which means that “test takers are forced to
change their behavior to suit the demands of the test” (Shohamy, 2001: 17). As
Shohamy (ibid.: 17) suggests, tests are capable of dictating to test takers what they
need to know, what they will learn and what they will be taught. Wu Ching-shyue, an
associate professor in the Department of Applied Foreign Languages of Chaoyang
University of Technology, argues that the requirement to pass the GEPT at certain
levels before graduation in order to strengthen the nation’s English ability stems from
the ideology – English as the key to the world (see chapter 5). “The policy basically
amounts to trying to manipulate students’ learning by using tests” (Wu, 2001).
Therefore, students will prepare for the GEPT specifically by working on the types of
questions involved in it. Teachers will teach what is going to be tested in the GEPT.
Rich families will send their children to buxiban to have extra English classes on
passing GEPT. Wu (2001) suggests that to truly improve English language proficiency
is to promote life-long learning, but not to introduce more tests.
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Shohamy (2001: 18) argues that the role of tests as disciplinary tools affect not only
the individual but also the whole society. At school level, the GEPT is used as a
disciplinary tool when teachers have to teach what is going to be tested in the GEPT
to motivate students to learn, and to impose discipline. At the national level, the
GEPT is used as a disciplinary tool when the government views Taiwan’s standards of
English proficiency as the key to internationalization.
To sum up, the implication of the GEPT as the main requirement for graduation or for
employment is that English is the solution to Taiwan’s educational, economic and
social problems (see chapter 5). In the following section, I shall look at the view that
the imposition of English learning has resulted in further stratification in employment.
4.3.1.2 Employment
In Hong Kong, those who possess English proficiency or “linguistic capital” are
groups who “possess economic, social, cultural and political power and status in local
and global society” (Morrison & Lui, 2000: 473). This has resulted from a
‘labor-market-driven’ ideology (Lin, 1997). Under this ideology, the goals of English
education are not primarily based on the development of learners’ potential or social,
intellectual, cultural development, and enrichments, but primarily for fulfilling labor
market needs (Lin, 1997). Unlike Hong Kong, English is not associated with
colonialism in Taiwan (see 4.1.3), but it is viewed as “linguistic capital” there, too.
As in Hong Kong, English ability is seen to give Taiwanese people a competitive edge,
and English can signal social status and prestige. The following policies show that
English ability is viewed as “linguistic capital” in Taiwan.
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In a bid to improve Taiwan’s chances of assimilating into the international community, Deputy
Minister of Education Fan Sun-lu yesterday said that anyone applying for a job at the
government’s foreign affairs offices should be able to communicate in English. This echoes a
Cabinet order that government workers who can’t speak good English six years from now must
be penalized” (Chuang, J., 2002).
“The government will spend NT$1.5 billion to increase the English speaking ability of the public
and provide life-long learning programs for government employees” (Taiwan Headlines: August
30, 2002, http://th.gio.gov.tw./show. cfm?news_id=15228; last accessed on December 6, 2002).
“Hoping to advance in the ranks, police officers are brushing up on their English, despite the fact
that they may never use it and are unlikely to ticket foreigners” (Frazier, 2000).
“Taipei is offering free English lessons to a group of taxi drivers and is studying whether to let
those who can speak the language charge extra fares” (Ko, 2001).
As can be seen in the above recent public discourses, English proficiency has become
a basic goal for people who want to work not only in foreign affairs offices, but also
in the Council for Economic Planning and Development, and the National Science
Council (Chuang, J., 2002). The reason is that Taiwan needs English as the global
language to be accepted by the international community. The government asserts that
Taiwan’s future and economic prosperity depend on English proficiency, the key to
competitiveness. This argument has subsumed all educational goals within the single
goal of mastering English. To achieve this goal the government will spend NT$1.5
billion to improve the English speaking ability of government employees and will
provide English classes not only for public servants but also for lay people. It has
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targeted people whose occupations bring them in contact with foreigners, such as
night market vendors, taxi drivers, telephone operators, shop assistants, waiters and
tourist guides. The implicit ideology is clear that English provides entry not only into
lucrative careers but probably into any career in an increasingly competitive job
market in Taiwan. As a result, both the general public and the government require
people to learn English to obtain work; but if people cannot acquire English fluency,
they will find themselves locked into poorly paid, marginal employment in the future.
The rationale is that English will help raise the image of Taiwan as an international
nation – English as the key to internationalization. It is clear that English is regarded
as “linguistic capital”.
The implication of the market-labor driven ideology is that English learning is an
isolate set of skills which can be imparted to learners in the classroom. As with short
English courses provided by the government for both government employees and
various others and English education in schools, learners are assumed to be able to
readily acquire whatever English a possible future employer might want without
financial, intellectual, and sociocultural factors being taken into consideration. If
English learning is viewed as an authoritative imposition and transmission of a set of
useful linguistic skills, the result is that “English is being convertible into dollars …
the boys leave as soon as they can perform the duties of compilers and copying
clerks” (Hong Kong Government Gazette, 1866: 138, as cited in Tung et al., 1997:
443), as suggested by the headmaster of the Central School in Hong Kong in 1865.
This attitude towards the study of the English language has persisted not only in the
minds of the general public, but also at the highest levels of government concerned
with educational policy in Taiwan. It is not surprising that the Taipei City Government
is considering allowing taxi drivers with English ability to charge foreign passengers
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more money. Moreover, despite the fact that police officers may never use English
and are unlikely to ticket foreigners, nearly every police officer in Taiwan wants to
learn English, because it is necessary for advancing in the ranks and getting higher
pay. The underlying message is that English can bring not only material rewards but
also power. Clearly, English learning in Taiwan, in the context of internationalization
is based on “employer-defined language goals for education and job market value as
the incentive for language learning” or a “market-labor driven” ideology (Lin, 1997:
440). The “labor-market-driven” ideology has created a linguistic inequality which I
shall explore in the next section.
4.3.2 Linguistic Inequality
The result of labor-market-driven English learning is that it may create a two-tier
society, like the current situation in Hong Kong (Tung et al., 1997: 441–459). In
Hong Kong, those who can speak English are in the upper stations of society, but
those who cannot speak English are in the lower ones. In addition, according to Lin
(1997: 434), when a language is used in government, official, or economic domains, it
is characterized as a ‘high’ language. On the contrary, when a language is used in
everyday, mundane domains it is characterized as a ‘low’ language. When a language
is a gateway for employment and higher education, it may become a powerful tool for
sustaining inequality and hegemony (Tollefson, 1991: 136). The English language is
viewed as a solution to inequality rather than a cause driven by an “implicit
monolingual ideology” (ibid.: 43).
Here, I will discuss some impacts of monolingual policies, namely, how language
polices, ideologies and national identity are closely linked. In addition, I shall
discuss the difficulties in having English as a quasi-official language in Taiwan.
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4.3.2.1 Monolingual Language Policies
This section considers the effect of the principle “one language - one national
ideology of language policy and national identity” (Hornberger, 2002: 27) which
pertained under Japanese and Kuomingtang (KMT) rule, on Taiwan’s multilingual and
multicultural society. Under both Japanese and KMT rule there were serious problems
of identity and distortions of Taiwanese cultural development (Tsao, 1999).
Neither the Dutch nor the Spanish damaged Taiwanese indigenous languages during
their occupations (Copper, 1990: 19). However, Taiwan did experience problems and
cultural confusion caused by enforced monolingual language policies during both
Japanese and KMT rule. During the Japanese colonial era (1895-1945), Taiwanese
people were forced to learn Japanese, and to use Japanese names. Especially at the
final stage of complete Japanization (1937-1945), not only was Chinese banned in all
public domains, but also all publications in Chinese were banned. In addition, the
Japanese rulers launched a fierce ‘only-Japanese-speaking-families’ campaign. The
main purpose of this campaign was to eradicate indigenous languages from the family
domain which is usually believed to be “the best stronghold for language
maintenance” (Tsao, 1999: 332). As a result, ethnic Chinese and native
Austro-Polynesians were in fact second-class citizens and their languages were
seriously damaged.
In 1949, four years after Taiwan was returned to China, the Nationalists were forced
to retreat to Taiwan after losing Mainland China to the Chinese Communists. In terms
of language education, history repeated itself. When the KMT government (the
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Nationalists) arrived, they enforced Mandarin Chinese education. The purpose of
these language policies during KMT and Japanese rule was to accelerate the
monolingual and monocultural assimilation of Taiwanese people into Japanese or
Mandarin Chinese culture. In both colonial and national history, language had
typically been used as a means for social control. During those fifty years of Japanese
administration, the Chinese immigrants were largely cut off from their ancestral home
in Mainland China. Chan (1994, as cited in Tsao, 1999: 365) points out that the
language policy of the Nationalist government can be described as “uni-directional
bilingualism”. This means that all speakers (about 87% of the total population) of a
local language have to learn to speak the national language, Mandarin. The
Mainlanders, most of whom could speak some form of Mandarin were not required to
study a local language. As a result, indigenous languages have declined significantly
and some of them face extinction in a generation or two. Moreover, according to Tsao
(ibid.: 366), Taiwanese people were split in their perceived identities. Most
Mainlanders consider themselves Chinese and most local people consider themselves
Taiwanese.
4.3.2.2 English Language Policy – Implicit Monolingual Language Policy
With the increasing hegemony of English, Taiwan has to revisit its language policies,
especially the priority Taiwan gives to cultivating English proficiency for entering this
era of economic globalization. The elevation of the status of English may impact on
mother tongue learning. Taiwanese people may not take pride in their mother tongue,
because speaking English has been taken as a status symbol.
Since becoming a member of the WTO in 2001, Taiwan has been trying to develop a
new national identity as an “economically upper class country” in the world
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community (Taiwan Headlines: June, 4, 2001 http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id
=9022; last accessed on December 12, 2002). As a result, the internationalization of
Taiwan has been trumpeted in recent years in slogans and goals of the government.
For example, the goals of Taiwan’s English education are “letting Taiwan embrace the
world: letting the world embrace Taiwan” (Chow, 2001). In other words, widespread
possession of the English language has become a key indicator of internationalization.
English has been promoted as a solution to Taiwan’s existing economical, social, and
educational problems without any possible side effects. In fact, the use of English as
the main communicative language is threatening not only to small languages such as
Hokkien, Hakka and aboriginal languages, but also Mandarin, a large language.
The Ministry of Education’s announcement that local language classes (referring to Taiwanese
Hokkien, Hakka and Aboriginal languages) will be made compulsory for elementary school
students in Taiwan starting from the 2001 academic year has sparked intense debate over the
learning of these languages. … The first relates to the added burden of learning a local language,
which some believe will get in the way of acquiring more important languages, such as English
(Chi, 2000).
The preference for English over learning a local language has to do with the
perception of English in contemporary Taiwanese society. When language learners
believe language learning is for future success, and consider the usefulness of a
language as the most important factor in relation to language learning, it is not
surprising that English is so popular in Taiwan. As suggested by Tsao (1999: 354),
“the pragmatic attitude” of Taiwanese people towards English has actually made it
become increasingly popular. It is English, not local languages, that is part of school
entrance and civil examinations, and is valuable in the employment market as well.
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Not only lay people but also educators have the same perception that English is more
important than local languages because of its usefulness. According to Taiwan News
Online: October 14, 2002, a meeting at the education ministry was held to discuss
whether or not elementary school students should be taught English at an earlier grade
level. An elementary school principal, was quoted in the media as saying “Though I
speak local dialects quite well, that ability did not help me to achieve much. …
Learning local dialects cannot help you find a job.” He considered that English
teaching should take priority over Mandarin and other local languages
(http:/th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm? news_id=15613; last accessed on December 6, 2002).
In addition, a TV opinion poll was conducted by a prestigious TV station - TVBS in
March 2002. The result showed that 60 percent of respondents were in favor of
making English the second official language, alongside Mandarin (Wang, 2002).
According to another poll conducted by the United Daily News in April, 47% of
adults in Taiwan support having English lessons form a major part of the elementary
school curriculum. Many consider it more important for their youngsters to learn
English than Mandarin Chinese (Chou, 2002). English-as-the-global-language
promotes English as the norm and depreciates other languages, both small and large.
In the past, the KMT rulers used a monolingual policy – Mandarin Chinese only – and
tried to completely replace all other local languages in Taiwan. Mandarin Chinese was
used as a political tool to foster political unity among Taiwanese people. The KMT
government openly discouraged the use of Hokkien and promoted the use of
Mandarin as the mother language of Taiwanese people. That is farcical considering
that, historically and demographically, it is Hokkien (73.7% of the population) not
Mandarin (13% of the population) that is spoken as a native language by most
Taiwanese people (Tsao, 1999: 329). Similar situations also materialized in Singapore
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and Hong Kong. Both Singapore and Hong Kong promote Mandarin Chinese as the
mother tongue and oppose the increased use of Hokkien and Cantonese as a medium
of instruction (Ward, 1999). Although only very few people in Taiwan can use English
as a second official language, many Taiwanese still choose English over Hokkien or
even Mandarin. The main reason is that they are highly concerned about globalization
or internationalization. The government views English is an important tool to make
Taiwan more competitive. As a result, the government plans to make English the
nation’s quasi-official language over a period of six years.
4.3.2.3 English as Quasi-official Language
The government views Taiwan’s accession to the WTO as marking the beginning of a
new era in Taiwan’s interaction with the international community. The six-year plan,
Challenge 2008 (see 4.2.4) indicates that, as globalization advances, Taiwan needs to
speed up its integration into the international community, and the key to that is
English. As a result, English proficiency is becoming the most dominant issue for
education officials in contemporary Taiwanese society. Under the plan, the
government hopes to promote internationalization through language study and to
strengthen the English abilities of the entire population. The expected result of this
plan is to expand the use of English as a part of daily life, since English will be
designated as a quasi-official language. However, little attention has been paid to the
effect of linguistic and cultural diversity in education. Phillipson (2000: 101) points
out that World Bank, NAFTA (North American Free Trade Area) and the World Trade
Organization policies “contribute to political instability, and provide less favorable
conditions for education, democratization, cultural, and linguistic diversity”.
English, like the WTO, seems to be a key to opening up a new future for Taiwanese
people in which there are opportunities everywhere, but also many difficulties to
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overcome.
First, the government does not give a clear definition of what a “quasi-official”
language is and whether it entails that teachers will be required to instruct in English.
All the government’s official documents, websites, and road signs will be bilingual,
but the government does not reveal whether the courts and the legislature will use
English. A fundamental difficulty is that Taiwan is not ready yet to make English a
quasi-official language because very few people in Taiwan speak English. For a
public opinion poll conducted by United Daily News, a Chinese language newspaper,
a total of 831 Taiwanese adults were interviewed. The result showed that only about 1
percent of the interviewees consider themselves as fluent English speakers, another 1
percent consider their English speaking ability as “so so”, 28 percent said they are
able to speak “some English”, while a high of 60 percent admitted they “don’t know
English at all” (Taipei Times Online: April 25, 2002, http://www.taipeitimes.com/
news/2002/04/25/story/0000133292; last accessed on September 9, 2002). Not only
the general public people but also public servants lack English proficiency. When
commenting on English as a quasi-official language in Taiwan, the Taipei Mayor, Mr.
Ma pointed out that because of current English language education and officials’ lack
of English proficiency, it would be very hard for Taiwan to make it happen now (Lin,
2002). In other words, in the current situation, English in Taiwan cannot play a role
at the national level to meet the government’s economic objectives. At the
community level, English cannot be used as the language for inter-ethnic
communication. At the individual level, not every one has equal access to English.
As a result, not only the public but also the government will have difficulty launching
English as a quasi-official language.
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Second, a nation’s official languages and national identity are closely interwoven, and
the two can never be separated. As mentioned earlier, the issue of language influenced
the growth and decline of ethnic groups during Japanese and KMT occupations. The
Japanese rulers made every effort to Japanize the inhabitants of Taiwan and then
KMT government tried to Chinese-ize Taiwanese people. At the present, Taiwan has a
growing desire to be an English speaking country, with a new national identity.
English education is intended to serve the goal of promoting a new national identity in
the new era of knowledge-based economies. According to Taipei Times Online: May 3,
2002, “because of poor English ability … Taiwan’s economy has not been able to
surpass Asian ‘dragons’ such as Hong Kong and Singapore” (http://www.
taipeitimescom/news/2002/05/03/story/0000134423; last accessed on September 9,
2002). In addition, the President of Taiwan, Mr. Chen Shui-Bian argues that English
has helped Hong Kong and Singapore gain a competitive edge (Lin, 2002). If English
were to become a quasi-official language in Taiwan, Taiwan might have to face a
language and identity dilemma similar to the ones that Hong Kong and Singapore
have encountered (see 9.3.3). Finally, it is a fact that English has a higher status than
Mandarin Chinese, Hokkien, Hakka and the aboriginal languages in contemporary
Taiwanese society. The six-year plan also indicates that a great amount of aid (US$ 1
billion) will be or has been put into English, and other languages will be or have been
ignored. The government has spent most educational resources on English teaching
and learning. The government favors and has strong support for English education
and will allocate resources, because English directly affects, or is essential to, the
achievement of the government’s main objectives. Taiwan is adopting a
Western-inspired monolingual approach that ignores the multilingual and multi-ethnic
reality (Phillipson, 1994; Tollefson, 1991).
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Although there is some degree of uncertainty associated with the plan to make
English a quasi-official language, the plan has its ideological attractiveness that will
encourage the government to proceed with tangible economic support. By 2007,
under the “Building an English-Language Living Environment Plan”, the government
is doing its best to create an environment favorable for English learning, so as to
achieve the objectives of building a more international living environment As a result,
there is substantial expenditure on the promotion of English by the government, such
as on-line English learning, more foreign English teachers, English programs via
satellite for remote regions, English news channel on TV stations, free English
courses for various occupations, nationwide English language competitions, English
summer camps, and so on. When vastly more resources and power are allocated to
English than to Chinese languages, problems arise not only in the education system,
but also in society. As explained earlier in 4.3.1, current English language policies
result in English becoming an instrument of social stratification not only in education
but also in employment. The policies do not create greater equality in education, but
social, economic and educational inequalities in contemporary Taiwanese society.
4.4 Conclusion
The premises of English language policies are based on English as the key to a better
life and a better future in the context of globalization. As a result, English learning is
believed to be additive rather than subtractive in current English language policies.
However, current English language policies entail an implicit monolingual language
policy ideology. The impact of this implicit monolingual language policy is that it
creates educational, economic and linguistic inequalities. First, the Taiwanese
government’s intention is to provide equal opportunities for the entire population to
promote internationalization by learning English. However, the scheme has resulted
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in an imbalanced distribution of English study resources between urban and rural
areas widening the gap between rich and poor. Second, the plan creates economic
inequality. Knowledge of English will be a prerequisite for joining the elite class in
Taiwanese society. English is a major criterion for employment as well as for access
to the key institutions dominating Taiwanese economic and political life. Finally, it
creates linguistic inequality. The position of English is not being challenged, but other
languages, such as Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka and the aboriginal languages are. Now
Taiwan faces the prospect of English taking supremacy over its native languages. To
sum up, current English language policies are linked to the struggle for power and
they construct unequal educational, social, economic, and linguistic relationships.
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CHAPTER FIVE: “ENGLISH-AS-THE-GLOBAL-LANGUAGE”
5.0 Introduction
This chapter investigates the ideology of English-as-the-global-language based on
advertisements produced by English language schools and buxiban. Crystal (ibid.: x)
argues that English is “a single world language” for “mutual understanding” and
“international cooperation”. The implication is that English is the global language,
because English serves the purposes of all the world’s citizens equally well.
English-as-the-global-language refers to English as a tool for international
communication and a tool for an improved global future. Crystal (ibid.: x) also
indicates that English has become a global language because it is a language “with a
worldwide status” (ibid.: ix), “used by more people than any other language” (ibid.: 4)
and because of the power of its people, especially their political power (ibid.: 7). In
short, the spread of English is presented as “natural” “neutral” “beneficial” and
“unproblematic” (Pennycook, 1994a).
Pennycook (ibid.: 38) questions whether or not the assumption of English as the
global language is an unproblematic construct. He argues that underlying political,
social, cultural and economic questions are associated with English-as-the-global-
language, and that this is true in the context of Taiwan, too. Therefore I would like to
investigate how English language teaching and learning have become products of
global English, how “English tends to be marked as a language of success, hedonism,
and international mobility” (Bailey, 1992, as cited in Phillipson, 2001b: 2), and how
this mindset is evident in Taiwanese language school and buxiban promotional
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materials.
The chapter attempts a preliminary exploration of structural and cultural inequalities
in the context of English-as-the-global-language in Taiwan and data consists of three
parts. First, the representation of English-as-the-global-language is examined.
Secondly, since English is viewed as a highly valued and desirable commodity in the
context of globalization, I will show how English language schools and buxiban sell
the idea that their teaching has global relevance in English teaching and learning. The
chapter concludes with a consideration of the potentially significant impact on ELT
and SLA in Taiwan, that is, the mavericks of the language school marketing world
have been quick to cash in on the context of English-as-the-global-language.
5.1 Data Analysis
First I shall examine how English language school and buxiban advertisements
contain the notion of English-as-the-global-language. Every written advertisement
text can be classified according to two aspects – “what is being advertised – a product,
an idea, an image?” and “who is being addressed?” (Goddard, 1998: 7). The same
can be said for television commercials. The only things that are being advertised in
English language school and buxiban advertisements are that English is the language
of international communication and understanding, and that it is the solution and
panacea for future success. In the following sections, I wish to reveal the range of
strategies, both implicit and explicit, used to market English as a highly valued
commodity.
5.1.1 TC7 Television Commercial
In TC7 television commercial, two figures, a little Taiwanese girl and Jerry, a native
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speaker of English, an American, a Catholic Father in his 50s, an English educator, a
well-known public figure in Taiwan, and the founder of Giraffe Language School are
walking on the beach. The little girl is looking at the sea and says the world is very,
very big and then she asks Jerry how to get to the other end of the world. Jerry says to
her ‘Meiyu shi heizi tongwang shijie zuijin de ru’ ‘American English, for children, is
the royal road to the world’. It is one of the slogans in Mandarin of Giraffe Language
School. Next, I shall apply a social semiotics approach to analyze this television
commercial.
Iedema (2001: 201) takes a social semiotics approach to analyze tele-films in his
study, and he argues that the analysis is powerful, because it does not accept that texts
are made “by accident”: “each aspect of tele-film contributes to its meaning potential
in a meaningful way”. Therefore, social semiotics is a means to
“consciousness-raising and to informed social action” (ibid.: 201). In this
commercial, the other end of the sea or ocean, which cannot be seen in the TC7
television commercial refers to the world – the diffusion of English paradigm, which
is “characterized by triumphant capitalism, its science and technology, and a
monolingual view of modernization and internationalization” (Tsuda, 1994, as citied
in Phillipson & Skutnabb-Kangas, 1996: 429, see 2.1.3 for details). In Taiwan,
English-as-the-global-language requires English as the language for news and
information, for business and the professions, for entertainment and international
travel and so on, a view based on the diffusion of English paradigm.
Generally speaking, written texts seem to be more authoritative, formal and credible
than the spoken ones, but when a spoken text is addressed by a well-known public
figure or a celebrity, like Jerry in this television commercial, it, too, becomes
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relatively authoritative, formal and credible. The main character Jerry, an American, a
Catholic Father and a famous English educator in Taiwan, implies that, English is an
imported product from the USA. Moreover, the slogan – ‘Meiyu shi heizi tongwang
shijie zuijin de ru’ uses ‘meiyu’ ‘American English’ instead of ‘Yingyu’ ‘English’ in
general. It reinforces perceptions of the close semantic relationship of native speaker,
American English, proper English, standard English which are key concepts in
English language teaching and learning. Another implication is that English-as-
a-global-language entails the promotion of one English, American English – one
dialect and one culture at the expense of others (see Chapter 8).
In the slogan – ‘American English, for children, is the royal road to the world’,
children does not necessarily refer only to that little Taiwanese girl who appeared in
that television commercial, but by implication the slogan also refers to English
language learners in general and to the television audience. English language learners
in Taiwan, like that little Taiwanese girl in the television commercial ask – ‘how to get
to the world’. This places them metaphorically in a child position vis-à-vis an
omniscient Western father figure. The use of this little girl also implies that, as far as
the acquisition of this global language is concerned, the-younger-the-better. In sum,
this television commercial also reflects investment being put into English by language
schools that constructs English as the universal medium, English-as-the-global-
language and English as the “handmaiden of globalisation” (Phillison, 2001a: 196).
In terms of advertising techniques, one well-established distinction is between
hard-sell and soft-sell. Cook (2001: 15) points out that “hard-sell makes a direct
appeal”, such as frequent repetition of the brand name, as well as direct and positive
statements about what is being advertised. On the contrary, “soft selling relies more
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on mood than exhortation, and on the implication that life will be better with the
product”. TC7 advertises English-as-the-global-language through soft-sell techniques.
What is being advertised is not directly stated. Not until the very end of the
commercial do we hear the slogan – ‘American English, for children is the royal road
to the world’ – telling its viewers that English is the key to the world – leaving each
viewer to fill “the world” with their own hopes and dreams.
5.1.2 Slogans and Short Paragraphs
In addition to the spoken TC7 television commercial, slogans and short paragraphs,
still images (photos, drawings and logos) and school names in written advertisements
also play an important role in advertising the ideological concepts in English language
teaching and learning. As far as written advertisement texts are concerned, the idea of
“the narrator and narrative point of view” is a good starting point to look at “who is
initiating the communication” (Goddard, 1998: 28). I will apply the narrator and
narrative point-of-view notion as a starting point to explore the concept of English-as-
the-global-language.
The main theme of these short paragraphs, still images and school names within the
concept of English-as-the-global-language is that English language schools and
buxiban use several strategies to market two concepts. First, they are authoritative in
presenting the fact that English-is-the-global-language. Second, they are experts in
providing access for language learners to acquire this language, which is perceived as
the key to the global village.
Before moving on to still images and schools names, first, I shall examine the way
language schools present English-as-the-global-language in slogans and paragraphs. A
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total of 192 slogans and short paragraphs come from English language school and
buxiban fliers and websites in this research (Figure 5-1). 44 (22.9%) of these contain
the concept of English-as-the-global-language.
Figure 5-1: Ideological Concepts of ELT and SLA in Slogans and Short Paragraphs
192 slogans and short paragraphs
from language schools & buxiban
192 = 100%
English-as-the- Ideal-English- Ideal-teaching- American-English- The-younger-the-
global-language English-Teacher methodology as-the-standard- better
English
44 texts = 22.9% 25 texts = 13% 51 texts = 26.6% 48 texts = 25% 21 texts = 12.5%
English language schools English language schools Other language schools Buxiban
Fliers: Total = 29 Websites: Total = 7 Fliers: Total = 3 Fliers: Total = 5
Mandarin: 22 Mandarin website: 5 Mandarin: 3 texts Mandarin: 3
English: 7 Mandarin: 3 English: 2
English: 2
English websites: 2
The decision about whether a text contains the concept of English-as-the-global-
language or not is based on either the definition and/or the function of English-as-the-
global-language as mentioned in the Introduction. The definition refers to English as
the single world language for “mutual understanding” and “international cooperation”
(Crystal, 1997). The following are three examples – a Mandarin text from LF5 and
two English texts form LF24 in the corpus.
‘Yong liuli de meiyu kuaiyi tita quanshijie.’ (LF5a)
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‘To use fluent English, to travel around the world.’ (LF5a)
We live in English. (LF24a)
Learning today for tomorrow. (LF24b)
A total of 38 Mandarin texts and one English text are counted twice or three times
since they contain more than one ideological concept. 15 relevant to this chapter
contain two ideological concepts. The following, LF24c, a Mandarin text is one of the
examples. It contains two ideological concepts – English-as-the-global-language
and the-younger-the-better in English learning.
‘Youyitian, xiaoxiao heizi jiang zhanzai shijie dada wuta shang, zaici shiqian
ta gaizhuo naxie zunbei …’ (LF24c)
‘One day, little children will occupy the world stage, how will they prepare
themselves …’ (LF24c)
The strategies used by narrators in slogans and short paragraphs to indicate that they
are authoritative experts include the use of English as a symbol, semiotic
constructions, and grammatical choices. I shall explore these issues one by one.
5.1.2.1 Foreign Language Words – English as a Marketing Strategy
Figure 5.1 indicates that the concept of English-as-the-global-language can be found
in almost every written advertisement, but English language schools (39 out of 44
texts) play a key role in the diffusion of English-as-the-global language. 13 texts are
in English with 9 slogans and 2 short paragraphs found in Mandarin fliers and
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websites, and 2 short paragraphs found on language school English websites. The
implication of these linguistic choices is that, although most of the readers will know
Mandarin only, “advertisers will not lose out by using English even if it not
understood by consumers” (Eastman & Stein, 1993, as cited in Cheshire & Moser,
1994: 458). In a study of 543 advertisements in the East Asian Magazine (Hong
Kong, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan), Neelankavil et al. (1995: 34–36, as cited in
Graddol, 1996: 216) found that 74% contained some foreign language words – almost
all English, which are used to connote Western cultural values and status. Their main
finding suggests that the use of the English language is very common in Taiwan as
well as the other countries. Another research by Shao et al., (1999: 61-71) on “shifting
advertising appeals in Taiwan” indicates that advertising appeals in Taiwan tend to be
dominated more by “Westernized cultural values than by Chinese traditional values”,
and the English language is used quite frequently as one of their advertising strategies
(ibid.: 61, 64). Therefore, in this study, every reader of these English advertising
texts can feel addressed by them and not excluded from the messages, even if the vast
majority of the addressees are Mandarin speakers. Rajagopalan (2002: 118) points out
that the use of foreign words, especially English words “lends an additional aura to
the products being offered for sale” in Brazil, which is another case of English being
used as a marketing strategy. Although the reader who knows Mandarin will
probably skip these English texts unquestioningly, they are still impressed with the
'linguistic virtuosity' produced by the advertisers (Eastman & Stein, 1993: 195). It
can be argued that the role of English in the advertising by English language schools
and buxiban is purely a marketing strategy identifying with English rather than using
it meaningfully. They are using the English language in slogans and short paragraphs
to create an identity of authority and expertise in English teaching and learning, and to
reinforce the concept of English-as-the-global-language.
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5.1.2.2 Semiotic Construction
Another strategy used in these texts to show they are authoritative experts is in the
presentation – the format and layout – of these written advertisements. Advertisers
aim to ensure that a headline or a slogan sticks in the addressees’ minds, that it
reaches its target audiences. Therefore one of the main strategies used in the corpus is
to deliberately highlight these slogans and short paragraphs by color, font, graphic
devices, position and typographical design. Moreover, in his concept of heteroglossia
(Bakhtin, 1981, as cited in Bell, 1996: 18) Bakhtin views texts and utterances from all
kind of genres being made up by multiple ‘voices’. Cook (2001: 219) argues that
advertisements involve many voices, but they tend to be ‘dominated’ by one. In this
study, the content and layout of these texts are powerful and persuasive. The language
of these texts becomes the ‘master voice’ of the advertising to express “authority and
expertise” (Piller, 2001a: 162). As far as layout techniques of these texts are
concerned, except for 3 slogans at the bottom of the school fliers or the website and 3
texts found as headlines, the rest of the texts (38 texts) are found at the top of fliers
and websites. In particular, 34 texts are found right below or next to school names. It
can be argued that the layout of these texts appearing right below or next to the school
names or logos are presented in both a “visual” and a “verbal” way (Goodman, 1996a:
38) in order to demonstrate the narrators’ master voices. LF24b an English text from
Henry Language School is an example.
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Figure 5-2: LF24 Language School Flier
School Logo
HENRY
English Pre-school
亨利Ｅ２雙語幼兒園
Learning Today for Tomorrow.
Logos and company names are “visual” and texts are “verbal” (Goodman, 1996: 39).
In Figure 5-2, the reader can have the visual portrayal of the voice, because the text is
right below the school name and logo. It seems that the narrator is saying something
to the audiences. The school name in Mandarin ‘Hengli’ is the transliteration for
Henry that is presented with a striking large print to show the school is authoritative
and expert and it functions as “I”. The “I” is using its voice directly to express the
concept of English-as-the-global-language – Learning Today for Tomorrow to ‘you’,
the reader. Many language schools name their schools with Western personal names.
One of the reasons is to indicate that English is taught by native speakers (see chapter
6). Logos and school names will be examined in 5.1.4.
5.1.2.3 Grammatical Choices in English Texts
Another important strategy used by narrators to express their authority and expertise
is the grammatical choice in these texts. Grammatical choices reinforce the concept of
English-as-the-global-language. This section applies Halliday’s (1985) Mood and
Modality to both English and Chinese texts. Halliday (1985) points out that whenever
people use language to interact, it is done in order to establish a relationship between
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them. To establish this relationship, people take turns to speak with different speech
roles in the exchange. Therefore the Mood system in Systemic Functional Grammar
refers to clauses as exchange. The basic speech roles are giving and demanding. If an
advertiser or a language school gives its audience some information or a piece of
news such as ‘There is no doubt that English is the international language’ (LF10),
what the advertiser is trying to do is to invite the audiences to receive that information.
If the advertiser demands: Let’s speak in English (LWM16) of its audience, it is
inviting the audience to perform an action, to speak English. Eggins (1994: 330)
points out that ideology in texts is realized in linguistic choices such as “who initiates,
what kinds of actions/events, who responds to those actions, and how”. Therefore, I
would like to demonstrate how grammatical choices such as imperatives, pronoun –
‘we’, interrogative – ‘do’ and modality – ‘will’ found in 13 English texts with 9
slogans and 4 short paragraphs (see Figure 5-1) of the corpus by English language
schools and buxiban are used to market the ideological concept of English-
as-the-global-language.
Table 5-1: Grammatical Choices in English Slogans and Short Paragraphs

Grammatical Choices in13 English texts Sentences
Imperatives – Verb phrase 5
Imperatives – Let’s 2
Pronouns: We 3
Ellipsis 2
Interrogative – Do 1
Modality: Will 1
Total 14
Table 5-1 indicates that there are 14 sentences in these 13 English texts. 7 imperatives
out of 14 sentences in these 13 texts are found in the corpus. They appear in two
forms: one is that sentences start with a verb phrase and the other is that sentences
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start with let’s. LF5 and LWM16 are two examples from the corpus.
Be your own superstar! (LF5)
Let’s speak English! (LWM16)
According to Systemic Functional Grammar (Halliday, 1985; Martin et al., 1997;
Eggins, 1994), an imperative clause in the Mood system indicates that the text is
doing more than simply giving information. Eggins (1994: 314) points out that
imperative clauses demonstrate that the writer has greater knowledge or power and
the reader needs help. Therefore, the writer’s role is perceived as “adviser” and
“expert” – there is an unequal power relationship between the writer and reader. Gerot
and Wignell (1994: 22) point out that if a writer gives commands or demands
information of his or her readers, inherently they are invited to give that information.
When the language schools (LF5 & LWM16) address their readers with Be your own
star! or Let’s speak English!, although the subject in LF5 is ‘you’ and in LWM16 is
both ‘you and me’ (that is, the advertiser and their audiences), there is an implied
unequal power relationship between them implied. The language schools perceived
themselves as authoritative, because they are very much in control in these texts and
they want their readers to execute commands.
Apart from these imperative sentences, 3 texts with the pronoun we are found in the
corpus. According to Goddard (1998: 30), when the addressers use we inclusively to
address the reader, it will certainly sound ‘authoritarian’ (ibid.: 30). LWM12 is one
of the examples.
We are not only teaching English, but also values and goals for the future of your
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children. (LWM12)
In terms of Halliday’s Mood system, there are two components in a sentence; one is
the Mood element and the other one is the Residue element (see Table 5-2).
Table 5-2: Mood and Residue of LWM12 Text

We Are not only teaching English, but also values and goals for the future
of your children.
Subject Finite
Mood Residue
The grammatical test Halliday (1985) uses to discover which part is Mood is to add a
TAG question. Halliday describes the importance of the Mood element as carrying
“the burden of the clause as an interactive event” (as cited in Eggins, 1994: 155). It
means it cannot disappear when the responding speaker takes up his/her position. That
is why it remains a constant and essential part of the clause containing the nub of the
argument. For example,
A: We are not only teaching English, but also values and goals for the future of
your children.
B: No, you aren’t. or Yes, you are.
In LWM12, speaking for the language school in the role of the information giver, an
expert talks to parents in an authoritative way: We are not only teaching English, but
also values and goals for the future of your children, aren’t we? The parents, as a
group, need to be warned, or they will end up making wrong decisions for their
children, in terms of English education.
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Two elliptical declaratives (LF24a, BF3) are found in the corpus and they are also
used to demonstrate unequal power between the writer and reader.
Learning Today for Tomorrow (LF24a)
Excellence: our aim, your expectation (BF3)
Ellipsis is used for two effects, one is to “save space and omit direct appeal” (Cook
2001: 172). Cook (ibid.: 173) also points out that the use of ellipsis in
advertisements, generally speaking, creates an atmosphere of “proximity” and
“intimacy”. Eggins (1994: 310–315) argues that elliptical structures offer “personal
experience”. Although personal experience does not involve getting other people to
do things, it suggests that the addresser “possesses certain knowledge” (ibid.: 315),
which implicitly indicates that there is unequal power between the writer and reader.
Text LF24a and BF3 are straightforward enough to tell the reader that ‘learning’ in
LF24 refers to learning English, and Excellence refers to fluent English, since the
texts are from English language school and buxiban fliers. Where to learn English or
to acquire fluent English is not specified in these texts; the advertisers do not want to
make bold statements such as: We are providing Learning Today for Tomorrow, so you
should study at Henry English Pre-school. They want to omit direct appeal as
suggested by Cook (2001: 172). In addition, based on Halliday’s Mood theory (1985:
95–96), Learning Today for Tomorrow is an ellipsis or a minor clause which lacks a
participant, so this minor clause can be reworded as We are providing learning Today
for Tomorrow and that is a must for Taiwanese people or Learning Today for
Tomorrow is good for Taiwanese people. Not surprisingly, it sounds authoritative,
because the writer is telling the audience that everybody must learn English.
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Although the advertisers use elliptical structures to minimize the power difference and
alienation, they still take up the role of ‘expert’ as suggested by Eggins (1994: 325).
The implication is that advertisers have authority and expertise, although they seek to
minimize the formality and distance in writing in order to establish closeness with
their readers.
Another grammatical choice that shows unequal power is the use of interrogatives. In
the corpus, one modulated interrogative: Do you speak English? is found in LF6.
According to Eggins (1994: 314), the use of interrogatives in a written text creates a
‘rhetorical interactive context’, since in fact no dialogue will happen between writer
and reader. Especially when there is the pronoun you as subject in the question, it
establishes the reader as respondent and the writer as questioner. It is also suggested
by Eggins (ibid.: 314) that the writer is in charge of the direction of the talk. In
addition, Gerot and Wignell (1994: 45) point out that very often the more powerful
person in the interaction has the right to ask, whereas the less powerful person
answers. In the corpus, the language school creates an interactive context to question
its audiences and the audiences are constructed as being asked by the expert – Do you
speak English?
The last grammatical choice used in the corpus to show the writer’s authority and
expertise is the use of will. One text (BF16) is found in the corpus.
Nowadays in the 21st century, being a citizen of the world with excellent
foreign language skills will give a great advantage in study and self-
improvement, and give a head start in any chosen career. (BF16)
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Based on Systemic Functional Grammar (Halliday, 1985; Martin et al.,1997; Eggins,
1994), ‘will’ as a realization of “modalization” in the Mood system is used to indicate
the speaker’s attitude towards what she or he is saying. It is the way the speaker
expresses a judgment of the certainty, likelihood, or frequency of something
happening. In this text, ‘foreign language’ refers to English language, since the
content of the BF16 school flier is all about the English language. The implication
of BF16 texts is that the writer is sure that English will give a great advantage not
only in self-improvement but also in any career. The advice offered by the buxiban
is guaranteed to work for their customers, because they have authority and expertise.
It can be argued that all grammatical choices in these 13 English texts in the corpus
construct the advertisers as authorities and experts.
5.1.2.4 Grammatical Choices in Mandarin Texts
The following section demonstrates how grammatical choices are also used to show
unequal power between writer and reader in Mandarin written texts. Halliday’s Mood
and modality theory is applied to these texts, too.
Zhang (1991: 289–318) applies Halliday’s (1985) mood and modality to Chinese to
examine the correlations between mood markers and social (such as status, power)
and interactional (such as giving, demanding) role relationships in personal
participants’ speech. His findings show two role relationships can “reinforce each
other, offset each other, or override each other” in a particular social situation (ibid.:
289). I also would like to apply Halliday’s (1985) Mood system to Chinese written
advertisement texts to investigate the power relationship between language schools
and buxiban and their audience. An analysis of mood and modality in the language of
their advertising reveals that language schools and buxiban claim authoritative and
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expert roles.
Table 5-3: Grammatical Choices in Mandarin Slogans and Short Paragraphs

Grammatical Choices in 31 Mandarin Sentences
texts
Imperatives 15
Modality:
Probability 14
Degree 4
Inclination 3
Obviousness 2
Usuality 1
Mood markers - le, ma, ne, 7
Total 46
Table 5-3 indicates that there are 46 sentences in these 31 Mandarin texts. 14
imperatives out of 46 sentence are found in the corpus. According to Chao (1968:
669), imperatives in Mandarin occur mostly with verbs of action. In the corpus, these
14 sentences all start with verbs of action. Li and Thompson (1981: 451) argue that
commands involve judgments about what people should and shouldn’t do; therefore,
in normal social interactions, Chinese people tend to avoid giving direct orders or
commands. In written advertisement texts, when imperatives are used by language
schools and buxiban to express commands to their audiences, the main purpose is to
get the audience to do some action. The writers do not avoid using imperatives in the
written advertisements. On the contrary, they employ them frequently to construct an
image of authority and expertise. Li and Thompson (1981: 451–462) point out that to
soften a command, one of these polite imperative makers “qing - invite, laojia -
trouble you, or mafan - to trouble” is often used and with the sentence final ba.
Moreover, bubi ‘not necessary’ and buyong ‘not use’ are usually used in negative
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imperatives to express indirect commands in Mandarin (ibid.: 457). In the corpus,
since neither polite imperative markers nor indirect command expressions are found
in these examples, writers are giving their commands directly to their audiences.
LWM16 and LF20 are two of the examples in the corpus.
‘Gei haizi zuihaode, zuihaode zai Zhimajie meiyu!’ (LF20)
give children the best, the best at Sesame Language School
‘Give children the best – the best is at Sesame Street Language School!’ (LF20)
‘Rang meiyu chengwei shequ gongtong de yuyan!’
Let American English become community common NOM language
NOM= nominalizer
‘Let American English become our common language in our community!’
(LWM16)
Eggins (1994) points out that, apart from imperatives, some clauses do not have the
grammatical structure of imperatives, but they have the meaning of commands. They
can be expressed by using modality which allows speakers “to temper the exchange
by expressing degrees of either probability, usuality or obligation and inclination”
(ibid.: 192). Take LF20, an imperative for example.
‘Gei Haizi zuihaode, zuihaode zai Zhimajie meiyu!’ (LF20)
Give children the best, the best at Sesame Language School!
‘Give children the best – the best is at Sesame Street Language School!’
(LF20)
The language school could have used modality such as ‘huoxu’ ‘perhaps’ and
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‘yinggai’ ‘should’ in LF20 to temper the exchange.
‘Huoxu ni yinggai gei haizi zuihaode, zuihaode zai Zhimajie
meiyu!’ (modification of LF 20)
Perhaps you should give children the best, the best at Sesame
Language School!
‘Perhaps you should give your children the best – the best is at Sesame Street
Language School!’ (Modification of LF20)
Table 5-3 shows that a total of 23 texts with a wide range of modality are found in the
corpus. As many as 14 probability modalities are found in the corpus. According to
Zhang (1991: 299) in Chinese, probability can be realized by a modal operator, such
as ‘neng’ ‘can’ ‘yinggai’ ‘should’, etc. It can also be realized by clauses such as
“mental clauses” – ‘I think’, ‘I know’ and “attributive clauses” – ‘it is
certain/true/possible’, etc (Martin et al., 1997: 70). Apart from that, a total of 8 modal
operators – 3 ‘neng’ ‘can’, 2 ‘yinggai’ ‘should’, 2 ‘jiang’ ‘will’ and 1 ‘bixu’ ‘must’ are
found. There are 5 attributive clauses – the ‘shi’ sentence pattern ‘it is true that’ (Li &
Thompson, 1981) and one mental clause – ‘women liaojie’ ‘we know’ in the corpus.
These are Chinese modalities used in the written advertisement to temper the
exchange in the corpus, but the advertisers are still constructed as authorities and
experts. The following are two examples: one is a modal operator (LF10i) and the
other one is a clause.
‘Haizi yinggai zai naer xuexie yingwen?’ (LF10i)
Children should at where learn English?
‘Where should children learn English?’ (LF10i)
‘Meiyu shi haizi maixiang shijie zuijin de lu.’ (LWM16)
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American English is children march toward the world shortest NOM
road.
NOM= nominalizer
‘American English, for children, is the royal shortcut to the world.’ (LWM16)
In addition, modalities such as expression of “degree” (4 texts), expression of
“inclination” (3 texts), expression of “obviousness” (2 texts) and expression of
“usuality” (1 text) (Halliday, 1985: 82), which temper the exchange are found in the
corpus. In the corpus, degree is also realized by adverbial phrases such as ‘jie’
(totally), ‘jihu’ ‘almost’, and ‘wanquan’ ‘completely’. Inclination can be realized by
“wei” + V sentence pattern – ‘purpose, reason, and/or cause, to be for’ (Chao, 1968:
339). Obviousness is realized by adverb phrases such as ‘burongzhiyi’ ‘no doubt’ and
the adverbial forward-linking element ‘budan’ ‘not only’. Usuality is realized by
frequency adverbs, such as ‘yizhi’ ‘always’ and ‘tongchang’ ‘usually. The following
are two examples, LF27a an example of expression of inclination and BF17 an
example of degree, ‘entirely’
‘Xierdun wei ni dazao tongwang shijie de yaoshi.’ (LF27a)
Hilton for you to make toward the world NOM key
NOM= nominalizer
‘Hilton Language School is the key to the world for you.’ (LF27a)
‘Nin de weilai, wanquan kan nin you
You (honorific) NOM future entirely depend You (honorific) have
duoshao jingzhengli!’ (BF17)
how much competitiveness
NOM= nominalizer
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‘Your future depends entirely on how competitive you are.’ (BF17)
Eggins (1994: 195) states that modality is associated with the speaker’s judgments,
opinions and attitudes, but it also functions as a signal of “the unequal power and
infrequent contact between the interactants”. In the corpus, apart from imperatives,
modalities such as probability, degree, inclination, obviousness and usuality are
used to soften demands. This does not mean that the advertiser and his audience have
equal power, since the most salient indication of power is who dominates the talking
in a situation (ibid.: 193). The relationship of unequal power between the advertiser
and audiences in the corpus is realized linguistically by the advertiser’s simple
dominance of the speaker role. When there is a lack of reciprocity, there are unequal
status relations (ibid.: 193). The analysis of probability and the degree of inclination
and usuality of the corpus provide another clear indication of the unequal power
relations between the advertisers and their audiences. The advertisers possessing a
higher status role tend to speak with ‘decisiveness’ and ‘assertiveness’ – such as
‘yinggai’ ‘should’ and ‘bixu’ ‘must’ – to show their authority and expertise and to
exercise their role as a superior (Zhang, 1991: 303). As a result, the audience is
assigned a lower status and is told what should and must be done in the age of
English-as-the-global-language.
Another grammatical choice to show the English language schools’ and buxiban’s
expert status are sentence final particles – ‘le’, ‘ne’ and ‘ma’, which are mood
markers in Mandarin (Zhang, 1991: 294). 6 texts with ‘le’, one text with ‘ne’ and
one text with ‘ma’ are found in the corpus. ‘Le’ indicates a currently relevant state,
‘ne’ indicates a response to expectation, and ma is a question marker (Li & Thompson,
1981: 238).
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‘Quanmin meiyu shidai lailin le!’ (LF20a)
Every citizen American English age has come CRS
CRS= currently Relevant State
‘The age that everybody is learning American English has come!’ (LF20a)
‘Women dou zai Losimeili xue yingwen, na ni ne?’
(LF21a)
We all at LMI learn English, in that case you Rex
Rex= Response to expectation
‘We are all learning English at MLI, how about you?’ (LF21a)
‘Meiyu jiushi jingzhengli, nin jubei le
American English that is competitiveness, you(honorific) possess CRS
ma’ (LF27b)
question?
‘American English means competitiveness, do you have it?’ (LF27b)
‘le’ claims that “a state of affairs has special current relevance with respect to some
particular situation” (Li & Thompson, 1981: 204). Moreover, ‘le’ is relevant to the
here-and-now, when both the speaker and hearer are engaged in the situation of the
speech context. In the corpus, 5 texts with the sentence final particle ‘le’ are found and
they all refer to the current moment. In other words, both advertisers and customers
get involved in the same situation, which is presented as characterized by
English-as-the-global-language. The use of “le” in LF20 says that ‘The age that every
body is learning American English’ is the current situation in Taiwan. The language
school is explicitly telling its audience that the age of English-as-the-global-language
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has come, and learning English is a must for everybody in Taiwan. The use of ‘ne’ in
LF21a issues a demand: ‘We are all learning English at MLI, how about you?’ The
text implies that to learn or not to learn English is no longer a choice for Taiwanese
parents, but rather their main concern has become where their children should learn
English. The advertiser in fact is providing “a mild warning” (Chao, 1968, as cited in
Li & Thompson, 1981: 02) to the audience. In LF27b the final particle “ma” is a
question marker. In Chinese a ‘ma’ question indicates that a speech situation is in
conflict with the speaker’s assumption, so he or she “seeks confirmation or refutation
from the hearer” (Chu, 1983: 182). In LF27b – ‘American English means
competitiveness, do you have it?’, the statement that ‘English means competitiveness’
is presented as true, but it is doubtful whether the audience has it. Therefore, the
question ‘Do you have it?’ serves to instill a sense of lack in those addressees who
have to answer the question in the negative. The analysis of final sentence particles
demonstrates that the advertisers claim higher status so they can explicitly instill the
message, that the age of English-as-the-global-language has come. In addition, they
give their audiences a mild warning to get with it.
One of the salient findings of the above English and Mandarin grammatical analysis is
that there is a high frequency of imperatives found in both English texts (7 out 14, see
Table 5-1) and Mandarin texts (15 out 46, see Table 5-3). This demonstrates that the
interaction between writers and readers tends to be realized in the Mood system. In
other words, language schools and buxiban want their readers to execute the
commands. There are 7 Mandarin texts with Mood markers – ‘le’, ‘ne’, and ‘ma’.
The Mood marker ‘le’ in the corpus indicates that both writers and readers are
involved in the same situation, English-as-the-global-language. The Mood marker ‘ne’
is a mild warning given to the reader by the advertiser. The Mood marker ‘ma’
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indicates that the advertiser is seeking confirmation from the reader. In addition,
there are 15 Mandarin texts with the modals ‘should, can, will’ and so on and 1
English text with the modality will in the corpus. These grammatical choices show
that writers exercise their role as superiors. Other grammatical choices in English
texts such as the pronoun we (3 texts), ellipsis (2 texts), and the interrogative do you
(1 text) also indicate that the advertiser possesses the knowledge to give advice. To
sum up, the above analysis shows that mood and modality used in slogans and short
paragraphs show that language schools and buxiban present themselves as
authoritative experts, particularly in relation to the role of English in the world.
5.1.3 Still Images
Apart from semiotic constructions, grammatical choices in both English and
Mandarin texts, still images also play an important role in advertising strategy. Still
images are used in written advertisements by English language schools and buxiban to
further manifest their authority and expertise. Advertisements for English teaching
and learning are becoming increasingly multimodal. Advertisers are using devices
from more than one semiotic mode of communication simultaneously to express their
voices. Still images in this study refer to photos and pictorials in school fliers and
websites. New visual literacy based on images and visual design is regarded as the
mode for “serious, ‘real’ ” information (Goodman, 1996a: 38). Kress and van
Leeuwen (1990, 1996) use a semiotic model, which derives from Halliday’s SFG
(1978). In other words, a social semiotic analysis aims to question the ways in
which images present social reality. “Images, like verbal text, do not arrive by
accident” (Goddard, 1998: 114). Therefore, still images are an integral part of the way
written advertisements represent English teaching and learning. As far as image
analysis is concerned, Kress and van Leeuwen’s method of visual analysis “offers all
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that is needed for the sociological interpretation of images” (Jewitt & Oyama, 2001:
154). Based on Kress and van Leeuwen’s semiotic model, I will explore how still
images in the corpus are used to indicate three dimensions. First, I will examine how
still images are used by the advertisers to represent the concept English-as-the-global-
language in the corpus. Second, I will show how still images bring about interactions
and relations between the advertisers and consumers. Finally, we will see how still
images are used by advertisers in the corpus to convince their audiences of the truth of
5.1.3.1 English-as-the-Global-Language in Still Images

Figure 5-3: Ideological Concepts of ELT and SLA in Still Images
1,181 photos & pictorials from
language schools & buxiban
1,181 = 100%
global-language teacher methodology as-the-standard better
English
78 still images still images 314 still images 55 still images 215 still images
= 6.6% = 44% = 26.6% = 4.7% = 18.2%
Fliers: Total = 21 Websites: Total = 17 Fliers & Websites: Total = 24 Fliers & Website: Total = 16
Photos: 12 / Pictorials: 9 Mandarin: 7 Fliers: Total = 16 Fliers: 9
Photos: 3 / Pictorials: 4 Photos: 15 / Pictorials: 1 Photos: 4 /Pictorial: 5
English: 10 Websites: Total: 8 Website: 7
Photos: 9 / Pictorial: 1 English : Photo: 6 English: Photo: 1
Mandarin: Photo: 2 Mandarin: 6
Photo: 5/ Pictorial: 1
A total of 1,181 still images is found in the corpus (Figure 5-3). 78 (6.6%) photos,
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drawings and logos contain the concept of English-as-the-global-language. The
decision whether a still image contains the concept of English-as-the-global-language,
as in the slogans and short paragraphs, is based on the definition and/or the function
of English-as-the-global-language (see Introduction & 5.1.2.1). A total of 7 photos
were counted twice and 1 photo (LF22-p1) three times since they all contain two or
more ideological concepts. Jewitt and Oyama (2001: 134–156) point out that images
are used as records of people, places, things, actions or events. LF5-p1 (Figure 5-4)
will serve as an example of how people, things, actions, events and so on are used in
still images to realize the concept of English-as-the-global-language.
Figure 5-4: LF5-p1
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LF5-p1, shows a young Taiwanese man wearing a T-shirt with a huge language school
logo on it. HESS English Adventures occupies more than three quarters of the round
logo. The remaining quarter is taken up by the Chinese school name and the school
email address. The young man is kicking a globe with his right foot and there is a
speech bubble saying ‘dapian taixia wudishou’ ‘to smash whoever stands in the way
in the world’. The school slogan says ‘yong liuli de meiyu, kuaiyi tita quan shijie’ ‘To
use fluent American English, to travel around the world easily’. Language explains
and amplifies a picture, but the picture has a story of its own to tell (Kress & van
Leeuwen, 1990: 11). Symbolic structures define the meaning or identity of a
participant in a still image (ibid.: 79). The photo depicts a small globe symbolizing the
global village. The man stands for the Taiwanese people. The school logo depicts
English as the commodity, and the kicking action means doing something to get to the
global village. The photo is accompanied by the school slogan – ‘to use fluent
American English, to travel around the world easily’. LF5-p1 photo is directly telling
its viewers that Taiwanese people need to acquire English, the global language for
international travel. Zandpour, Chang, and Catalano (1992, as cited in Shao et al.,
1999: 63) analyzed 659 moving images in television commercials from Taiwan,
France and USA. They found that Taiwanese advertisements are more prone to use
symbolism than the USA or French advertisements, and this is also true for the still
images in my corpus.
5.1.3.2 Symbolism – Things
One very important symbolic object in the corpus that indicates English is a global
language is the globe. In their analysis of the front cover of Our Society and Others
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Kress and van Leeuwen argue (1990: 61–62) argue that “the globe is not one of many
objects ‘naturally’ present in a setting such as a classroom”. Moreover, they point
out that the globe has been placed there deliberately in an “abstract and
decontextualized way”. Being decontextualized means that a represented participant
(person, object) in still images becomes “generic, a typical example” and connected
with a “particular location and a specific moment of time” (Kress & van Leeuwen,
1990: 55). The same can be argued for the images in my corpus. TESOL’s global
logo represents TESOL spanning the globe. It is revealing that TESOL considers itself
as a “liberal profession”, but it is really an “industry” (Phillipson & Skutnabb-Kangas,
1996: 439). As many as 24 still images with globes are found and 13 of these are
school logos. Like TESOL’s logo, these 13 (out of 73 in this study) language school
logos have the school name initials spanning the globe indicating that English is the
global language. Globes also symbolize the ‘global village’, and people need to do
something, to take action to enter this global village. Apart from LF5-p1 in which the
man is kicking the globe, 7 photos and 1 pictorial of globes involve people and
actions. I will continue with this issue later in this section.
Two photos of globes without people or actions involved are found in the corpus. One
(BF1-p1) is placed above the school name. The other one (LF9-p10) has eight small
globes with four small globes located in the four corners of each side of the LF9
school flier. As a result the globes in these two fliers stand out as separate and distinct
units. In addition, these photos of globes are not accompanied by writing. These two
photos can be read in terms of English-as-the-global-language. In terms of text format,
there is a relation between the body texts and the images. It also can be read as
English-as- the-global-language, since the body texts provide information in relation
to the commodity being advertised, English. Apart from these two photos there are
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two photos of world maps (BF30-p9, OLWE1-p1), one photo (OLF13-p1) of a globe
with different countries’ flags on it and one photo of different countries’ flags
(BWM20-p4). They have no people or actions and the accompanying text can be
analyzed in the same way as BF1-p1 and LF9-p10.
5.1.3.3 Symbolism – People
A total of 21 still images with children are found. In the LF24-p1 photo, seven little
children are standing in a line with their arms around each other in front of a huge
drawing of a semi-globe. It creates a visual concept of their different ethnic status,
since they have different skin colors. The big globe or symbolic object is placed as the
background of the photo, which draws the viewer’s attention. These seven children
are thus shown to be part of the world, a microcosm of the world. Photos like these
are “symbolic attributive process” images (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1990: 80).
LF24-p1 shows that the children are standing ‘on the world stage’, and the
accompanied writing suggests the same the thing – ‘shijie wutai’ ‘the world stage’.
The little Asian girl with yellow skin stands out among this group of children, because
she is wearing a shocking yellow colored tracksuit, while others are wearing more
muted, softer less saturated colors. Strong and highly saturated color in still images
suggests “more real” and muted and softer less saturated color suggests “less real”
(ibid.: 51). Moreover, she is the shortest and may be the youngest. This little girl
represents the Taiwanese younger generation, and in this representation, she has a
much more significant role to play than the white, black and dark brown children.
This photo contains two concepts – English-as-the-global-language and the-younger-
the-better in English learning. In addition to this, two drawings (LF9-pi1, LWM3-pi2)
are presented in a similar way to LF24-p1, with children from different ethnic groups
standing around the globe. In two drawings (BF10-pi2, BWM23-pi1) and two
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photos (LWE13-p20, LWM5-p12) children are shown with different ethnic status.
Although there are no globes found in these photos, they are still presented to be a
microcosm of the world, and using English.
Children in still images play a crucial role in both concepts English-as-the-global-
language and the-younger-the-better ideology. Human participants in symbolic
attributive processes “usually pose for the viewer, and are not involved in an action”
(Kress & van Leeuwn, 1990: 80). LF12-p1 shows a little Taiwanese boy holding a
globe and staring at his viewers. Above this little boy, two graphic strokes lead the eye
to another photo of a big globe, which consists of different photos such as English
classes and English textbooks. Graphic information is used to represent “verbal
English” (Goodman, 1996: 61). These two graphic strokes used in this photo show
that the little Taiwanese boy is not only staring at his viewers, but is also telling them
that English is the global language. LF17a-p1 and LF12-p10 are similar. In a total of 9
photos (LWE3-p1 – p4, p6, p10, p11, LWE6-p6, LWM1-p22) children are wearing
language school T-shirts and there are two photos (LF17a-p1, p4) in which children
are reading their language school English textbooks. Most of the children in these
photos are staring at their viewers, except in one photo. These photos also use
“symbolic attributes” (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1990), since the language school
T-shirts and language school textbooks are used as symbolic objects on display for the
viewers. These photos can be transcoded as English equaling internationalism, and
English as a must for those Taiwanese aspiring to internationalism for themselves or
their children.
Adults are also used in the still images to portray that English is a global language. A
total of 16 still images with adults are found in the corpus. LF5-p2 shows a geometric
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abstract website world with www.hess.com.tw on it. In this website world, a
Taiwanese young man, a surfer, is wearing a tropical shirt and a pair of shorts. He is
not riding on a surfboard, but a giant computer mouse, which is as big as a normal
surfboard. He is surfing not on the water, but in this geometric website world. The
school slogan says ‘Suini ziyou chuangdang wulu zinshijie’ ‘To surf as well as you
wish to on a New World – the World Website’. The photo depicts the geometric
abstract website world, that is, a new cultural world of Hi Tech. Riding on the
computer mouse stands for the acquisition of new knowledge and communication in
this new cultural world, and the surfer for the Taiwanese people. The school’s English
email address suggests that English is the tool for this new cultural world of Hi Tech.
The LF5-p2 photo is directly telling its viewers that English has become the medium
for new knowledge and communication with the development and advance of Hi Tech.
Obviously, LF5-2 is also a symbolic attribute. Apart from this photo, there are 8
symbolic attribute photos with adult participants doing something to symbolic objects,
such as a computer keyboard (LF5-p3), a Time magazine, (LF5-p4), a globe, (LF5-p1,
BF30-p1, p9), textbooks (LF17b-p3, LF18-pi4) and computers (OLWM4-p1).
A total of 7 still images show that English is regarded as the best language among
entrepreneurs and businessmen. OLWM4-p1 shows two clasped hands. Viewers
know that the hands belong to businessmen, not only because the heading says
Uniting You with the World through Smart Business Communications, but also
because the photo of shaking hands reveals that these two people are wearing shirts
and business suits. Three similar photos are found in the corpus. Two photos
(OLWM2-p2, OLWE2-p5) show two businessmen carrying briefcases and shaking
hands. The LF18-pi2 pictorial shows that there is a bridge on a huge globe. A
businessman carrying a briefcase and a businesswoman carrying an organizer are
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shaking hands on the bridge. The background of this pictorial has different symbolic
objects such as an airplane, ship, skyscraper, computer, spacecraft, and car to
demonstrate that more and more occupations have to use the global language English.
In addition, a total of three photos (OLWE2-p1, p2, p3) depict business meetings.
These photos demonstrate the importance of good language skills to compete
successfully in the global marketplace, since English is used as the medium of science,
technology and international trade.
5.1.3.4 Symbolism – Places
Settings in still images also can be used to portray the ideology of English-as-the-
global-language. Symbolic suggestive pictures focus on their “genericity, their quality
of depicting, not a specific moment, but a generalized essence” (Kress & van
Leeuwen, 1990: 81). A total of 19 photos with settings overseas are found in the
corpus. 14 photos (OLF13-p3 – p15, p18) in the OLF13 language school brochure
show many different kinds of indoor and outdoor activities carried on by different
ethnic people in English speaking countries, such as speaking on the phone, using
computers, having English classes, outings, rafting, skiing, bicycling, and so on. The
accompanying text deals with interactive English learning provided by the language
school. These photos do not really focus on any particular participants in an activity
or they de-emphasize details which are major features of symbolic suggestive pictures
(ibid.: 81). Apart from these photos, there are two photos of Caucasians
(BWM18-p5, p6) wearing graduation gowns and hoods on the BWM18 school
website. Below these two photos in the same website, another 2 photos (BWM18-p7,
p8) show two cities in Canada, since the school focuses only on studying abroad in
Canada. One similar photo is also found in a buxiban flier (BF30-p10). BF30-p10
shows a world map on the left and on the right, some cities in English speaking
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countries, such as New York (the Statue of Liberty), Washington (the White House),
Sydney (the Opera House). The accompanying text deals with study abroad in an
English speaking country. These photos demonstrate that English is the means for
acquiring access to the global village, since it is used as the medium for wider
communication and a contact language for different cultures in order to communicate
with one another. In addition to this, English is also one of the most important means
for acquiring access to the intellectual world.
5.1.3.5 Point of View – Direct and Indirect Address
Both language and still images can be used to address readers or viewers directly or
indirectly. Language does it through grammatical choices, such as imperatives,
modality, ellipsis and so on (see 5.1.2.3 & 5.1.2.4) Still images do it through the ways
in which representative participants (such as people, animals, and other objects if they
have eyes) look at viewers. If the participants in the images look at their viewers, they
address their viewers directly and that constitutes a demand. If they don’t, they
address their viewer indirectly, and they offer information to the viewers. To address
directly or indirectly or to give a demand or offer information functions as “point of
view” in still images (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996: 135–153). Point of view indicates
how still images bring about interactions and relations between advertisers and
consumers.
Apart from 13 school logos with globes and 9 still images without eyes, a total of 56
still images use gaze. A total of 28 still images directly address viewers or are
“demand” pictures in Kress and van Leeuwen’s term (1990, 1996). LF22-ph1 is the
example containing three ideological concepts – English-as-the-global-language,
ideal-English-teaching-methodology and the-younger-the-better ideology. LF22-ph1
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shows a little Taiwanese boy standing and smiling at his viewers with his English
textbook Big Bird’s Yellow Book open. The number “2000” which is bigger than the
boy’s size is placed horizontally as the background of the photo. The speech bubble
says, No Chinese!. Above this photo is the school Mandarin slogan in a striking print
‘Qianjin qianxi, gei haizi zuihao de!’ ‘In the new millennium, give the best to your
children!’. The little Taiwanese boy in this photo symbolizes the younger generation
in Taiwan. No Chinese! Refers to the ideal-English-teaching-method (see chapter 7).
The number “2000” with relatively big size as background symbolizes the need of the
Taiwanese people for English in the new millennium. This photo constitutes a demand:
the boy smiles at the viewer. He demands something from the viewer with an
ingratiating smile. The viewer is asked to imagine entering a relation of “social
affinity” with the represented participant in the photo (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1990:
27). Both the language and image address the viewer directly in this example. They
are directly telling their viewers that English is the global language in the new
millennium and it is a must for everybody. 27 out of 28 still images directly address
their viewers with smiles. The only exception is a photo (LF5-p3) in which a
Taiwanese young man looks excited with his mouth open. He is gazing at the viewer
with his open arms and with a Time Magazine in his right hand. He is directly
addressing his viewers with the message in Mandarin, ‘Yong zui shishang de meiyou
zhuozhu nide shidai’ ‘To keep abreast of current affairs in American English, to keep
you updated’. He is directly telling his viewers that American English is the
language for the communication of information and news.
There are 28 still images in which human participants do not look at the viewer.
Kress and van Leeuwen (1990, 1996) call such pictures “offers” and they serve
different functions from the demand pictures. Demand pictures make contact with
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the viewer, so they establish an imaginary relation with them (Kress & van Leeuwen,
1996: 121–122). Pictures of offers, on the other hand, seek to be read as a piece of
“objective” and “factual” information. In the corpus, still images of studying abroad,
activities in English speaking countries and business meetings are often portrayed in
the form of an offer. The setting of OLF13-p10 is an English classroom in an English
speaking country. The class consists of students from different ethnic groups and the
teacher looks like a native speaker of English. This photo is indirectly telling its
viewers that people should study English if they plan to interact in English with
non-natives or with native speakers, or if they plan to further their studies abroad.
English has already grown into a world property and it is the global language. In
Taiwan, language schools and buxiban use still images to market the concept of
English-as-the-global-language and then set into motion the actual process of selling
their services.
Next, I shall look at how school names also play an important role in advertising the
ideology of English-as-the-global-language.
5.1.4 School Names
Many researchers (El-Yasin & Mahadin, 1995; Herbert, 1999; Li, 1997; Lu &
Millward, 1989; Song, 2002; Zhu & Millward, 1987) point out that name choice
responds to changing sociocultural and political conditions. Herbert (1999: 249)
argues that the act of naming businesses in South Africa is an act of social
communication and embedded within a cultural framework. He also points out how
the shop name-giver in Johannesburg seeks to “send a community-oriented positive
message” to the community via the name displayed on the shop front. Similarly,
language schools make meaning through their choice and use of words. The basic
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orientation of this section is to view language school names as “visual
communication”, as suggested by Goodman (1996a: 38). I will explore school names
from a sociolinguistic perspective to investigate how school names serve to convey
ideological concepts of ELT and SLA. First the concept of English-as-the-global-
language is examined.
Figure 5-5: School Names
School Names:
Total = 150
English language schools: 69 Other language schools: 22 Buxiban: 59
Fliers: 37 (E&M - 37) Fliers: 16 (E&M - 5, E - 11) Fliers: 32 (E&M - 6, M - 27)
English websites: 11 English websites: 1 English websites: 1
(E&M - 7, E - 4) (E - 1) (E&M - 1)
Mandarin websites: 21 Mandarin websites: 5 Mandarin websites: 26
(E&M - 21) (E&M - 1, E - 2, M - 2)

(E&M - 6, M - 20)
Ideological concepts: 92
Non-ideological concepts: 58
English language schools: 69 Other language schools: 22 Buxiban:59
Ideological concepts: 58 Ideological concepts: 19 Ideological concepts: 15
Non-ideological concepts: 11 Non-ideological concepts: 3 Non-ideological concepts: 44
(Note: E: English, M: Mandarin, E&M: English and Mandarin)
Figure 5-5 indicates that a total of 150 school names are found in the corpus and a
total of 92 school names contain ideological concepts of English teaching and
learning. A preliminary inspection of the data of buxiban names reveals that most
school names contain the concept English-as-the-global-language, since they promote
the idea that English guarantees future successes, e.g. Future Scholar, Outstanding,
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Excellent Future and so on. After examining words appearing in buxiban names, 44 of
59 do not contain ideological concepts (Figure 5-5). Take ‘Mingru Wenli Buxiban’
for example. ‘Ming’- ‘tomorrow, future’, ‘ru’ ‘scholar’, ‘wenli’ ‘English, math,
physics, chemistry’ Buxiban, so ‘Mingru Wenli Buxiban’ means ‘Future Scholars in
English, Math, Physics and Chemistry Supplementary School’. Therefore, not only
English, but also other arduous supplementary courses, such as math, chemistry and
physics make students become future scholars. In other words, what is crucial in
buxiban names is that if school names contain ‘wenli’ ‘English, math, physics,
chemistry’, or contents of school fliers and websites indicate that they provide these
arduous supplementary courses, they do not qualify for English-as-the-global-
language analysis in this section. In addition, if a school’s Mandarin and English
names do not have the same meaning, they are counted twice. If both names have the
same meaning, they are counted only once. For example, LF12’s school name in
Mandarin is ‘Diqiucun Meiyu’ ‘Global Village American Language School’ and its
English name is Global Village Organization. Both Mandarin and English possess
the same meaning, so it is seen as a single school name and is counted only once in
the corpus. Language schools, such as Hess, Giraffe, Joy, Jordan and so on are found
in more than one form of advertising, such as school fliers and television commercials,
but they are counted only once. 15 school names are counted twice, since their
Mandarin and English names do not possess the same meaning. LWE2 is an example.
Its Mandarin school name is ‘Bokelai’, a transliteration of ‘Berkeley’, the famous US
university town, and its English name is Jump Start. Berkeley contains the ideological
concept of American-English-as-the- standard-English and Jump Start contains the
concept of the-younger-the-better.
5.1.4.1 English as a Marketing Strategy in School Names
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Most of the school names (46 out of 59) in buxiban fliers and websites are completely
in Mandarin. Thirteen (out of 22) other language schools have Mandarin names only.
By contrast, almost every language school has both English and Mandarin school
names and five language schools have English school names only on their English
websites. This reveals that an English name is given to every language school. We
must ask, therefore, why school owners use Mandarin only or English only in their
school names. Song (2002: 145–158) points out that the Chinese government
(People’s Republic of China) protests the use of “yangming (foreign names), because
they are afraid such use represents aspects of cultural alienation”. Research conducted
into advertising in Taiwan by Neelankavil et al. (1995, as cited in Shao et al., 1999)
investigated the use of foreign language and foreign models in magazine advertising
in four Asian countries: Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Their finding is
that the use of English language and foreign models is very common in other
countries as well. In another study by Wang et al. (1997, as cited in Shao et al., 1999),
it was found that Taiwanese advertising is considerably more westernized than
Japanese advertising, which means English language and foreign models are used
quite frequently. According to Wang et al. (1997), the main reason for the high
frequency of Western advertising in Taiwan may be due to Taiwan’s history of
acceptance of foreign cultures, and admiration of products of Western origin. The
above research indicates that English is used relatively commonly in advertising.
Therefore one has to ask why a majority of buxiban names and slogans and short
paragraphs (see Figure 5-1) are exclusively in Mandarin.
El-Yasin and Mahadin (1996: 408–416) conducted a study of shop signs in Jordan.
They take a linguistic perspective to investigate whether the words in shop signs are
Arabic or not, and what they are intended to convey to consumers. One of their
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findings is that Arabic shop names reflect traditional business types rather than the
modern ones. In other words, shop signs of modern business types (such as photo
shop, supermarket, boutique, cafeteria, software, stereo and so on) are often given in
English and Arabic. Similar results are also found in Herbert’s (ibid.: 251) study in
South Africa of the names of commercial enterprises (e.g., grocery, general dealer,
barber, bottle shop), which are not part of traditional indigenous culture and are often
given English or Afrikaans names. El-Yasin and Mahadin argue that the widespread
use of foreign words (mainly English) in shop signs aim at promoting goods and
services offered by the businesses that display them. Song (2002: 148) points out that
“yangming” (foreign names), such as McDonald, Motorola, Kentucky and so on with
their Chinese transliteration started to be introduced into China in the 1980s.
Apparently, these are modern business types, too. As suggested by Song (2002: 156),
“commercial neologisms are symbolic goods that have a two faced reality, a
commodity and a symbolic object”. Based on the above studies, English language
schools can be viewed as modern business types and buxiban can be regarded as
traditional ones. Next, I shall explore how both English language school and
buxiban names are used to in advertising the ideology of English-as-the-global-
language.
5.1.4.2 English-as-the-Global-Language in School Names
Figure 5-4 indicates that 92 school names contain ideological concepts of English
teaching and learning, and Figure 5-5 gives 102 school names. Herbert (1999: 253)
demonstrates that shop names often play on multiple meanings. The same is true of
my corpus. Four school names; E-learning, The International English Village of
Kidsland, Little Harvard, Giraffe are counted twice. Three names, (Famous, The
Best, Deesson) are counted three times in the corpus. Take the LF13 school name, The
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Best, for example. It has several layers of meaning. First, it can be decoded that
students will be the best in the future if they master English. It also means the school
employs the best English teachers. The Best can be decoded as the school using the
best teaching methodology, so the school is the best. The name contains three
ideological concepts – English-as-the-global-language, the-ideal-English-teachers,
and the-ideal-teaching-methodology. The school is warning people that English is the
key to success and warning people to be more careful of the quality of English
teachers and teaching methodology.
Figure 5-6: Ideological Concepts of ELT and SLA in School Names
102 school names
102 = 100%
global-language teachers Methodology as-the-standard- better
English
25 school names 38 school names school names 15 school names 15 school names
= 24.5% = 37.3% = 8.8% = 14.7% = 14.7%
Fliers: Total: 9 Websites: Total: 8 Fliers & Websites: Total: 6 Fliers & Websites: Total: 2
E&M: 8 Mandarin: 6 Fliers: 3 Website: 2
M: 1 E&M: 5, E: 1 E&M: 2, M: 1 Mandarin: 2
English: 2 Website: 3 E: 1, M: 1
E&M: 1, E: 1, English: E&M: 1
Mandarin: E&M: 1, E: 1
(Note: E: English, M: Mandarin, E&M: English and Mandarin)
5.1.4.3 Symbolism – School Names
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Herbert (1999: 251) points out that shop names are intentionally communicative in the
same way that personal names are. Both of them have a dual function: one is
identifying a particular individual and the other is “reflecting the subjective state of
the namegivers”. In Chinese, a pictographic language, each individual character
carries with it a semantic component. Theoretically, any Chinese character can be
used as a given name; thus the reference book for name givers is a dictionary (Zhu &
Millward, 1987; Lu, 1989). Zhu and Millward (1987: 17) list eight groups: 1.
Fame, achievement, ability, 2. Intellectual and moral quality, 3. Money and wealth, 4.
Longevity, 5. Physical beauty, 6. Symbolic qualities, 7. Desire for additional children,
and 8. Commemorative names. I will apply some of these groups to the school
names in the corpus. Generally speaking, the 25 school names that contain the
concept of English-as-the-global-language fall into 4 categories:
1. English for future success:
Giraffe, Fly Dragon, Sunflower, Famous, The Best, Deeson, Win-Win, Secure,
‘Future Saint’, Elite
2. English as a global language:
Bridging, The Big World, Global Village, Today, Everyday, The World, The
International English Village of Kidsland, Asian International
3. English for business and information
e-learning, United International Business, Global Professional
4. The importance of English
Line up, Principal, Royal, The Best, Excellent
5.1.4.4 Symbolic Quality
Not only still images but also school names use symbolism to convey ideological
concepts of English teaching and learning in this study. One of eight given names
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groups by Zhu and Millward (ibid.: 17) is called “symbolic qualities”. Based on the
examples provided by Zhu and Millward, “symbolic qualities” refers to the meanings
of names and are based on connotation, not denotation. Symbolic quality plays an
important role in this study. School names such as Sunflower, Giraffe and Fly
Dragon from Group One seem denotative at first glance and not to contain the concept
of English-as-the-global-language. However, for Chinese speakers these names have
very strong connotations.
To begin with, there is an old Chinese saying that the sunflower always turns toward
the sun so the name suggests a bright future. This is one of the reasons Taiwan’s
teachers chose this plant as a symbol for their September 28, 2002 (Teachers’ Day, the
birthday of Confucius) solidarity march. Tens of thousands of teachers were waving
sunflowers to express their determination to uphold teachers’ solidarity and dignity
and call for the right to form a teachers’ union in Taiwan (Li, 2002). Therefore, the
school name Sunflower implies that people mastering English will have a bright
future. Second, giraffes are the “tallest” living animals in the world. There is a very
positive connotation for ‘giraffes’, which means ‘gao gao zai zhang’ – ‘gao’ ‘high’,
‘zai’ ‘at’, ‘shang’ ‘above’, that is, they are situated high above or they are much better
than the others. In addition, the character ‘gao’ is used to describe people who are
much better than others not only physically but also mentally. The school name
Giraffe means that if people can master English, they are better than the average. It
also can be argued that the school has better teaching methodology or better English
teachers. Finally, for Chinese, the dragon is always associated with emperor, fame,
success, glory and so on, and has very positive connotations which are very different
from the Western ones. Commercial neologisms often ignore syntactic rules (Song,
2002: 149). As a case in point, a school’s Chinese and English names may seem
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unrelated, but to a Chinese speaker the two names are connotatively very similar. Fly
Dragon’s Chinese translation, which can be best be described as “Chinglish”. Chinese
‘feilung’ from ‘fei’ ‘fly’ and ‘lung’ ‘dragon’ means ‘to ascend the throne’. The
Chinese name of the Fly Dragon language school is ‘zhanqun’ from ‘zhan’ ‘to
expand, to extend’ and ‘qun’ ‘group of people’ or ‘outstanding in a group of people’.
So, in the socioculture of Chinese language, any apparent divergence of meaning
between the Chinese and English names fades to insignificance.
Sound symbolism also plays its part in school names. Deeson, an English language
school name sounds like ‘decent’ in English. In addition, the Chinese school name is
“De Sheng”. The transliteration of Thomas Alva Edison is ‘Ai De Sheng’. In the
expression ‘De Sheng’, ‘de’ also means ‘to advance, to teach’ and ‘sheng’ - ‘a
student’.
5.1.4.5 Commemorative Names
Another group of given names is called “commemorative names” (Zhu & Millward,
1987: 17). Chinese people normally do not give their children the given names of
their parents, relatives, close friends or celebrities, but given names frequently
commemorate an event, especially social or political events (Lu & Millward, 1989).
One example in their study is that the given name ‘Ya-Fei’ ‘Asia-Africa’
commemorates the unity of Asian and African people. Lu and Millward (1989:
265–280) collected 714 names of Chinese students who were born before and after
the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Their main finding is that given names reflect
“political, social and cultural conditions at the time of naming” (ibid.: 265). An
example is the character ‘hong’ ‘red’. Before the Cultural Revolution, it was used in
girls’ names, but during the Cultural Revolution, it denoted not only the color red, but
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also “revolution”. As a result, a number of names contain the character ‘hong’ ‘red’
for the meaning of “Revolution”, such as ‘Hong Ya’ ‘Revolutionary Asia’, ‘qing
Hong’ ‘celebrate the Revolution’, ‘zhong Hong’ and ‘be loyal to the Revolution’. In
other words, names often directly reflect contemporary culture and politics. The same
is true of school names in the context of English teaching and learning. School names
such as The Big World, Global Village, The World, Bridging, Global Professional,
Asian International and so on all play on the status of English as a global or an
international language. Thus, to a certain extent, the names mirror the current status of
English in Taiwan.
5.1.4.6 Fame, Achievement, and Ability
The last group suggested by Zhu and Millward (1987: 16) is called “Fame,
Achievement, Ability”. Two of their examples are the names of Chiang Kai-Shek’s
sons Jing-guo and Wei-guo. ‘Guo’ in each name means ‘country or nation’, ‘Jing’
means ‘warp’ (in weaving) and ‘Wei’ means ‘weft’. ‘Jing’ and ‘Wei’ together means
‘to manage or to run’, thus each name means ‘to run the country’. In the corpus,
school names such as The Best, Win-Win, Excellent, Famous, Royal, Principal and
Elite are used to celebrate not only their owners’ achievements in having built a
successful business in English teaching and learning, but also entail the promise that
their prospective customers will be able to achieve the same. In addition, they are
telling addressees that they are capable of providing their students the key to the
world, namely English.
5.3 Conclusion
The texts analyzed in this chapter suggest that English is needed for news and
information, for business, for professions, for international travel, for education both
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in Taiwan and abroad, for self-improvement, and English for future success in general.
English is promoted as a tool that is needed for most purposes. Several strategies are
used to promote English, such as English as a marketing strategy, semiotic
constructions and grammatical choices. In addition to textual strategies, still images
play a crucial role. English language schools and buxiban use symbolic pictures such
as logos, objects, people, and places to address their viewers directly (gaze at the
viewer) or indirectly (absence of gaze at the viewer). Finally, school names are also
used to send the message that English is the global language, and is essential for
future success.
Based on the analysis of the advertisements, there is no clearly identifiable group,
such as parents, English language learners, or children being addressed as the
audience, viewers or message receivers. In other words, English language schools
and buxiban target ‘the general public – real readers’ (Goddard, 1998: 31). English
language schools and buxiban work to keep the ideology of English-as-the-global-
language alive for their English market. Therefore, everyone (the real readers) is
addressed as if each and everyone was preparing for the coming of the global village,
although not everyone may participate in English learning. Shoemaker and Reese
(1996: 190) point out that “buyers are advertisers”, so they pay what it costs to run a
campaign. Moreover, there is substantial evidence that “media content is affected –
both directly and indirectly – by both advertisers and audiences” (ibid.: 190). The
analysis shows that in Taiwan, English-as-the-global-language is viewed as a panacea
or a solution to existing cultural, economic and political problems, and that the use of
English is associated with an ideology of internationalism. Internationalization or
globalization has made English a highly valued and desirable commodity, and English
teaching and learning is viewed from an economic perspective, not from an
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educational one.
CHAPTER SIX: THE “IDEAL-ENGLISH-TEACHER”
6.0 Introduction
This chapter looks at ideologies of the ideal-English-teacher in Taiwan based on
advertisements produced by English language schools and buxiban. “The native
speaker fallacy” is a strong term used by Phillipson (1992a), questioning whether the
ideal-English-teacher as a native speaker of English can serve as a model for
non-native speakers. In addition, the ideology implies unfair treatment of qualified
non-native English speaking teachers. Labov (1969, as cited in Cook, 1999: 94)
argues that one group should not be measured against the norms of another. However,
many researchers have found that in probably every non-English speaking country,
there is major division or dichotomy between native and non-native English speaking
teachers (Rampton, 1990; Phillipson, 1992a; Medgyes, 1992; Liu, 1999; Cook, 1999).
It can be argued that this division stems from the native speaker ideology. Although
there are many arguments against the native and non-native dichotomy (Rampton,
1990; Medgyes, 1992; Phillipson, 1992a, b), the main argument rests on the
assumption and ideology that native speakers of English are ideal English teachers.
Very little research has been done on the opposite notion that non-native speakers are
ideal English teachers.
This chapter explores the identity of the ideal English teacher, it will be argued that
the native and non-native dichotomy does not represent a linguistic construct but a
socially constructed identity based on cultural assumptions of who conforms to the
preconceived notion of an ideal-English-teacher. This chapter consists of four parts.
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First, the native speaker ideology is examined. Secondly, I draw a distinction between
a native and non-native dichotomy, and a white and non-white dichotomy in English
teaching. Thirdly, I show that both natives and non-natives have an equal chance to
become good English teachers, depending on their competence in the target language,
the local language, knowledge of grammar, and professionalism. The last part of
this chapter investigates implications of the ideology of the ideal-English-teacher.
6.1 Overview of the Data and Introduction to Analysis
Advertisements produced by English language schools and buxiban, such as
television commercials, television English teaching programs, English teaching job
ads, slogans and short paragraphs, contents of language schools, school names, and
still images, play a crucial role in promoting the ideological concept of the
ideal-English-teacher. The first step in analyzing the data is to indicate how the
ideological concept of the ideal-English-teacher is realized in these advertisement
texts.
6.1.1 Television Commercial and Television English Teaching program
Television commercials and television English teaching programs are analyzed as
using the concept of the ideal-English-teacher if they depict a teacher.
There are 102 advertisements for English teaching jobs in my corpus, and 54 of them
are drawn from one English newspaper, China Post, and 48 of them are drawn from
one world wide website, Teach in Taiwan. The first step in analyzing these ads is to
identify terms, especially nouns, appearing in every ad and then count their
occurrences. Take Figure 6-1 for example.
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Figure 6-1: C4 English Teaching Job Ad from China Post, July 19, 2001.
Language School needs

English Teachers
 North American Accent
preferred
 College/University graduate
 Teaching experience with
children (3-15 years old)
 Location: XXX Kaohsiung
Please call XXX or XXX
(07) XXX or XXX
Bruthiaux (1996:126) suggests that job ads typically consist of five components,
mainly target element, recruiter element, requirements element, reward element
and contact segment. After counting the occurrences of these lexical collocations,
they are classified into these five elements which are all related to different degrees to
the ideological concept of the ideal-English-teacher. Take Figure 6-1 for example, the
collocation English teachers is a target element. Language school and children
classes are recruiter elements. North American accent, college/university graduate
or BA degree, and teaching experience with children are requirements elements.
Please call XXX (name) or XXX (name) at (07) XXX (phone number) is a contact
segment and no reward elements are found in this ad. Any information in job ads
which is related to the term teacher is analyzed.
25 (13%) out of a total of 192 slogans and short paragraphs or texts contain the
concept of the ideal-English-teacher (cf. Figure 5-1, p. 121). Whether a text contains
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the concept of the ideal-English teacher or not is based on Rampton’s (1990: 97)
inherited and other qualities of a language teacher. Inherited qualities of an English
teacher means country of origin, accent, sex, physical features, and personality. Other
qualities refer to a special education or training that make one an expert in one field or
another, such as working experience and educational background. LF24e and
BWM2 are two examples.
Why we are the best!
‘Tien Tien Meiyu, Waishi shouke’ (LF24e)
Why we are the best!
‘Foreign teachers to teach American English every day’ (LF24e)
‘100% hege TEFL huo jiashi zige, hefa zhuanyie, waiji laoshi shouke.’
(LWM7)
‘100% qualified TEFL or certified teachers, legal and professional foreign
teachers instruction.’ (LWM7)
A total of 5 texts are counted twice since they contain two ideological concepts: the
ideal-English-teacher and American-English-as-standard-English. Since American
English equals standard English in Taiwan, a North American accent is popular and
preferred. As a result, American and Canadian teachers who speak English with a
North American accent are considered the ideal-English-teachers (see also chapter 8).
The following, LF20, a Mandarin text, is one of the examples.
‘Tepien MeiJia you jingyan laoshi lai Tai shouke.’ (LF20)
‘Particularly experienced American and Canadian English teachers are
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hired to teach in Taiwan.’ (LF20)
6.1.4 Body Texts
The techniques of analysis used in school fliers and website contents in this study, are
similar to those used in English job ads analysis. The first step was to identify terms
such as teacher, methodology, age, country of origins, and so on. Then these terms
were put into five categories based on the ideological concepts under study (see
Figure 6-2). Take LWE 8 for example.
Our Highly Qualified and Dedicated Teaching Staff
All of our teachers have university degrees and many have Master’s degrees.
All our teachers are legal resident visa holders. Our foreign teachers mostly
come from the United States and Canada, England, and Australia, but we also
have many teachers from other native English - speaking countries, giving our
students the opportunity to listen to and learn from many different accents.
The headline, Our highly qualified and dedicated Teaching Staff is analyzed under
slogans and short paragraphs section, because headlines are one of the strategies used
by advertisers to market the notion ‘authoritative expert’ (see chapter 5). In the LWE
8 English website, a total of 4 tokens of the term teachers are found. They are counted
four times, since they are modified by different modifiers in terms of meaning, such
as University/Master’s degree, Legal resident visa holder, United States and Canada,
England, and Australia and other native English-speaking countries. In addition,
Figure 6-2 shows that no terms conveying ideological concept of
English-as-the-global-language are found, since they are always advertised in slogans,
short paragraphs and headlines to show that the importance of English as the global
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language cannot be overstressed.
Figure 6-2: Ideological Concepts of ELT and SLA in Body Texts
487 tokens
487 = 100%
English-as-the- Ideal-English- Ideal-teaching- American-English The-younger-the-
global-language teacher methodology as-Standard- better
English
0 terms = 0 % 160 = 32.9% 153 = 31.4% 114 = 23.4% 60 = 12.3%
English language schools: 101 Other language schools: 10 Buxiban: 49
Fliers: Total = 61 Fliers: 5 Fliers: 19
Mandarin: 61 Mandarin websites: 5 Websites Mandarin: 30
Websites: Total = 40
Mandarin: 27
English: 13
6.1.5 Still Images
519 (44%) out of a total of 1,181 photos and pictorials contain the concept of the
ideal-English-teacher (cf. Figure 5-3, p.140). Photos and pictorials are deemed to
contain the concept of the ideal-English-teacher if they show a teacher with a student
or students, a teacher teaching in a classroom (even without students in the picture), or
a teacher being trained in a teaching program. Photos showing teachers teaching,
whether in the classroom or outside, are counted twice since two ideological concepts,
the ideal-English-teacher and the ideal-English-teaching-methodology, are involved.
There are as many as 270 photos containing these two concepts. I shall return the
ideological concept of the ideal-English-teaching-methodology in ELT in chapter 7.
6.1.6 School Names
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Herbert (1999: 251) argues that personal names used in shop names serve the dual
function of “identifying a particular individual and reflecting the subjective state of
the namegiver”. Li’s study (1997: 489–513) on bilingual Hong Kongers who have
Western style English first names found that those with an English first name were
using a “borrowed identity” to realize an “involvement strategy” (Scollon & Scollon,
1995, as cited in Li, 1997: 512). The test for the existence of the concept of the
ideal-English-teacher in English language school names is simply the choice of an
English rather than a Chinese name. On the other hand, the concept of the
ideal-English- teacher in buxiban names is simply the choice of a Chinese rather than
an English name.
6.2 Analysis
The strategies such as semiotic constructions and grammatical choices used in written
texts (see chapter 5 analysis) will not be discussed again in this chapter. However,
an overlap of these strategies is somewhat unavoidable at times in the corpus. In this
chapter I will explore the concept of the ideal-English-teacher by using metadiscourse,
which is associated with Halliday’s textual and interpersonal metafunctions of a text
(Fuertes-Olivera et al., 2001: 1296). Written advertisement texts are produced by
English language schools and buxiban as a social and communicative engagement
between writer and reader. Metadiscourse means “those aspects of the text, which
explicitly refer to the organization of the discourse or the writer’s stance towards
either its context or the reader” (Hyland, 1998: 438). Fuertes-Olivera et al. (2001:
1291–1307) apply metadiscourse to their analysis of a corpus of slogans, headlines
and subheadings of written advertisements to demonstrate the importance of
metadiscourse to advertising in the creation of solidarity between addresser and
addressee. They also argue that ‘print advertising is one domain where an orientation
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toward the addressee is crucial in securing rhetorical objectives” (ibid.: 1305). In
addition, Rush (1998: 155–171) applies metadiscourse to various features of the noun
phrase in the headline, signature line and body copy of English print advertising to
demonstrate that successful advertising avoids pushing or forcing consumers to buy,
but rather persuades them.
Emphatics, a subcategory of metadiscourse, examines how advertisers use adjectives,
adverbs, or phrases, which have a heightening effect on the noun (i.e. the brand name
or product) they modify, in order to persuade consumers to purchase what is being
offered. In a similar vein, some main features of any quantitative corpus analysis are
found in Bruthiaux’s (1996) classified advertising analysis, such as lexical collocation,
lexical compounds, adjectival and nominal chains. Emphatics is used not only in the
discourse of English teaching job ads but also the discourse of fliers and websites in
this research. The first step in applying Emphatics is to identify a set of terms,
which are related to English teachers in every teaching job ad, slogan, short paragraph
and body text of school fliers and websites that can be expected to appear in written
advertisements. The following sections, 6.2.1 – The native speaker ideology, 6.2.2 –
Native and non-native division, 6.2.3 – White and Non-white division, and 6.3 – Who
can be an ideal-English-teacher, present the results of the analysis.
6.2.1 The Native Speaker Ideology
6.2.1.1 TC5 Television Commercial
TC5 television commercial starts with its title – ‘Sishu Pian’ (‘Sishu’ - ‘private
schools in old China’, ‘Pian’ - ‘chapter’, ‘about private schools’). It cuts to a
long-distance shot of an ancient Chinese classroom with young pupils in traditional
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Chinese clothes sitting in rows with their classical Chinese books open on the tables.
It next cuts to a medium-range view of a young male foreign teacher, a Caucasian
with a long beard in traditional Chinese clothes with a classical Chinese book on his
left hand and walking around the classroom. He is reading out very loudly in
Mandarin Chinese – ‘Zhizhi wei zhizhi’. The film then cuts to a close-up of the
pupils. They are translating loudly together in English what their foreign teacher has
just said – If you understand, say you understand. There is a close-up of the foreign
teacher. He is reading out another verse in Mandarin Chinese – ‘Buzhi wei buzhi’.
This is followed by another close-up of the pupils, who say very loudly together in
English – If you don’t understand, say you don’t understand. After that, the buzzing
sound of cicadas fades in and the shot cuts to a close-up of a cicada in a bamboo bowl.
After that there is a close-up of the foreign teacher. He is reading the final verse in
Mandarin Chinese – ‘Shi zhi yie’. And then there is a close-up of a little boy. He
says proudly – This is wisdom.
The film cuts to a close-up of the teacher. He is walking toward a little boy who is
playing and points at him. The boy is playing with the cicada in the bamboo bowl.
The teacher asks the little boy in Mandarin Chinese ‘Ni zhiliao’? ‘Do you
understand?’ The little boy gives his cicada to the teacher and says, ‘Zhiliao’ ‘Yes!
understand!’ (Pun: ‘zhiliao’ means both ‘understand’ and ‘cicada’ in Mandarin
Chinese). And then there is a close-up of the foreign teacher. He is laughing and
says ‘Jiaying gei hezi zhouyou lieguo de gongju he zhihui’ in Mandarin Chinese (‘Joy
Language School provides children with the knowledge and skills to travel
internationally’). After that, superimposed on the foreign teacher is an animation of
Confucius. Then the animation of Confucius gives the same message again, ‘Jiaying
gei hezi zhouyou lieguo de gongju he zhihui’ in Mandarin Chinese ‘Joy Language
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School provides children with the knowledge and skills to travel internationally’. The
commercial ends with the Language School’s name and slogan – Think locally; Act
globally. At the same time, children’s voices are heard in Mandarin Chinese – ‘Jiayin
xue yingyu shijie zai shouli’ (this is the school’s Mandarin slogan which is equivalent
to its English one: Learn with Joy, embrace the world).
The television commercial equates the Western teacher with Confucius through both
linguistic and non-linguistic inferences. At the beginning of the commercial, the title –
‘Sishu Pian’ tells its audience that the commercial is about a private school in old
China. After that, the audience sees Taiwanese children and a Caucasian in traditional
Chinese clothes in a traditional Chinese classroom in a private school. This implies
that it is not really a typical traditional Chinese classroom, since the English teacher is
speaking Mandarin Chinese and his students are answering their teacher in English.
However, it does tell the audience that this is a language classroom. The white foreign
teacher is reading Analects of Confucius, chapter 2, section 7 about wisdom, which is
probably one of the most famous chapters from Analects of Confucius and most
Taiwanese would know the chapter very well. This indicates that the white foreign
teacher only looks like Confucius. Based on his appearance – clothes, a long beard,
hairdo, a book in his hand – the audience is reminded of Confucius because this is the
way Confucius is portrayed in paintings or textbooks in Taiwan.
The pun used in this commercial – ‘zhiliao’ – means both ‘cicada’ and ‘understand’.
Puns in advertising are “double talk”, they say one thing and suggest another (Redfern,
1982: 269–276). The foreign teacher does not merely ask the student whether or not
he understands the translation in English of ‘shi zhi yie’ ‘This is wisdom’. The foreign
teacher also asks the student whether he understands Confucius’s concept of wisdom.
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“Advertising is all about association” (ibid.: 270). In this commercial, English is
associated with wisdom and the acquisition of English with the acquisition of wisdom.
means acquiring wisdom. The animation of Confucius who repeats school slogan
reinforces the idea that the native speaker of English equals Confucius in modern
English teaching.
Confucius is revered among the Chinese as their ‘zhisheng’ ‘supreme sage’ and
‘xianshi’ ‘foremost teacher’. The teachings of Confucius have tremendous influence
among the Chinese. The commercial implies that native English speaking teachers
play a similar role to the one of Confucius did in Chinese history. In the micro domain,
Confucius was the first private teacher in China and the first one to engage in teaching
as a means of reform as well as livelihood. He believed ‘youjiao wulei’ which means
that in education there should be no class distinctions (Analects of Confucius, chapter
15, section 38). In the macro domain, Confucius spent 13 years in ‘zhouyou lieguo’
(that is, wandering from place to place) throughout China during a time of chaos in
order to spread his political ideas. It was Confucius’s ambition in life to restore
social order. The term ‘zhouyou liegu’ evoking the tour of Confucius is used twice
in this commercial. The first time, it is evoked in the words spoken by the native
English speaking teacher, and the second time by the animation of Confucius.
The analysis of Chapter 5 showed that English is widely viewed as a passport to
success in Taiwan and that the improvement in English is considered a task of great
urgency for Taiwan. The commercial suggests implicitly that the native speaker
possesses the passports to two parallel domains. In the micro domain, the native
English speaking teacher will help Taiwanese people to acquire English proficiency,
so they have access to desirable, prestigious jobs in contemporary Taiwanese society.
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In the macro domain, the native English speaking teacher offers English as the tool to
get access to the international or global community.
The role of the native English speaking teacher is reinforced explicitly at the end of
commercial by two school slogans. The children say together very loudly in Mandarin
Chinese ‘Jiayin xue yingyu shijie zai shouli’ ‘Learn with Joy, embrace the world’.
This slogan is in accordance with the goal of internationalization in Taiwan “Let
Taiwan embrace the world; let the world embrace Taiwan” (Chow, 2001). At the
same time, the screen shows the school name in both English and Mandarin Chinese
and an English slogan – Act locally, Think globally. Originally this slogan referred
“the emergence of regional thinking and the revival of ethnic and regional cultures”
(Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996: 200). Berman (1994, as cited in Kramsch & Sullivan,
1996: 200) translated it into language pedagogy as ‘global thinking, local teaching’.
In Taiwan, the implications are different. Global thinking means that English is the
key to internationalization, and local teaching means that native speakers can help
Taiwanese people to acquire English, so that Taiwan can compete globally. Explicitly
and implicitly, there is a native and non-native division (see 6.2.2), a white and
non-white division (see 6.2.3) and ideal-English-teachers are equal to white native
speakers of English (see 6.2.3).
6.2.1.2 TET1 Television English Teaching Program
TET1 is an hour long English Teaching program which broadcasts on Saturday
mornings on national television. Its target audiences are those who want to get higher
marks in the high school entrance examination. There is only one teacher and one
blackboard in the program. The English teacher is a female Taiwanese teacher and she
is dressed brightly and freshly. She is young and beautiful. She teaches KK phonetics
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(see 8.2.2) which was devised by two American linguists, John S. Kenyon and
Thomas A. Knott (Shi, 1999: 68), and has been used exclusively and universally in
Taiwan to help learners to acquire English or American English pronunciation since
1969 (see 8.2.2). The teacher is extremely self confident while teaching. She keeps
talking for an hour without any teachings aids or students about how to pronounce
English.
She is one of the ‘star teachers’ in Taiwan’s buxiban. Chen (1996a) describes some of
her characteristics like this:
They need the effect of an audience and a stage, but they are not actors. The eyes in the crowd are
full of admiration, but they are not religious disciples. Like silver-tongued television talk-show hosts,
they can strut their stuff for three hours without ever getting red in the face. Their spirits are sparkly,
and they never allow the slightest uncomfortable pause. Their “work” is actually education, but
many people believe that their image is quite different from pure’ teachers. … They are “star”
teachers in Taiwan’s buxiban.
Star teachers are treated like movie stars. Apart from being able to teach well, they
should be young, vivacious and attractive, both male and female teachers are good
looking (Chen, 1996b). Some buxiban put pictures of star teachers’ faces on posters,
photographs and drawings and/or hang them high in front of the buxiban door. In
advertising campaigns, they are made into fabulous superstars, even appearing on the
sides of buses or on cable TV.
TET1 demonstrates that there are native Chinese-speaking star teachers who teach
English in Taiwan’s buxiban. The prosperity or demise of buxiban depends entirely on
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these star teachers. They are non-native speakers of English. Clearly, there is
another native speaker ideology. Native speakers of Chinese can also be ideal-
English-teachers – for teaching grammar, reading and other exam-oriented English
subjects.
6.2.1.3 Names
Volunteer English teachers who work in rural and mountainous areas in Taiwan are
called “Albert Schweizer-like English teachers” (Taipei Journal Online: January 31,
2003 http://www.publish.gio.gov.tw/FCJ/current/03012142.html; last accessed on
February 04, 2003) and foreigners who contribute to local education are called
‘modern day Marco Polos’ (Taiwan Headlines Online: August 28, 2001, http://www.
th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=10801; last accessed on October 18, 2001).
According to Chen (1996b), star teachers’ names are designed for signification.
Besides being graceful and refined, they must have a clear lovely ring to them.
Normally their names are similar to some characters from the novels of a very famous
Taiwanese romantic writer, Qung Yao.
Not only teachers’ names but also school names can be used to indicate the native
speaker ideology and native and non-native dichotomy. Figure 6-3 shows that 27
English names and 11 Chinese names are used in the corpus. These English names
can be put into four categories: 1. first names (16 tokens) such as David, Melissa,
Jackson, Gloria, etc. 2. family names (6 names) such as Hess, Gram, Hilton, etc. 3.
full names (2 names): Joel A. Newson and John Smith 4. others (3 names) – Famous,
The Best and Elite. Chinese names can be categorized into three categories: 1. full
names (6 names) such as ‘Liu Li’, ‘Wen Yen’, ‘Tang Kai Ming’ … 2. title: Teacher
XXX (3 names) – ‘Xu laosh’ ‘Teacher Xu’, ‘Hsu laoshi’ ‘Teacher Hsu’ and ‘Hua
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laoshi’ ‘Teacher Hua’ 3. others (2 names) – ‘Mingren’ ‘Famous People’ and
‘Xianjie’ Elite.
Figure 6-3: School Names Containing the Concept of the-Ideal-English-Teacher
School Names
Ideal-English-teachers
38 = 100%
Native speaker Non-native speaker
27 = 71.1% 11 = 28.9%
Western first name: 16 Chinese full name: 6
Western last name: 6 Teacher XX: 3
Western full name: 2 Others: 2
Others: 3
Confucius taught ‘zheng ming’ ‘rectification of names’ to correct the disparity
between the name and reality, in order to restore social order. He required Chinese
people to specify “what kinds of behavior or referents, constitute the designata of the
corresponding words in Chinese” (Li, 1997: 490). When ‘zheng ming’ is applied to
school names, we can see that the extensive use of an English personal name or a
Western-style name in English language schools demonstrates that English programs
are mostly taught by native speakers of English and that they are considered the-
ideal-English-teachers. On the other hand, the exclusive use of a Chinese name in
buxiban shows that ideal-English-teachers there are non-native speakers or star
teachers. Next, I shall explore the native and non-native division in more detail.
6.2.2 Native and Non-native Division
In addition to the TC5 television commercial and TET1 television English teaching
program, the native and non-native dichotomy can also be found in other texts such as
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English teaching job ads and language school and buxiban fliers.
6.2.2.1 English Teaching Job Ads
In the corpus of English teaching job ads, a target element states what kind of person
is being recruited. Job ads tend to emphasize targets rather than advertisers as
suggested by Bruthiaux (1996:126). The targets of English teaching job ads in this
corpus are teachers and they can be further broken down into five sub-categories.
They are English teachers (62 tokens = 55.9%), Native English speaking teachers (33
tokens = 29.7%), Teachers of children (8 tokens = 7.2%), ESL/EFL teacher (4 tokens
= 3.6%) and English teachers: national origin (4 tokens = 3.6%) (see Figure 6-4).
Figure 6-4: English Teachers in English Teaching Job Ads
English teachers: 62 = 55.9% ESL/EFL teachers: 4 = 3.6% Teachers of children: 8 = 7.2%
Alternative terms: kindergarten,
children, elementary, pre-school
Teachers: 111 = 100%
Alternative terms:
tutor, instructor
National origin: 4 = 3.6% Native English speaking teachers:
American: 1 = 0.9% 33 = 29.7%
South African: 1= 0.9% Alternative terms: foreign teacher,
Chinese/Taiwanese: 2 = 1.8% native speaker teacher …
A total of 35 tokens (31.5%) of the job ads with terms such as foreign teacher, English
speaker teacher, American teacher and South African teacher show that native
speakers are targeted by the recruiters. Although a total of 74 tokens (66.7%) of the
terms such as English teachers (62 tokens = 55.9%), Children teachers (8 tokens =
7.2%) and ESL/EFL teachers (4 tokens = 3.6%) appear in job ads without any
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indication of native speaker status, in fact, these terms refer to native speakers only.
This is evident from job ads C29 and C37 (2 tokens = 1.8%) which show that
recruiters are not looking for native English speaking teachers, since the terms
Taiwanese and Chinese English teachers are used to differentiate them from the term
English teacher.
(C29) An international English school needs foreign & Taiwanese teachers.
(C37) Chinese English teacher wanted, teaching …
C29 is particularly telling as it contrasts Taiwanese teachers with foreign teachers.
6.2.2.2 School Fliers and Websites
Apart from English teaching job ads, analysis of school fliers and websites also show
there is a native and non-native speakers dichotomy in ELT and SLA in Taiwan (see
Figures 6-5, 6-6 & 6-7).
Figure 6-5: English Teachers in Slogans, Short Paragraphs and Headlines
Teachers
29 = 100%
Teacher/ teachers: 3 = 10.3% Foreign teachers: 17 = 58.6% Nationality origin: 9 = 31%
Alternative terms: American: 2 = 4.5%
native English speaking teacher, American & Canadian: 2 = 4.5 %
international teaching staff Chinese: 5 = 17.2%
Foreign Teachers Chinese Teachers
24 = 82.8% 5 = 17.2%
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Figure 6-6: The Term Teacher/Teachers in Body Texts
Foreign teachers : 68 Nationality origin: 92
Alternative terms: Chinese: 73
English speaking country American & Canadian: 9
Native speaker North American Accent: 4
USA/Canada/UK: 3
American: 3
Foreign Teachers Chinese Teachers
87 = 54.4% 73 = 45.6%
Figure 6-7: Still Images – English teacher/teachers in School Fliers and Websites.
Foreign teachers: 437 = 84.2% Chinese teachers: 82 = 15.8%
Language schools: 381 Language schools: 24
Fliers: 90 / English websites: 184 Fliers: 11 / English websites: 6
Mandarin websites: 107 Mandarin websites: 7
Other language schools: 42 Other language school: 4
Fliers: 24 / English websites: 15 Fliers: 4
Mandarin websites: 2 Buxiban: 54
Buxiban: 14 Fliers: 10 / English websites: 3
Fliers: 8 / English websites: 3 Mandarin websites: 41
Mandarin websites: 3
Based on Figure 6-5, the unmodified term teacher or teachers has a very low
frequency (3 tokens) in slogans, headlines and short paragraphs. Although
unmodified, all these terms refer to native speakers as is evidenced either by the
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accompanying texts or photos. Take LWE1 for example. The text says – We only hire
top teachers!, and there are photos of foreign teachers who are in the middle of
teaching in the classroom or outdoors followed by the text. As with English teaching
job ads: the term Chinese teachers has a very low frequency (Figure 6-5: 5 tokens, 3
from buxiban and 2 from language schools) again indicating that there is a native and
non-native dichotomy. Figure 6-6 indicates that foreign teachers (87 tokens = 54.4%)
has a higher frequency than Chinese teachers (73 tokens = 45.6%). If Figure 6-6 is
compared with Figure 6-4 and 6-5, it seems that the concept of native and non-native
speakers is not a major issue. However, it needs to be recognized that the situations in
which ELT is practiced vary widely.
In Taiwan, ELT situations range from private English language schools and buxiban
through teaching in government schools, and college and university departments.
Figure 6-5 and 6-6 show that the term foreign teachers always has a higher frequency
than Chinese teachers in written advertising texts of English language schools. On the
other hand, the term Chinese teachers always has a higher frequency than foreign
teachers in written advertising texts of buxiban.
The analysis demonstrates that buxiban are advocating that the ideal-English-teacher
is a non-native English speaker, while the English language schools are marketing
native English speakers as ideal-English-teachers. This difference is confirmed by the
occurrences of native and non-native English teachers in still images (see Figure 6-7).
A total of 519 photos of ideal-English-teachers are found and 437 out of 519 (84.2%)
are native speakers of English, while only 82 (15.8%) photos portray Chinese teachers.
In addition, the higher frequency of non-native speakers (54 out of 82 photos) in
buxiban written advertisements and higher frequency of native speakers (423 out of
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437 photos) in language schools’ advertisements indicate that ideal-English-teachers
can be either native or non-native speakers. This will be further discussed in 6.3.
The results for still images shows that they play a role which goes beyond the mere
illustration of what is communicated in the language of this corpus. Moreover, they
demonstrate how arguments regarding the native speaker ideology unfold and are
reinforced. Next, I shall look at the concept of white and non-white division which
is related to the native speaker ideology.
6.2.3 White and Non-white Division
There is not only a native and non-native, but also white and non-white division in
ELT in Taiwan. From the language and linguistics perspective, Davis (1994: 2723)
suggests that the definition of a native speaker may be characterized in six ways. A
native speaker of English acquires English in childhood. A native speaker of English
has intuitions about the standard English grammar and its ideolectal grammar. A
native speaker of English is able to distinguish between standard English and its
ideolectal grammar. A native speaker of English has a unique capacity to speak
fluently. A native speaker has a unique capacity to write creatively. A native speaker
of English has a unique capacity to interpret and translate into English. However, the
definition of a native English speaker in the corpus and in the real job world is
someone with Western looks.
6.2.3.1 English Teaching Job Ads, School Fliers and Websites
In English teaching job ads (Figure 6-7), school fliers and websites (Figure 6-5 & 6-6),
terms such as foreigners, foreign teachers, Native speaker teachers, American teachers,
Canadian teachers refer to any individual who is not a Taiwan, Republic of China
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(R.O.C) citizen. This includes all those of Chinese or Taiwanese descent who were
born elsewhere in the world but whose parents were originally from Taiwan. These
people are considered foreigners from legal and immigration standpoints, according to
the rules of R.O.C Bureau of Immigration (www.oriented.org./legal/VISA-6.shtml;
last accessed on January, 2, 2002). However, the definition of native English
speaker in English teaching job ads in Taiwan is “English teachers wanted: must look
western” (Taiwan Headlines: June 13, 2000, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm? newsid=
3805; last accessed on February 1, 2002). The result of still image analysis strongly
supports this argument, since only 1 out of 437 photos of non-white native speaking
English teachers is found in the corpus. Apart from that, 2 tokens of western look
are found in English teaching job ads. The analysis illustrates that in the lucrative
English teaching business in Taiwan, a preference for Caucasian teachers exists. In
other words, there are white and non-white native speaking English teacher divisions
in ELT in Taiwan.
The analysis of English teaching job ads, school fliers and websites (Figure 6-4, 6-5,
6-6, & 6-7) suggests that native English speakers are in demand in Taiwan. Many
native speakers of English from abroad come to Taiwan thinking that they can easily
find an English teaching job because of their native English language skills.
Unfortunately, working in Taiwan as a foreign English teacher has its challenges,
unrelated to whether or not one is a native speaker and qualified for a teaching job.
Especially, it is a disadvantage in Taiwan to be a non-Caucasian English teacher. “We
need real foreigners” says an English teaching ad placed by the Giraffe English
language school. (Taiwan Headline: June 13, 2000, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?
news_id=3805; last accessed on February 1, 2002). The job ad, which was not part
of my corpus, bluntly tells job applicants that the school is looking for white
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foreigners. Job ad C31 in my corpus is similarly direct in specifying western looks.
Figure 6-8: Job Ad C31
Kindergarten English teachers

Wanted, female under 35
American accent, western looks,
College graduate work visa
preferred, Afternoon classes
1:30 –3:30
Monday/ Tuesday / Friday
Tel: XXX
6.2.3.2 The Job World
In this section, I will draw on articles in the Taiwanese press to further explicate the
white and non-white division in the English teaching job world in Taiwan.
“As soon as Yvonne appeared in Kaohsiung, her prospective employer sent her
immediately back to the airport simply because she was not “white” (Wu, 2000: 16).
All Virtues Kindergartens advertise for “western-looking’ English teachers, according
to the manager of the school, “but we won’t turn others away if they’re qualified”
(Taiwan Headlines: June 13, 2000, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=3805; last
accessed on February 1, 2002). In practice, non-Caucasians may be recruited, but
they may also discover that their Caucasian peers may get better offers regardless of
teaching experience and language skills.
“At one branch of the Sesame Street School, a manager offered to pay her [Liu]
NT$450 per hours, whereas a “foreign” teacher would receive NT$500” (Taiwan
Headlines: June 13, 2000, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=3805; last accessed
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on February 1, 2002).
Many English language schools argue that discrimination in hiring practices stems
mostly from parental ignorance, but the English language schools are the ones who
turn down non-white applicants or offer those who don’t fit the descriptions lower
wages and remain unapologetic about their practices. Obviously, Taiwanese people
hold all Westerners in high esteem. Hess language school, one of the reputable
language schools, opened in 1983 and was said to have a policy called “Caucasian
English teachers policy” to hire only Caucasians with North American accents to
reflect the nature of the market at that time. However the school denied such as policy
ever officially existed. (Taiwan Headlines: June 13,
2000, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm? news_id =3805; last accessed on February 1,
2002).
Furthermore, it is ironical that in Taiwan that it can sometimes be a disadvantage to be
an ABC (American Born Chinese or Australian Born Chinese), BBC (British Born
Chinese) or any other English speaking country born person of Chinese descent.
From legal and immigration standpoints, they are foreigners, because they were born
and brought up in an English speaking country. In reality, since they don’t look
Caucasian, they face discrimination, and experience difficulty in finding work or in
commanding rates of pay equal to that of their Caucasian peers, as mentioned earlier.
The following is one example of such discrimination.
“Nobody really said anything direct but there was always an uncomfortable pause
after I tell them that I’m Chinese American, Liu says of her phone interviews. It’s
like ‘Oh, you’re not really American” (Taiwan Headlines: June 13,
2000, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id= 3805; last accessed on February 1,
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2002).
The results of English teaching job ads also indicate that recent photos (5 tokens) are
needed in the resumes. Photos are used not only for almost any kind of application
forms and various IDs but also for official forms and documents in Taiwan. Many
English language schools or agents, use photos of job applicants used in resumes to
screen out non-white applicants. The following is a post from the forum
of www.tealit.com by an African-American teacher with the title “My experience so
far as an African-American teacher in Taiwan” on January 26, 2002.
I applied for at least 20 jobs sending off my resume with my cover letter over the internet. They
were all thrilled by my qualifications until they asked for a picture and I never heard from them
again …(http://members.boardhost.com/telit/msg/6068.html; last accessed on January 30, 2002).
In sum, no matter how desperate people in Taiwan may be to have foreign English
teachers, many of them still prefer to have a white English teacher.
The native and non-native division and the white and non-white division raise an
important question: who is an ideal-English-teacher?
6.3 Who is an Ideal-English-Teacher?
In fact the term native English speaker opposed to non-native speaker is widely and
intensively used in the corpus, either in an explicit or implicit way. The above analysis
indicates that while English language schools are zealously promoting and advertising
native English speakers as ideal English teachers, there is another type of English
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language schools – buxiban – which are heavily advertising their non-native English
speaking as ‘star teachers’. The reason for this imperious distinction in English
teaching and learning in Taiwan is that “it is accepted by the group that created the
distinction between native and non-native speakers” (Kramsch, 1997: 363). In the
next section, I shall argue that although there is an all-pervasive native and
non-native dichotomy in English teaching and learning in Taiwan, this does not mean
that native speakers are in fact better teachers. In fact, both native and non-native
speaker are equally likely to become good teachers of English.
6.3.1 Are Teachers Born or Made?
Rampton (1990: 97) suggests that it is a special education or training that makes one
an expert in one field or another. Therefore, some qualities of English teachers are
non-inherited. Teachers can be trained through working experience and educational
background. This implies that teachers are made. Some qualities result from a
combination of innate and environmental influences, such as cultural traits (personal
types), accent, sex and physical features indicates that teachers are born. Therefore,
terms appearing in advertisements in this corpus are classified into two categories,
‘inherited elements’ and ‘other elements’ to investigate the perception of the ideal
teacher further.
6.3.2 Native English Speaking Teacher (NEST)
Figures 6-9, 6-10, 6-11, and 6-12 indicate both inherited and other elements are
needed for native speakers to be an English teacher.
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Figure 6-9: Inherited Elements of English Teachers in English Teaching Job Ads
English teachers
127 = 100%
Inherited elements Other elements
64 = 50.4% 63 = 49.6%
Native speaker: 28 = 22% Accent: 15 = 11.8% Personality: 15 = 11.8% Sex preference & age:
Alternative terms: native American: 2 Alternative terms: 6 = 4.7%
English speaker, English North American :13 friendly, outgoing, Male: 1
speaking country, USA, humorous, patient, Female: 4
Canadian, British, hardworking, dynamic … Female under 35: 1
ABC/native, western look
Figure 6-10: Other Elements of English Teachers in English Teaching Job Ads
English teachers
127 = 100%
64 = 50.4% 63 = 49.6%
Degree/certificate TESL/EFL Certificate Teaching experience Chinese ability:
33 = 26% 5 = 3.9% 23 = 18.1% 2 = 1.6%
BA or BS: 31 1-3 years experience: 4
Above BA: 1 Experienced: 18
No degree needed: 1 No experience: 1
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Figure 6-11: Inherited Elements and Other Elements of English Teachers in Slogans,
Short Paragraphs and Headlines
English Teachers
40 = 100%
Foreign teachers: 32 = 80% Chinese teachers: 8 = 20%
17= 42.5% 15 = 37.5%
Native speaker: 5 Accent: 4 Personality: 8 Qualified: 4
Alternative terms: American:1 Alternative terms: Best/top: 3
foreign teachers, North American : 3 passionate, patient, Experienced: 2
international teaching considerate, enthusiastic, TEFL/ESL certificate: 2
staff, responsible, delicate, Legal: 2
hardworking Professional: 2
Figure 6-12: Inherited Elements and Other Elements of English Teachers in Body
Texts
English Teachers
171 = 100%
27 = 15.8% 63 = 36.8%
Native speaker: 7 Accent: 20 BA: 10 Experienced: 11
Alternative terms: American: 4 Legal: 12 Professional: 9

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English speaking country, North American: 16 Certificate: 6 Qualified: 8
Native speaker, Full time: 6 Best: 1
USA/Canada/UK
The above Figures indicates that both inherited and other elements play equally
important roles in reference to teachers in the corpus, but that some elements are more
important than others in different schools. The term native speaker is found with low
frequency in the above Figures, but the analysis of 6.2 showed that 98.8%, or 100 out
102 job ads refer to native speakers, and many language schools hire only native
speakers. This reveals that being a native speaker is a crucial criterion for being a
desirable English teacher in Taiwan’s English language schools.
The North American accent, another quality of the ideal-English-teacher, has
relatively high frequency in the Figures. Recruiters want English teachers with North
American accents. One obvious piece of evidence is that many school names or their
advertisements, such as school fliers or their websites in Chinese do not proclaim that
they are English language schools or teach English, but that they are American
English language schools and teach the American language. I will return to the
ideological concept of American-English-as-standard- English in Chapter 8.
In the corpus, personalities can be broken down into two categories, “specific
personality” and “general personality” (Murphy, 1997). The specific personality
category consists of traits that would make a teacher competent in English teaching,
the other one, the general personality category, consists of traits that would make a
better employee or teacher in general. Personality traits such as active, dynamic,
outgoing, friendly, patient and humorous are obviously prerequisites for those who
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will teach English to children. As suggested by Murphy (1997), foreign English
teachers in Taiwan are often viewed “as entertainers as much as educators”. In other
words, some teaching methodologies require foreign English teachers to have a
reasonably dynamic personality. On the other hands, general personality traits such
as team oriented, reliable, responsible, independent and hardworking require English
teachers to get on with people, to be willing to take on responsibility, and to work
hard.
Sex preference and age are rarely specified in English teaching job ads in the corpus
(5 tokens = 3.9% and 1 token = 0.8%). Because the terms sex preference and age
appear, even if with a rather low frequency, it seems that Taiwan does not have strict
laws prohibiting discrimination based on ethnicity, age, and sex in the work place. As
far as sex preference is concerned, the frequency of the term female teacher (5 tokens
= 3.9%) is rather low in the corpus and 4 out 5 tokens are advertised by kindergartens.
Kindergartens prefer female native English speaking teachers as is also suggested by
Quartly (2000). A total of 111 (25.4%) pictures of female foreign teachers out of 437
pictures of foreign teacher in still images supports this argument, since most pictures
of female foreign teachers found in the corpus are teachers who teach younger
children. There is only one token of female teacher under 35 found in my data and
this suggests that age is not a major restriction on seeking a teaching job in Taiwan.
However, according to the ministry’s plan of recruiting 1,000 foreign teachers, the
prospective foreign teachers must be under 45 years old (Taipei Times Online: January
7, 2003, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2003/01/07/190049; last
accessed on January 8, 2003).
In addition to inherited elements, other elements, such as degree, teaching experience,
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TESL/EFL certificate and Chinese ability also contribute to the requirement element
of being an ideal English teacher (see the above Figures). Ur (1998: 7) argues that
born teachers with whatever innate talent they may have, still need non-inherited
elements such as experience and professional development to become good teachers.
Job applicants for accredited or legal language institutions need to have a university
degree to qualify for a work permit. As a consequence, a BA degree has a relatively
high frequency in the above Figures, but the low frequency of the term TESOL/TEFL
certificate or teaching certificate shows that a TESOL/TEFL certificate is not a must,
but a plus. It demonstrates that as long as a job applicant has a University degree in
any discipline from an English speaking country, he or she is eligible to gain
employment as an English teacher. This is the only requirement from the
government so that foreign English teachers can get a work permit and teach legally.
However, one job ad advertises no degree needed and 68 out of 102 (62.7%) job ads
did not mention anything in relation to any educational background. This implies that
some foreigners are working without a degree in Taiwan.
Many expatriate English teachers’ home pages also suggest that even without a degree
foreigners can work in Taiwan, but they won’t be legal. Foreign teachers, whether
they have a degree or not, who work for illegal schools are not legal in Taiwan. In
Taiwan, illegal schools are private language institutions that are not authorized to
employ foreign teachers or fail to register. The main reasons for failing to register are
that schools do not have enough capital or fail to pass their annual safety inspection.
In other words, if teachers are hired by illegal schools, regardless how qualified they
may be for that position, they are illegal English teachers. According to the
Employment Service Act (ESA), foreign teachers are allowed to teach in almost every
area, but not in kindergartens (Taipei Times Online: May 7, 2002, http://www.taipei
190
times.com/news/2002/05/07/story/0000134943; last accessed on September 9, 2002).
English teaching job ads suggest that at least 20 (16.9%) recruiters are kindergartens.
4 individual advertisers (3.4%) are not authorized to employ foreign teachers at all.
According to Taipei Times Online, 80% out of roughly 6,000 private kindergartens
and nurseries in Taiwan illegally employ foreign teachers and hire unqualified foreign
teachers (May 7, 2002, http://www.taipeitimes.com/news/2002/05/07/story/0000134
943; last accessed on September 9, 2002). Many native speakers therefore work
illegally, mainly because their recruiters are not accredited institutions or are illegal
language institutions. Not surprisingly, estimates show that around 8,000 foreigners
are teaching English illegally in kindergartens nationwide (Quartly, 2000) Illegal
schools illustrate the problem of unqualified and inexperienced foreign teachers. It
also reveals the flaws in the laws that govern English language schools in Taiwan,
more precisely, the lack of enforcement of these laws that allows unqualified teachers
to teach English in Taiwan. As a result of this, the market for illegal teachers is
unlikely to disappear as long as the English craze continues (Chou, C. T., 2002). It is
not surprising therefore that there is a relatively high frequency of the term legal or
qualified found in language school fliers and websites (see Figure 6-11 & 6-12).
Teaching experience is not a prerequisite for getting a work permit, so the frequency
of teaching experience is not as high as degree. There is one term no experience is
needed (1 token = 0.8%) found and expatriate teachers’ homepages also support the
idea that job applicants do not need any experience to teach English in Taiwan and
they only need to speak the language to be regarded as qualified to teach it. However,
the results show that about 17.3% (22 tokens) of the recruiters prefer their prospective
teachers to have had either some, or 1-2 years teaching experience. The last
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requirement in this section is Chinese ability with rather low frequency (2 tokens =
1.6%) and it is only found in English teaching job ads. The expatriate English
teachers’ home pages argue that it is not necessary to be able to speak Chinese, since
English only is the method used in many language schools. English is expected to be
taught monolingually by native speakers. I will return to teaching methodology in
Chapter 7. To sum up, native speakers in English language schools need to have a
combination of personal qualities, education, and teaching experience, but the most
important criteria are their Caucasian features and native speaker status.
6.3.3 Non-native English Speaking Teacher (NNEST)
Figure 6-13 does not provide much information about the desirable qualities of
NNESTs because of the low frequency of inherited and non-inherited elements
referring to Chinese teachers in slogans and short paragraphs. However, Figures
6-14 and 6-15 provide ample evidence for ‘inherited elements’ and ‘other elements’
required of non-native English speaking teachers.
Figure 6-13: Inherited and Other Elements of English Teachers in Slogans, Short
Paragraphs and Headlines.
English Teachers
40 = 100%
Foreign teachers: 32 = 80% Chinese teachers: 8 = 20%
Inherited elements: 2 = 5% Other elements: 6 = 15%
Responsible: 1 Qualified: 1
Hardworking: 1 Best: 3
Experienced: 2
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The term native speaker of Chinese is never found in buxiban advertisements, because
it is a fact that people in Taiwan know that the expression “star teachers” is only
applied to native speakers of Chinese. A salient characteristic of Figure 6-14 is the
high frequency of adjectives to describe buxiban teachers – famous (17 tokens),
outstanding/excellent (12 tokens), first rated (2 tokens), experienced (8 tokens),
professional (11 tokens), qualified (3 tokens). Terms in relation to professional
background, such as professors (4 tokens), high school teachers (5 tokens), Junior
high school teacher (1 token), translator (2 tokens), editor (1 token) and interpreter
(1 token) are also found. Apart from that, one token of handsome and beautiful and
one token of averaged 30 years old are only found in buxiban advertisements.
Another salient characteristic of buxiban fliers and websites which is very different
from English language school fliers is that buxiban provide a list of the teaching
staff’s names and educational background in almost every flier and website (Figure
6-15).
Figure 6-14: Inherited and Other Elements of English Teachers in School Fliers
English Teachers: 171 = 100%
Inherited elements: 7 = 4.1% Other Elements: 74 = 43.3 %
Responsible: 2 Professors: 5 Famous buxiban
Earnest: 2 High School teachers: 5 teachers: 17
Patient: 1 Translator: 2 Outstanding/excellent:/
Beautiful & handsome: 1 Interpreter: 1 first rate: 14
Averaged 30 years old: 1 Editor: 1 Experienced: 13
193teacher: 1
Star Professional: 11
Junior high school: 1 Qualified: 3

Figure 6-15: Educational Background of English Teachers in Buxiban Body Texts
Teachers: Degree
108 = 100%
Chinese teacher Foreign teacher
88 = 81.5% 20 = 18.5%
BA degree: 21 MA degree: 54 Ph.D : 13 BA: 16
Taiwan: 16 Taiwan: 14 Taiwan: 4 USA: 7, Canada:2
National: 14, Private: 2 National: 13, Private: 1 Overseas: 9 UK:5, Australia:2
Overseas: 5 Overseas: USA: 8 MA: 4
USA: 1, Canada: 1 USA: 36, Canada: 2 UK: 1 USA:3, UK:1
Australia: 2, UK: 1 UK:1, Australia: 1
Figure 6-14 and 6-15 demonstrate that the focal point of buxiban advertisements are
the teachers’ outstanding educational and professional background and teaching
experience (ranging from 5 years to 30 years). These are crucial factors for being an
ideal-English-teacher in buxiban. Moreover, the result of Figure 6-15 indicates that
almost every Chinese teacher’s name is graceful and refined. As mentioned above, the
reason for that is star teachers’ names are being designed. Not only the educational
and professional background, but also the teachers’ names are the qualities of a ‘star
teacher’. For this reason, in the context of buxiban, clearly customers take a
teacher’s renowned name as the first consideration. The above figures also show that
having teachers who had taught at famous public high schools or junior high schools
or who were graduates of a prestigious school, normally a National University,
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especially National Normal University, or who obtained a Ph.D. or MA in an English
speaking country, especially the USA (see 8.2.3) has become a selling point of
buxiban advertisements.
6.3.4 Native and Non-Native Can Be Ideal-English-Teachers
The analysis of this chapter confirms Medgyes’s and Arva’s (2000: 355–372) claim
that the native and non-native English speaking teacher dichotomy rests on the
following four hypotheses and that both native and non-native English speaking
teachers can be ideal-English-teachers.
1. competence in the target language
2. knowledge of grammar
3. competence in the local language
4. other aspects of professional behavior
6.3.4.1 Competence in the Target Language
The analysis of English as a global language in Chapter 5 indicates that Taiwanese
people consider the language they are learning useful. Given their lower levels of oral
proficiency, they are acquiring communicative English skills, since current
proficiency levels of Taiwanese people rank near the bottom among Asian nations. In
one such study, Taiwan students’ English ability was found to be only better than that
of their Japanese counterparts (Taiwan Headlines: November 22, 2001, http://www.
taiwanheadliens.gov.tw/20011122/20011122o2.html; last accessed on January 30,
2002). “Native speakers have an obvious advantage when instructing in
conversational English or idiom” (Quartly, 2000). This implies many native speakers
are hired solely on the basis of their language background. It is true that many
Chinese English teachers lack speaking proficiency, because they were taught under
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the grammar-centered system. They produced ineffective English classes, so many
students attend English language schools to improve their English speaking
proficiency. Apparently the primary advantage of native speakers for English
language schools is in their English language competence. However, it is wrong to
assume that native speakers naturally know how to teach English simply because they
are native English speakers. Non-native speakers can learn to use idioms
appropriately and to determine whether a given language form is correct (Phillipson,
1992b: 15).
6.3.4.2 Knowledge of Grammar
Native English speakers are fluent in English, but they do not necessarily possess
knowledge of the intricacies of English grammar (Liu, L., 2002). Moreover, Medgyes
and Arva’s (2000) research shows that native speakers are more successful in
instructing conversation classes and non-native speakers might have done better in
teaching grammar. Although English is taught from 5th year of elementary school to
senior high school for a total of 8 years, there is still a need for cram schools or
buxiban. Junior and Senior high school instruction emphasizes grammar because of
the highly competitive high school and university entrance exams. Although the stated
goal of junior high school English curricula is to give students basic communication
skills in English, the test items in both high school and university joint entrance exam
are based on English grammar. Moreover, Chinese English teachers’ own learning
experience and pre-service training are based on grammatical structures. As a result,
the non-native teacher has learnt grammar and is able to convey that to students.
Buxiban offer mainly grammar, reading and writing classes and they are taught by
non-native speakers. This indicates that ideal-English-teachers of these courses are
non-native speakers of English. The difference in grammatical knowledge was
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regarded as a major cause of the distribution of work between native and non-native
speaking English teachers. Tang’s (1997: 578) research demonstrates that native
speakers are superior to NNEST in “speaking, pronunciation and listening and
non-native speakers were felt to be associated with accuracy rather than fluency”. In
a similar vein, in this study, conversation classes and listening classes are taught by
native speakers and grammar classes are taught by non-native speakers. Non-native
speakers are ideal-English-teachers because they are familiar with Taiwan’s
examinations. The learners studying for an examination may see native speakers as
not competent enough in teaching grammar and may see this as wasting their precious
time and money. On the other hand, the perceived value of teaching and regular
testing of grammatical knowledge may not fit well in a language school, which
believes in the importance of making classrooms communicative.
6.3.4.3 Competence in the Local Language
Although foreign teachers are required to teach monolingually in language schools, a
defect in the native speakers’ professional expertise is their lack of Chinese. Native
speakers with no knowledge of Chinese sometimes feel handicapped. According to
Taipei Times Online, the main drawbacks of native speakers is that foreign teachers
have difficulty communicating in Chinese and they cannot explain lessons in ways
that are easily understandable. As a result, students have to do a great deal of
guesswork (January 7, 2003, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/edit/archives/2003/
01/07/190092; last accessed on February 6, 2003). Medgyes and Arva’s (2000:
355–372) research on native speaking English teachers in Hungary also indicates that
native speakers with no knowledge of Hungarian felt frustrated, because they could
not explain fully, especially with beginners, and could not really understand the
mistakes the students were making. In other words, they could not appreciate what the
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students were going through while learning English. In comparison, non-native
English speaking teachers have been through the whole learning process and
understand these difficulties from their own learning experience, as suggested by
Phillipson (1992b: 15–16). They are aware of not only their students’ needs and
goals, but also of national educational goals and exam requirements. Non-native
English speaking teachers who have the same first language as their students are
aware of the differences between English and their students’ mother tongue. This
awareness gives them the ability to anticipate their students’ linguistic problems and
make them more empathetic with their students’ challenges and needs. In other words,
what is of the utmost importance is that learners of English have teachers who have an
understanding and appreciation of their students’ native language and culture.
6.3.4.4. Other Aspects of Professional Development
The difference in expertise between novice and experienced teachers is not what they
are born with or the amount of experience they have, but teaching methodology (see
chapter 7). Seidlhofer (1996: 69, as cited in Medgyes & Arva, 2000: 366) suggests
that “there has often been the danger of an automatic extrapolation from competent
speaker to competent teacher based on linguistic grounds alone, without taking into
consideration the criteria of cultural, social and pedagogic appropriacy”. Even
untrained native speaking English teachers can be used effectively for certain teaching
purposes, and not merely as “status symbols” (ibid.: 365). Henry Sweet way back in
1899 stated that “trained non-native teachers are better than untrained native ones”
(van Essen, 1994, as cited in Medgyes & Arva, 2000: 366). Rampton (1990: 98)
argues that much of the knowledge that native speakers bring to the ESL classroom
can be learned by non-native English speaking teachers. However, the analysis
shows that poorly qualified native speakers can do a decent job as long as they are
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required to do what they can do best: English conversation. Unfortunately, as in Japan,
Korea, and Hong Kong (Kaplan, 1999: 6), my research indicates that in Taiwan, too,
native speakers without teaching qualifications are more likely to be hired as English
teachers than qualified and experienced non-native speaking English teachers.
6.4 Implications for English Teachers
The issues raised in this chapter have significant pedagogical implications. Next, I
shall examine how the promotion of the native speaker ideology by the government
and English language schools has resulted in racial, social, and educational inequities.
The time and energy Taiwanese people spend on learning English, especially focusing
on speaking proficiency stems from the ideology that Taiwan needs to internationalize
(Chang, M. C., 2003). As a result, the Taiwanese government recruited the first group
of 400 foreign teachers, 150 from the USA, 70 from the UK, 100 from Canada and 80
from Australia in the summer of 2003 to teach English in Taiwan’s public elementary
and secondary schools. Aside from teaching students at schools, another function of
these foreign teachers is to help train Taiwan’s English teachers. According to the
ministry’s plan, prospective foreign teachers must meet four basic requirements. First,
they should be native speakers from the above four countries with a four year
university education in a ministry-accredited university, and have experience teaching
English or hold an English language degree. Second, they should have no criminal
record. Third, they should be healthy and not use drugs. Fourth, they should be
enthusiastic and of outstanding character. Salaries will range between NT$51,115 and
NT$86,170 a month which is twice the average salary of most local English teachers
(Taipei Times Online: March 16, 2003, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/
archives/2003/03/16/198231; last accessed on March 17, 2003).
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People in Taiwan are constantly exposed to propaganda concerning the native speaker
ideology either from the government or language schools. Not only the parents but
also students are brainwashed. As a result, the native speaker ideology is ingrained
and perpetuated. The above policy and the analysis of this chapter reveal that not only
the government and people in Taiwan look at foreign teachers merely at the level of
individual qualifications. It is a ‘deficit model of teacher development’ in the context
of native and non-native issues, as suggested by Matsuda (1999: 10). He points out
three key features of this model: it is (1) discrete – native speaker or non-native
speaker, (2) competitive – NS versus NNS, and (3) subtractive – strength minus
weaknesses. If this model is applied to the analysis of this chapter and the above
policy, we can see that teachers have either competence or deficits related to their
linguistic, educational, and professional backgrounds; non-linguistic characteristics
such as race, color; and their background as native or non-native speakers. The
analysis shows that there is plenty of evidence that the native speaker has the more
prestigious status, and is given preference in employment in English language schools.
Moreover, knowledge of English is more highly regarded than pedagogic expertise, in
terms of teaching English oral skills in English language schools in Taiwan. It has
created a division or segregation among professionals in English teaching and
learning in Taiwan. Therefore, there is fierce competition between NS and NNS.
Generally speaking NNS English teachers have to struggle to achieve what often
comes as a birthright to their competitors.
Myint (2002: 9) suggests that there are five advantages to being a NNEST: a.
firsthand experience; b. patience and understanding; c. multicultural understanding; d.
a living model; and e. ease of identification through similar experiences in being a
NNEST. Moreover, ideal-English-teachers are not a matter of skin color or nationality,
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but training and experience play an important role in defining an ideal-English-
teacher (Brutt-Griffler & Sammy, 1999; Cook, 1999; Liu, 1999; Rampton, 1990).
Matsuda (1999: 10) suggests that a collaborative model of teacher development for
native and non-native English speaking teachers, focusing on and sharing their
particular strengths. Three main key features of this model are: (1) integrative – NS
and NNS; (2) cooperative – mutual sharing; and (3) additive – NS strengths plus NNS
strengths. In this model English teachers should see themselves as members of a
collaborative community in which they share their strengths to help each other. The
model cannot really be applied to English language school and buxiban settings,
because there is a separation in English teaching. English language schools focus on
acquiring fluency and buxiban focus on accuracy. The result of this is that there is
native and non-native division.
6.5 Conclusion
The issues raised in this chapter such as the native speaker ideology, native and
non-native division, white and non-white division, and ideal-English-teacher have a
strong impact on the teacher’s identity, the classroom, the students, and the wider
society. These issues shape the lives of the learners, the teachers, policy makers, and
almost every individual, since they are embedded in social, economic and political
contexts. They are much more complex than a simplistic dichotomy between being a
native or a non-native speaker. In the context of English-as-the-global-language,
English teachers in Taiwan need to raise their awareness of social and political
implications of teaching English in both macro and micro contexts. They also need to
raise their critical awareness of their role and the possible contributions that they can
make in their own EFL context.
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CHAPTER SEVEN:
THE “IDEAL-ENGLISH-TEACHING-METHODOLOGY”
7.0 Introduction
This chapter looks at ideologies deemed to be the best-English-teaching-methodology
in Taiwan based on advertisements produced by English language schools and
buxiban. The analysis of Chapter 5 revealed that Taiwanese people’s motivation for
learning English is a desire to communicate and that a major obstacle to the mastery
of spoken English has been the lack of opportunities to speak. Therefore, the
acquisition of oral proficiency has become the first goal in English learning. As
English is being learned as a foreign language in Taiwan, educators look to countries
where English is a native language for appropriate methods. The main shifts in
English teaching methodologies in second and foreign language teaching are an
emphasis on communication and meaning making and an examination of the way
language is used in real life situations. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has
been developed and widely used not only in English speaking countries but also in
EFL countries, so the MOE in Taiwan has advocated the adoption of CLT in the
school system in Taiwan. Apart from CLT, foreign teaching methodologies, such as
the Direct Method, TPR (Total Physical Response), the Natural approach, and
English-only immersion teaching method with a focus on so-called “English Only and
No Chinese” immersion learning, have been widely adopted as practical and the best
way to acquire English speaking proficiency in English language schools. Although
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the MOE has issued new curriculum standards based on CLT, most English teachers
in public schools are not yet using this approach. Traditional or local approaches such
as grammar-translation and/or other teacher-centered methods remain dominant.
Richards (1990: 11) characterizes second or additional language teaching
methodology as “the activities, tasks, and learning experiences selected by the teacher
in order to achieve learning, and how these are used within the teaching/learning
process”. In addition, Richards (ibid.: 11) points out that these activities are also
related to “the philosophy of the program, to the view of language and language
learning that the program embodies, and to the roles of teachers, learners and
instructional materials in the program”. This definition raises one key question since
Taiwanese people are concerned about English teaching and learning in the context of
globalization: What is the best teaching methodology?
In examining this question I will show how the best teaching methodology is
portrayed in advertisements produced by language schools and what the current
beliefs and practices in relation to this issue are, and relate them to the broader field of
English education in Taiwan. In other words, I shall consider English teaching
methodology from the perspective of the classroom, so the major focus is on
classroom tasks and activities and the management of learning. Then I will connect
this micro domain (classroom) with macro domains (social, political and economic) in
Taiwan, since the critical research approach is first concerned with connections
between micro and macro relations (Pennycook, 2001: 8). Then I will deal with
questions of power and social or structural inequality in society.
The central argument of this chapter focuses on one major question whether or not
there is a best-English-teaching-method in Taiwan. In examining this question I will
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show that “there is no best teaching methodology” and “it all depends on the teaching
context” (Prabhu, 1990). In the context of globalization, the notion of ideal-
English-teaching-method is embedded in social, economic and political contexts and
English teaching methodologies cannot be viewed as purely pedagogic and apolitical
teaching activities. There are three parts in this chapter. First, the current English
teaching methodologies used in Taiwan are explored. Second, based on current
English teaching situations in Taiwan, the unlikely possibility that one
best-English-teaching-methodology can be identified is argued. Finally, I shall seek
out the implications of English language teaching in the context of English-as-the-
global-language in Taiwan.
7.1 Current English Teaching Methodologies in Taiwan
The first step in analyzing the data is to indicate how advertisement texts produced by
language schools contain the ideological concept of ideal-English-teaching-
methodology based on the definition given by Richards (see introduction). Following
that I shall identify what current English teaching methodologies are being advocated
and what methodology is viewed as the most appropriate for ELT in Taiwan.
7.1.1 Television Commercial
7.1.1.1 TC1 Television Commercial – English language schools
TC1 television commercial first presents a picture of an English classroom with a
female English teacher and a group of students in it. After that three pictures of
computer screens show that the school’s English course is taught by a new teaching
method, which integrates the Internet or e-teaching methodology. At the same time,
the voice of a male Mandarin Speaker is heard ‘Yige jiehe shuwei wanglu yu kexue de
jiaoxue fangfa yijing dansheng le’ ‘A scientific teaching method which integrates the
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Internet has been developed and is now being used’. Then there is a medium shot of a
classroom equipped with computers. After that, in the front of the classroom, a
female Caucasian foreign teacher is shown in action alone pointing at the letter Y on
the board and nine little Taiwanese students appear together in shots and repeat what
their teacher says Y - y - yellow. After that the voice of the male Mandarin Chinese
speaker is heard again, ‘Qiaodeng meiyu shouchung shuwei jiaoxue’ ‘Jordan
American English language school is a pioneer in using an e-teaching method’. There
is a close up of the female Caucasian foreign teacher showing a little Taiwanese boy
how to learn English by using a computer. First, the teacher says window, window
and then the little boy says Wow, window while clicking on the picture of a window
on his computer screen. Then the teacher says, Well done. After this, a medium shot
shows the teacher and her students standing, clapping and doing some body
movements while singing the Jordan English language school song. This commercial
ends with the school logo and another slogan of the school spoken by the male
Mandarin Chinese speaker – ‘Zui shengdong zui huanle zui huopo de jiaoxue zhiyou
zai Qiaodeng Meiyu’ ‘Jordan American English language school uses the liveliest, the
most joyful and the most active teaching method’.
At first glance, this television commercial is highly dynamic, since it starts with
several things going on: music, talking, and images which involve animated pictures,
involving computers, an English classroom, a computer room and interactions
between the teacher and students. The first impression it leaves is that this English
language school is an active and busy one. The main theme of the commercial is that
Jordan English language school uses ‘a scientific teaching method which integrates
the Internet and English teaching’ and, as the school slogan says, this is the ‘the
liveliest, the most joyful and the most active teaching method’, that is, the
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best-teaching- method. This commercial promotes English learning as a practical
skill and it assumes that English can be learned through computer technology in a
teacher-student interaction method. It also implies that English learning is primarily
a teacher and student interaction activity in actual communication in a small class size
setting. English instruction here pays attention only to listening and speaking skills.
In addition, it emphasizes that students should acquire English by Computer-Assisted
Language Learning (CALL) practice and mimicry of native speakers of English. It is
an English-only immersion teaching method, since no Chinese occurred during the
teaching and learning process. It is a foreign and modern teaching method.
The female Caucasian foreign teacher and her little Taiwanese students demonstrate
the roles played by the teacher and student in teaching and learning. The teacher’s
teaching is implicitly defined as an activity unaffected by outside environmental
influences, since this television commercial suggests an image of English teaching in
which every classroom in Taiwan is equipped with the latest audio-visual computer
technology and the teacher uses the most up-to-date teaching method. The students’
reactions to English learning in this commercial are joyful, happy and highly
motivated.
This commercial suggests that teaching and learning is always autonomous and never
affected by social, cultural and economic condition outside the classroom. In fact,
English teaching and learning cannot be considered as an innocent and politics-free
activity, since it raises ideological, economic and social conflicts. In reality, only
well-off families can afford to send their children to private language schools (Taipei
Times Online: May 27, 2002, www.taipeitimes.com/news/2002/05/27/story/000013
7785; last accessed on September 9, 2002). Although the school claims that CALL
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is the most up-to-date teaching method, it has been used since 1990, and is part of
CLT. As Jones (2001: 360) suggests, the use of computers like other self-access
activities, tends to be regarded as a highly valued goal in this age of the
communicative approach in language teaching and learning. The commercial also
presents a false image of a typical English classroom in Taiwan equipped with the
latest audio-visual computer technology and a small class size. In reality, students in
Taiwan are usually packed into large classes (around 35 students per class) in public
schools. Moreover, according to Taipei Times Online, a total of 287 (11%) out of
2,600 elementary schools in Taiwan cannot set up an ADSL line and there are over
1,000 schools (38.5%) with bad reception of either wire or wireless transmissions
(Chang, Y. J., 2002). In fact, disadvantaged children have the least access to the
Internet (Chang, Y. J., 2002). In addition, most language teachers are not comfortable
with high technology, since unlike so many of their students, they did not grow up
with computers (Jones, 2001: 365). Moreover, the native speaker’s pedagogical
approach – student-centered – also poses cultural problems. Public schools in Taiwan
use a more formal, grammar-oriented, test-oriented, textbook-oriented and
teacher-centered pedagogy (Chang, 1998). The teacher’s role is authoritarian, they
are not facilitators as suggested in the television commercial. What all this reveals is
that the television commercial instills into the audience the ideology, that there is one
best way to acquire English proficiency.
7.1.1.2 TET2 Television English Teaching Program
TET2, an hour-long English teaching program, broadcasts on Saturday mornings on
national television. Its target audiences are those who want to get higher marks in the
high school entrance examination. There is only one teacher and one blackboard in
the program. In this teaching program, the English teacher is a male Taiwanese
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teacher. He uses Mandarin only to teach Junior High School English with junior
high school English textbooks. The main focus of teaching in secondary schools is
English grammar. The method he uses is grammar-translation. He is extremely
confident while teaching. He keeps using grammar-translation for an hour without
any teaching aids or students.
In contrast to the image of teacher and student interaction of the classroom in the TC1
television commercial by an English language school, in the TET2 buxiban teaching
program the teacher is in control of the classroom. He is the holder of English
knowledge and authority. This is the best teaching method for students who are
interested in learning English grammar and passing their exams. TET2 proves the
grammar-translation method is the best English teaching method in some teaching
contexts, such as public schools and buxiban in Taiwan.
The TC1 television commercial and TET2 English teaching program are two extremes
of teaching methods that have been encapsulated in the terms “focus-on-form” and
“focus-on-forms” by Long (1991: 39–52). According to Sheen (2002, 2003),
focus-on-form derives from an assumed degree of similarity between first and second
language acquisition, and that all classroom activity needs to be based on
communicative tasks. Here, the treatment of grammar depends on unplanned
problems in communication arising during communicative activities. Focus-on-forms
approaches, on the other hand, are based on the assumption that classroom foreign or
second language learning derives from general cognitive processes, and it is equated
with the traditional teaching of discrete points of grammar in separate lessons. As
Sheen (2003: 209) suggests, there are two types of teaching strategies: implicit
(inductive) which is used in the focus-on-form approach and explicit (deductive)
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which is used in the focus-on-forms. Examples of the focus-on-form approach are: the
direct method, the Natural method, Audiolingualism, CLT and so on. Examples of
focus-on-forms are: Grammar-translation and cognitive code-learning. The analysis of
TC1 and TET2, demonstrates clearly that there is a dichotomy in English teaching
methods in Taiwan, and, most importantly, it explicitly indicates that there is no best
English teaching method. The best teaching method depends on the particular
teaching context.
51 (25%) out of a total of 192 slogans and short paragraphs contain the concept of the
ideal-English-teaching-methodology (cf. Figure 5-1, p. 121). 16 texts that contain
both the concept of ideal-English-teaching-methodology and American-English-as-
standard-English (see 8.1) are counted twice. 2 texts that contain the ideal-English-
teaching-methodology, the-younger-the-better ideology (see 9.1) and American-
English-as-standard-English ideology are counted three times. The fact that teaching
methodology has the highest frequency of all the ideological concepts investigated in
this study, indicates its importance. LF3 and LF8 are two examples from English
language schools, and BF2 is from a buxiban. They indicate current English
teaching methodologies in Taiwan.
“No Chinese!” and “English Only” teaching methodology! (LF3)
‘Lai Beier xue TPR meiyu jiu xiang xue muyu yiyang qingsong ziran you
kuaile’ (LF8)
‘The way of learning American English by using TPR at Beyer Language
School is like the way of learning one’s mother tongue, a relaxing, natural
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and happy way.’ (LF8)
‘Fengfude jiaoxue ziyuan, wuanzhengde jiaoxue zhidu, zhengquede
jiaoxue fangxiang, youxiaode jiaoxue fengfa.’ (BF2)
‘Rich teaching resources, complete teaching system, correct teaching
direction, effective teaching methodology.’ (BF2)
Many slogans and short paragraphs, like LF3 or BF2, do not specifically indicate
exactly what kind of teaching methods are used, but they can be categorized into two
main approaches: “focus-on-form and focus-on-forms” (Long, 1991). A key finding is
that all methods used in language schools belong to the focus-on-form approach
(Figure 7-1), while methods used in Buxiban belong to the focus-on-forms approach
(Figure 7-2).
Figure 7-1: Focus-on-form Approach in Slogans and Short Paragraphs in English

Language School Advertisements
English-only immersion: 17 = 33.3% CLT: 10 = 19.6%
Alternative terms: English only, ESL, Alternative terms:
mother tongue, Western, Interactive, situational, e-teaching
American English, TPR, student-centered, cooperative,
Canadian Style teaching, natural
Focus-on-form
43 = 84.3%
51 = 100%
Best teaching method: 9 = 17.6% Others: 7 = 13.7%
Alternative terms: Alternative terms:
Best, solution, No.1, first choice, Interesting, easy, energetic, caring
correct
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Figure 7-2: Focus-on-forms Approach in Slogans and Short Paragraphs in Buxiban
Advertisements
Focus-on-forms
8 = 15.7%
51 = 100%
Test-oriented: 6 = 11.8% Best teaching method: 2 = 3.9%
Alternative term: orthodox, effective, get Alternative term: best, winner
great grades, exam-oriented materials
“As in other areas of commerce, new methods (and sometimes old methods in new
packaging) are marketed under different brand labels” (Canagarajah, 1999: 104).
Methods such as, ‘chun meiyu’‘American English-only method’, ‘muyu jiaoxu’
‘mother tongue teaching method’, TPR, ESL teaching method, and ‘meishi jiaoxue’
‘American English teaching method’ can be viewed as English-only immersion
methods. There is no CLT found in slogans or short paragraphs, but methods such as
‘hudongshi’ ‘interactive’, ‘qingjing’ ‘situational’, student-centered, ‘dianao jaoxue’
‘e-teaching or computer assisted language learning’ and cooperative teaching method
can be categorized as CLT, because these are some key features of CLT (Jones, 2001;
Encyclopedia of Bilingualism, 1998: 667–693). The best method (Figure 7-1) includes
solution, ‘zhengque’ ‘correct’ and No.1 teaching method. Although they do not
indicate specifically what kind of methods are the best, implicitly they indicate that
the focus-on-form approach is the best. Methods described as ‘yaoqun’ ‘interesting’,
‘rongyi’ ‘easy’, ‘huopo’ ‘energetic’ and caring are Other focus-on-form methods and
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they suggest that the focus-on-form approach is an enjoyable approach which is very
different from the traditional teacher-centered approach. There are four categories in
the focus-on-form approach (Figure 7-2): English-only immersion method (33.3%),
CLT (19.6%), the best method (17.6%) and others (13.7%). As far as the
focus-on-forms approach is concerned, teaching methods described as ‘zhengtong’
‘orthodox method’, ‘yaoxiao’ ‘effective’, ‘zhengque’ ‘correct’, ‘chengji baozheng’
‘get great grades and guaranteed learning outcome’ are put into test-oriented teaching
method, since the purpose of these methods is to help students to pass various exams,
such as senior high, university entrance exams, TOEFL, GRE, GMAT. The best
teaching method (Figure 7-2) is also found in buxiban advertisements, but it indicates
that focus-on-forms is the best teaching method to help students to pass exams so as
to achieve their goals of English learning. Therefore, there are two categories in this
approach; Test-oriented teaching method (11.8%) and The best teaching method
(3.9%).
7.1.3 Body Texts
A total of 153 (31.4%) out of 487 terms regarding English teaching methodology are
found in the corpus (cf. Figure 6-2, p. 166). As with slogans and short paragraphs,
terms in relation to English teaching methodology have a very high frequency among
other ideological concepts. Like the analysis of slogans and short paragraphs, teaching
methods in body texts can be categorized into four categories (Figure 7-3) in the
focus-on-form approach; they are English-only immersion method (41.8%), CLT
(20.9%), Others (7.2%) and The best (2.6%). The highest frequency of English-only
immersion method demonstrates that it is widely believed that the best teaching
method is to teach speaking proficiency. Although there is only one school (LF17)
that claims that CLT is used, methods such as ‘zhuti shi’ ‘topic-base’, ‘hudong’
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‘interactive’, ‘qingjing’ ‘situational’, student-centered and ‘youxi zhong xuexi’ ‘play
and learn’ belong to CLT, since they are some main features of CLT as well (see
Figure 7-1 description). Methods such as ‘shuangyu’ ‘bilingualism’, ‘duomeiti’
‘multi-media’, Montessori, Vygotsky, ‘qifa’ ‘inspiration’ and ‘zhezhong’ ‘eclectic’
belong to Other focus-on-form, since they suggest that they are very different from
traditional teacher-centered methods. The best method does not indicate specifically
what kind of method is the best, but implicitly illustrates that the focus-on-form
approach is better. Within the focus-on-forms approach, there are two categories:
Test-oriented teaching method (27.4%) and The best teaching method (0.7%) (Figure
7-4). The high frequency of the Test-oriented teaching method found in body texts
reinforces the fact that the importance of passing exams cannot be overstressed as a
motivation for students. Moreover, traditional teacher-centered approaches are still
very popular in Taiwan. The best teaching method found in the body texts also
indicates that focus-on-forms is believed to be the best teaching method to help
students to pass exams.
Figure 7-3: Focus-on-form Approach in Body Texts
English-only immersion: 64 = 41.8% CLT: 31 = 20.3%
Alternative terms: English only, Alternative terms: topic bases,
American English, Canadian English, Interactive, situational, natural,
ESL, western, whole language student-centered, play and learn
Focus-on-form
110 = 71.9%
153 = 100%
Others: 10 = 7.2% The best: 4 = 2.6%
bilingualism, eclectic, inspiration,
multi-media, Vygotsky, Montessori,
interesting,
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Figure 7-4: Focus-on-forms Approach in Body Texts
Focus-on-forms
43 = 28.1%
153 = 100%
Test-oriented: 42 = 27.4% Best teaching method: 1 = 0.7%
Alternative term: text book, test, K.K. Alternative term: best
phonetics, rote memorization,
School curriculum, grammar, effective
structures, vocabulary, multi-media
7.1.4 Still Images
314 (26.6%) out of a total of 1,181 photos (cf. Figure 5-3, p. 140) containing the
concept of the ideal-English-teaching-methodology are found. A photo in language
school advertisement is deemed to contain the concept of the ideal-English-
teaching-methodology if it shows teachers conducting teaching activities or tasks
either in the classroom or outdoors. In addition, teaching materials and classroom
setting and size are taken into consideration in deciding whether a teaching method is
using a focus-on-form or focus-on-forms approach. For example, the photo LF2-p2
shows a female Caucasian English teacher using flash cards to teach English to a
group of seven little pre-school Taiwanese students who are sitting in a U-shaped
arrangement. It is an interactive and student-centered teaching method. Obviously, the
photo depicts a focus-on-form method, but there is a problem. This photo can be
categorized as any one of four methods – English-only immersion, CLT, Others and
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The best teaching method, because it can be argued that the analysis of LF2-p2 fits
into these four categories. As mentioned earlier, many language schools do not
specifically indicate what kind of teaching methods they use. As Phillipson (1992a)
suggests, the tenet that the ideal English teacher is the native speaker is a twin to the
tenet that English is best taught monolingually. Therefore, based on the corpus, there
are two categories: English-only immersion teaching method (77.7%) and Others
(3.2%) (Figure 7-5). The English-only immersion teaching category in the figure
counts individuals depicted in photos, revealing that only Caucasians conduct any
teaching activities. The Others category includes a native and non-native co-teaching
system and/or non-native speakers only teaching. In fact, it can be argued that these
categories belong to the broad umbrella of CLT, since they fit the definition of CLT.
A salient feature of still images found in buxiban advertisements is that there are as
many as 24 photos of traditional big classrooms without teachers conducting any
teaching activities. 5 out these 24 photos show students either taking an exam or
studying in a typical big classroom in buxiban. 19 out of 24 photos show a giant
empty classroom with a big black board in the front and with a capacity of more than
200 students, that is, 15 seats in one row and more than 10 rows in the classroom.
They are counted as Test-oriented teaching method, because the big class size is one
of the very important characteristics of buxiban in Taiwan. This will be discussed in
7.2.3.2. Therefore, only the Test-oriented teaching method with three sub-categories
is found in the still images. The sub-categories are Traditional big classroom (9.6%),
Teacher-centered method (without any interaction with students) (6.5%) and Teaching
materials (test questions and textbooks) (Figure 7-6).
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Figure 7-5: Focus-on-form Approach in Still Images
Focus-on-form
254 = 80.9%
314 = 100%
English-only immersion: 244 = 77.7% Others: 10 = 3.2%
Caucasians Caucasian and Chinese co-teaching
English as medium Music, Science, PE, Chinese teacher using interactive methods
Art, Reading, Writing,
Figure 7-6: Focus-on-forms Approach in Still Images
Focus-on-forms
Test-oriented method
60 = 19.1%
314 = 100%
Traditional big classroom: Teacher centered: 16 = 5% Teaching materials: 14 = 4.5%
30 = 9.6% Non-interactive /no teaching aids Text books, test question,
Having exams, studying, empty audio-video
7.1.5 School Names

Only 9 (8.8%) out of a total of 102 school names contain the ideological concept of
ideal-English-teaching-methodology (cf. Figure 5-5). There are three categories in the
focus-on-form approach (Figure 7-7). They are CLT (22.2%, 2 names) and Others
(33.3%, 3 names) and The best (22.2%, 1 name). Situation Interactive and e-learning
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are some key characteristics of CLT, so they are put into CLT (see 7.1.2). Joy means
“interesting”. Deeson means “decent”. Famous means “famous teaching
methodology” (see 5.1.4.6). Therefore, they are put into Others. The Best and
Giraffe are put into The best category. Giraffe means “the best”, because Giraffe is
examined as a “symbolic quality” (see 5.1.4.4). ‘Gao Gan’ ‘Outstanding’ and
‘Xianjie’ ‘Fast and Advanced’ are two buxiban names found in the corpus, so they are
categorized into focus-on-forms approach (22.2%, see Figure 7-7). It is clear that
‘Outstanding’ means that the buxiban is using an outstanding teaching method. ‘Fast
and Advanced’ means that the buxiban will help learners to pass their tests with a very
fast and advanced method.
Figure 7-7: Focus-on-form and Focus-on-forms in School Names
School names
9 = 100%
Focus-on-form Focus-on-forms
7 = 77.8% 2 = 22.2%
Others: 3 = 33.3% CLT: 2 = 22.2% The best: 2 = 22.2% Test-oriented: 2 = 22.2%
Deeson, Joy, Famous Situation interactive, The Best, Giraffe Outstanding,
e-learning Fast & Advanced
7.2 Focus-on-form vs. Focus-on-forms in Taiwan
Before arguing that there is no best English teaching method, it is important to
understand the implications of these two approaches. Therefore, English-only
immersion, CLT in focus-on-form approach and the test-oriented in focus-on-forms
approach will be discussed respectively.
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7.2.1 Focus-on-form in Practice
7.2.1.1. English-only Immersion Method
English-only immersion method has the highest frequency among other methods in
slogans and short paragraphs (Figure 7-1, 33.3%), body texts (Figure7-3, 41.8%), and
in still images (Figure 7-5, 7.7%). This kind of immersion learning has been widely
adopted as a more practical approach to teaching English (Her, 2002). English-only
immersion method is derived from the Natural or Direct method (Auerbach, 1993: 9;
Howatt, 1984: 192–208). The principles of the Natural or Direct method are:
1. second language skills are acquired in the same way as first language skills. 2. Only
the target language is used, and no translations are offered. 3. The method requires
teachers who are native speakers or have native-like fluency. 4. Teachers speak only
the target language in class and the method focuses on speaking and listening rather
than reading and writing. 5. Grammar is studied later when examples can be cited; no
rules are memorized (Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education 1998:
671, 692). Phillipson (1992a) argues that “English should be taught monolingually”,
is one of the basic tenets emerging from Makere University in Uganda in 1961. This
tenet has been taken for granted as a fundamental principle of English teaching in
English language schools in Taiwan. Auerbach (1993: 9) argues that English-only
instruction in ESL countries has been regarded as “a ‘natural’ and ‘common sense
practice’ which is rooted in a particular ideological perspective that serves to reinforce
inequities in the broader social order”.
The assumption that English-only instruction should be used in the EFL classroom in
Taiwan is an unexamined ideology that must be challenged. Moreover, it is a
worrisome phenomenon that needs to be taken seriously by the ELT field in Taiwan.
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According to Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, (1998: 671),
commercial language schools like the Berlitz schools tended to be more successful in
applying Natural or Direct method, because of the high level of motivation of the
students and the fact that native speakers were always employed. It is not surprising
that many English language schools declare that English-only immersion instruction
is the best teaching method. The rationale for this view is often framed in pedagogical
terms: the more students are exposed to English, the more quickly they will learn.
They will internalize and begin to think in English. The only way they will learn
English is to be forced to use it in an English only teaching environment (Auerbach,
1993). Next, I shall explore English-only immersion method in kindergartens and
adult English education.
English-only Immersion Method in Pre-schools
In Taiwan, there are three types of kindergartens: all-English or English-only
immersion, bilingual, and standard. The market for all-English kindergartens has
grown rapidly because of Taiwan’s anxiety over English. According to a survey of
pre-school education completed in 2002 by National Chiayi University, among
Taiwan’s 3,000-plus kindergartens, 65% offer all-English classes and have replaced
the former curriculum for pre-school children with English language courses (Teng,
2003a). Although the English-only immersion method might be more successful for
commercial language schools that does not mean it is the best teaching method or the
solution for ELT in Taiwan. It is called “the all-English” myth by Chang
Chiang-jiun, the Director of the Graduate School of Child English Education at
National Taipei Teacher’s College in Taiwan (ibid.: 2003a). At the age of 2 years and
10 months Chang Chiang-jiun sent her daughter to get a foundation in English at an
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English only private kindergarten for five years. The result of this is that her daughter
grew up in an English only environment where her foreign teacher was strict on the
“English only, No Chinese ” rule, and her Chinese grammar and intonation were very
odd. In addition to this, due to a long period of interaction with her foreign teacher,
her daughter became quite extroverted, liked to embrace others and developed a rich
body language. Chang Chian-jiun has spoken publicly several times with a call to
Taiwanese parents not to invest large amounts of money to send their children to
all-English kindergartens.
Chang’s experience raises some issues regarding the English-only immersion method.
First, Taiwanese children themselves do not enroll in English-only kindergartens or
language schools. They are placed there by their parents. The ideological concept of
English-only-immersion as the best-teaching-method stems from adults, not from
children. Second, it can be argued that second language skills or additional language
skills are acquired in a different way from first language skills (Lightbown & Spada,
1994). Third, the doctrine that English needs to be taught monolingually by native
speakers. This implies that ideal English teachers are native speakers of English. This
ideology has been discussed in Chapter 6. Fourth, the use of immersion language
instruction, without translation, in an EFL country can succeed only at the expense of
the mother tongue. “The ethos of monolingualism implies the rejection of the
experiences of other languages, meaning the exclusion of the child’s most intense
existential experience” (Phillipson, 1992a: 189). Strong initial literacy is a key
factor in successful second language acquisition and academic success (Lightbown &
Spada, 1994). In addition to this, it is a rare youngster (pre-school children) who
knows what is appropriate or inappropriate for their language, personality, and
behavior development, because their ability to mimic is so strong. Fifth, the
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after-effects of English-only immersion method are not only mother tongue rejection,
but also identification with either the dominant or the weak culture. Finally, this
method is difficult to implement within the school system in Taiwan because of the
above ideologies, which indicate that this is not an ideal or the best method and
solution for children’s English language learning in Taiwan.
English-only Immersion Method in Adult English Education
As far as adult English education is concerned, English-only instruction used in ELT
has been virtually ignored in ESL countries until very recently (Auerbach, 1993: 16).
Not surprisingly, in Taiwan, an EFL country, English language educators have not
done much research into the English only teaching method for either children or adult
English learners (Teng, 2003a). Nevertheless, it seems that the government supports
the English-only immersion teaching method. Deputy Minister of Education, Fan
Sun-lun said, “If professors speak English in class, it will create an English
environment for students and make them feel comfortable to use English more and
more” (Taiwan Headlines: July 19, 2002, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=
14803; last accessed on September 12, 2002). Earlier it had been reported that “The
cabinet plans to encourage college and university teachers to use English as an
instruction medium. English is the language that can connect Taiwan to the world, and
it is necessary to learn it well” (Taiwan Headline: May 1, 2002, http://th.gio.gov.tw/
show.cfm?news_id=13989; last accessed on December 12, 2002). The essence of
these comments is that Taiwanese authorities have begun to encourage the use of
English as a medium of instruction in a range of subjects across the curriculum. The
main assumption is that if people in Taiwan do not improve their English ability,
Taiwan’s economic competitiveness will fall behind that of neighboring nations.
According to Taipei Time Online: May 3, 2002, poor English ability has prevented
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Taiwan’s economy surpassing Asian ‘dragons’ such as Hong Kong and Singapore”
(http://www.taipeitimes.com/news/2002/05/03/story/000013442; last accessed on
September 9, 2002). The rationale for English as a medium is that, in general, students
should be encouraged to use English as much as possible, but in reality, this does not
really work. First of all, most subject teachers in universities in Taiwan are not
competent with their English and they are unable to update their knowledge of
English and produce materials and lesson plans for their classes. As a result, English
will suffer through the poor models being offered by their subject teachers.
Some researchers and English educators argue that mother tongue translation may not
be necessary with advanced students, but with adult beginners in a monolingual or
multilingual classroom it is almost inevitable (Auerbach, 1993; Lucas & Katz 1994,
Stanley, 2002). Whether or not English is the only means of communication in an
EFL classroom, English educators need to consider social and cultural factors, and
students’ motivation, goals, and proficiency. Therefore, I argue that depending on
the purposes of English learning, not only adult beginners but also advanced students
do not need English-only immersion method in buxiban in Taiwan. It can be argued
that the English-only teaching method does not work for adult learners if their main
purpose is to pass English exams. Methods used in buxiban will be discussed later in
7.2.2.
7.2.1.2 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Apart from the English-only immersion method, CLT has a very high frequency
among methods advocated in slogans and short paragraphs (Figure 7-1, 19.6.%), body
texts (Figure 7-3, 20.3%) and school names (Figure 7-7, 22.2%). There is no CLT
found in still images, because the problem with CLT is that the term has always meant
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a multitude of different things to different people (Harmer, 2003: 289). It seems that
any teaching activity involving teacher and student interaction can be called
communicative (ibid.: 289). Confirming Harmer’s viewpoint, we can see that a total
of 254 photos (80.9%) in still images are CLT since every photo shows a teacher
using a student-centered and interactive teaching method. Even most of the
English-only immersion methods found in the corpus can be argued to be CLT.
Although only one English language school (LF17) in the corpus claims that they are
using CLT, teaching methods found in Others (focus-on-form) such as Interesting,
Easy, Caring could be seen as CLT, to be discussed later in this section.
CLT claims to correct any perceived shortcomings with other teaching methods, such
as grammar-translation and Audiolingualism. This is the method, it is claimed, that
can prepare students for natural, authentic communication in the world outside the
classroom (Bax, 2003). As a result, the emphasis in most English teaching courses
worldwide is on communicative techniques, and this is an area where Taiwan seems
particularly weak. The reason for that is that the teaching methodology used in the
school system is the traditional teacher-centered method, not student-centered or
communicative (Chang, 1998: 31). Bax (2003) argues that teachers and teacher
trainers, both native and non-native speakers of English, are backward, if they don’t
use CLT. Not surprisingly, as a teacher trainer in Taiwan suggests, “In general the
teaching approaches in Taiwan are still a little behind and based on rote learning in
comparison with the more modern communicative approaches” (Bax, 2003: 280).
Next, I will use the LF17 school flier to show how English language schools claim
that CLT is the best-teaching-method. I will argue that, although CLT has served a
useful function in English teaching worldwide, it has its shortcomings. In addition, I
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will investigate why CLT does not work in the school system in Taiwan.
CLT in English Language Schools
The LF17 school flier is produced by one of the very famous English language
schools in Taiwan. It is a double-sided typed flier in which each side contains 5 still
images accompanied by texts. The slogan of this school is ‘Women liaojie haizi xuyao
de shi shemo’ ‘We know what children need’, which is placed on the top of the flier in
big red print. At first glance, the photo at the bottom right of the flier draws readers’
attention, because its size is bigger than the other four on this page. Therefore, I
numbered it LF17-p1. The LF17-p1 photo shows 2 little Taiwanese boys (pre-
school children) who are sitting on a bench and looking up at the other 4 photos,
which are lined up horizontally on the first half of the flier under the school slogan.
In these four photos, the first one, LF17-p2 shows a U-shaped arrangement in a
classroom in which a male Caucasian is pointing at one little Taiwanese girl and a
Chinese female teacher who is standing next to the foreign teachers holding a basket
with various objects in it. The heading of this photo says ‘chingsong de xuexi
qingjing’ ‘relaxed learning situation’. LF17-p3, the second photo of these four, shows
a male Caucasian, a female Chinese English teacher, and three Taiwanese students
(elementary school students) sitting in the classroom. The male Caucasian is talking
to the three Taiwanese children. The heading says ‘goutongshi jiaoxuefa’
‘Communicative Language Teaching Method’. LF17-p4, the third photo shows a male
Caucasian standing in the middle of a U-shaped classroom. Little Taiwanese students
(pre-school children) are seated and a Chinese female teacher is sitting with them. The
male Caucasian is standing in the middle of the room and asking a little Taiwanese
girl, who has a plastic hammer, to hit a flash card on the floor. The heading of the
photo says ‘zhuanyi de laoshi’ ‘professional teacher’. Moreover, these three
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classrooms in LF17-p1 – p3 are clean with high ceilings and English sign-words can
be seen around the walls. The last photo of this side of the flier LF17-p4 shows a
series of self-published textbooks and other teaching materials, such as flash cards
and cassette and video tapes. The textbook title is Fun with English. The heading of
the photo says ‘bentu hua de jiaocai’ ‘localized teaching materials’.
The other side of the flier, like the one just described, starts with the slogan of the
English language schools ‘Women liaojie haizi xuyao de shi shemo’ in big red print.
‘We know what children need’. There are five photos on this side of the flier, too.
LF17-p6 at the bottom left of the flier draws readers’ attention, because it is much
bigger than the other four photos, like LF17-p1 on the other side of the flier. LF17-p6
shows a little Taiwanese girl putting her hands under her chin and smiling at her
viewers. There are four photos around LF17-p6 placed in a semi-circular shape. In
clockwise order, LF17-p7 shows Taiwanese elementary school students standing with
a changing guard in front of Buckingham Palace. The heading of this photo says
‘yingguo xialingying’ ‘English Summer camp in England’. The next photo LF17-p8,
shows a male white Caucasian standing among little Taiwanese students holding up a
big sign with an English sentence What’s your dream? on it. A Chinese female
teacher is holding some balloons and every student is holding a different teaching aid,
such as flowers, butterflies, suns and so on. They are facing the camera and every one
is smiling. The heading of this photo says ‘Youqu de shangka huajing’ ‘Interesting
learning environment’. Followed by this is LF17-p9, showing a group of little
Taiwanese students wearing crowns. Every one is holding a Christmas card and the
heading of this photo says ‘haowan de Xmas Party’ ‘Fun Xmas Party’. The last photo
of this page, LF17-10, shows a series of self-published textbooks and other teaching
materials, such as flash cards and cassette and video tapes. The textbook title is Joy of
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Learning. The heading of the photo says ‘Fengfu de jiaocai’ ‘rich teaching resources’.
At the bottom of this page is a written text in black about the school’s teaching
method – CLT, and the phrase [zuihaode] ‘the best’ in red in a square bracket appears
three times in the text.
The flier is seen as having a beginning, a middle and an end and it tells its audience
what exactly constitutes CLT in practice and what its expected outcome is. In the
beginning of the flier are the school slogan – ‘Women liajie haizi xuyao de shishemo’
‘We know what children need’ and two photos of children (LF17-p1 & p6) implying
not only that children need to learn English but also that they need the best teaching
method – CLT – to achieve their goals or fulfill their dreams. These sentiments are
echoed by LF17-8.
In the middle stage, four photos (LF17-p2, p3, p4, p8) show how CLT is carried out in
a classroom in Taiwan. First of all, it is a student-centered approach which means
students are asked to participate in various communicative activities, so as to improve
or achieve their speaking proficiency. To achieve this goal, not only learners, but also
teachers and the classroom setting play a vital role. The class size is small and
normally with a U-shaped arrangement, so teachers and student can interact. FL17
shows a native speaking English teacher and a Chinese English teacher co-teaching
system. They are professional as the heading of LF17-p4 photo suggests. It seems that
native speakers play a more important role in English teaching, since the non-native
speakers in these photos are portrayed as assistants rather than teachers, meaning that
they are not in charge of teaching. Moreover, students are expected to interact with
their native speaking English teachers, which include physical movement during
communicative interaction. There is a variety of games, activities, teaching materials
and teaching aids (LF17-p5 & p10) used in a CLT class. These teaching materials
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with communicative purposes are fun and interesting and are specially designed for
Taiwanese children. Generally speaking, English is the medium of teaching. Students
seem to enjoy the teaching and learning process and they learn to use English for
communicative purposes. CLT creates an interesting and relaxed learning
environment as the headings of LF17-p2 and LF17 and Other focus-on-form methods
of the corpus suggest.
Finally, the desired outcome is that learners can communicate successfully in English
in real situations not only in Taiwan but also an English speaking country – England –
as the LF17-p7 photo suggested. Therefore, CLT is “the best teaching method” as
appears three times in red at the very end of this flier.
CLT is regarded by the government as the solution to English teaching and learning in
Taiwan in the context of English-as-the-global-language. While introducing The
Six-Year National Development Plan, Premier Yu Shyi-kun said, “Under the
government’s plan, Taiwan should designate English a quasi-official language and
expand the use of English as part of daily life. To enable us to accomplish this, I
would encourage English teachers to constantly employ communicative teaching
approaches to serve the need of students to communicate better with others” (Chang,
S. E., 2002). LF17 and the Premier’s talk raise the most crucial issue in ELT in
Taiwan. That is no factors count in learning English, other than teaching
methodology – especially CLT. Many Taiwanese English teachers or learners may
opt for CLT because it is popular and it is a world-wide trend without examining the
realities of their classroom situation or their wider social context. In addition, the
distinction between ESL (English as a second language) and EFL (English as a
foreign language) “highlights a mismatch for Asian learners between the instrumental
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aims of CLT and their own situation” (Ellis, 1996: 215). ESL takes place within an
English-speaking environment. Clearly, Taiwan is an EFL country. In Taiwan, the
goal of English teaching in the context of globalization focuses on communicative
competence, but the instrumental purposes of CLT is very different between an ESL
and EFL country. Since EFL does not take place within an English speaking
environment, English language learners in Taiwan, do not have the opportunity
immediately to apply their English skills in authentic situations – the opposite is the
case in an ESL country. “ESL is designed to help individuals function in an English
speaking community, but EFL is part of the school curriculum” (ibid.: 215). The
implication is that EFL may be primarily designed to develop communicative
competence, but with curriculum demands and pressure of examinations, CLT might
not be appropriate.
Given that Taiwan is an EFL country, I shall now argue that any teaching method,
including CLT is just one factor in teaching and learning English in the school system.
Other factors may seem to be more important if we take the whole teaching context
into consideration.
CLT in Elementary Schools
Taiwan formally instituted English classes for fifth and sixth graders in elementary
schools in September 2001. A report entitled “Problems in Elementary School
English Education” (Teng, 2003a) was conducted by the Taiwanese government at the
end of year 2002. It indicates that the most overwhelming difficulty is the shortage of
capable teachers. Rural schools in Taiwan are often unable to hire accredited English
teachers. For instance, in 2002 when Nantou County was in need of 159 English
teachers, only 15 MOE certified instructors filled the vacancies. When the time came,
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only 6 out of those 15 reported to their new teaching posts. Cases like this can be
found in other rural schools in Hualien county, Taipei county, and so on. As a result,
county governments have had to train teachers with backgrounds in other subjects to
teach English, which in turn has resulted in glaring discrepancies in the quality of
instruction. The fundamental problem is that those schools are short of qualified
English teachers, not short of appropriate teaching methodologies. Any teaching
method, including CLT, cannot solve this pressing problem.
Those schools that have enough qualified English teachers, encounter other problems.
In private language schools, English teachers are teaching English classes according
to students ability levels – a major factor in the success of CLT. It is common for
teachers to teach classes in public elementary schools with students of varying levels
of English ability. Dealing with a diversity of needs is a teacher’s greatest challenge.
According to Chang Sheng-en (2000), the chairman of the English department at
National Taiwan Normal University, in numerous elementary schools English classes
use various types of games, songs and activities to advance the student’s listening and
speaking ability. Students who benefit from English language school lessons have
become “the sole beneficiary of these activities, because most of the time, teachers
allow only students with good grades to practice and participate during English class”.
CLT used in elementary school English classes therefore does not provide the concept
of equal educational opportunity for all. As Chang (2000) suggests, it deprives
children of their right to an education.
CLT encourages parents to spend money doing additional English study at English
language schools, so their children will not fall behind in their regular elementary
school English classes. LF17 reveals that the desired outcome of CLT is that students
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communicate successfully in the target language in real situations (Knight, 2001: 155).
In Taiwan, it is only rich families who can send their children to English language
schools and who can use their speaking proficiency in real life communication
situations in an English speaking country. As Phillipson (1992a) suggests, mastery of
English enhances the power and control of a privileged few.
CLT in Secondary Schools
As far as secondary English education is concerned, a survey of Taipei’s high school
English teachers shows that nearly half of them had never attended any CLT
workshop and do not know how to adopt this popular teaching approach. The
government must quickly improve the training of English teachers (Chang, S. E.,
2002). This is another example that the government does not take the wider social
context into consideration. Although the MOE has issued new curriculum standards to
give students basic communication skills, the test items in junior high schools are
based on testing grammar rules and vocabulary, which do not follow the curriculum
standards. Not surprisingly, it is still hard for teachers, especially in junior and
senior high schools, to adjust to CLT, because of the examination system. As a result,
the most popular type of buxiban in the corpus are those designed for junior high
students and high schools students preparing for passing their exams, even though the
objectives of junior high school encourage communicative competence. Therefore,
grammar-translation remains dominant and buxiban have become an integral part of
life for most junior high and high school students in Taiwan (Chang, 1994: 18–23),
which implies that most English teachers in Taiwan continue to use
grammar-translation teaching methods, and that CLT does not work under these
circumstances. It is focus-on-forms teaching methods that help students achieve
their goals of English education at school, not CLT. If current English tests in the
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school system are sole basis for assessing students’ English ability, CLT will not be
the best teaching method in the school system in Taiwan.
CLT in Higher Education
As far as higher education in Taiwan is concerned, few of Taiwan’s English majors
can speak English well, even after ten years of study. Moreover, Taiwan’s higher
education system lacks both classroom space and a qualified faculty. It is common for
an English Literature class to be packed with more than 80 students (Chang, 1998: 31).
It would be impossible for an EFL instructor to hope to use CLT in such a teaching
context. In addition, according to the MOE, university students may soon be forced
to pass the high-intermediate level of the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT)
before they are allowed to graduate. Taipei Times Online: October 13, 2002, reports
that since the beginning of the new semester in September 2002, several national
universities, such as National Taiwan University, the National Sun Yat-sen University,
and so on have made English proficiency a requirement for graduation (http://www.
taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2002/10/13/175506; last accessed on
December 6, 2002). This policy has the inevitable consequence that university
students will prepare for the test specifically by working on the types of questions
involved in it, as Wu (2002) suggests. It is buxiban, not English language schools that
provide GEPT classes to help students to pass the test and graduate. In other words,
the focus-on-forms approach – the traditional teacher-centered method works in this
teaching context, not CLT. I will take up the GEPT issue again in the following
section, which examines focus-on-forms in practice.
7.2.2 Focus-on-forms in Practice
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The test-oriented method is the only one found in buxiban advertisements.
Test-oriented methods belong to the focus-on-forms approaches. According to Sheen
(2003: 226), a focus-on-forms approach comprises the following three stages: “(1)
providing understanding of grammar by a variety of means, including explanation in
the L1, pointing out differences between the L1 and the L2, and aural comprehension
activities intended to focus students’ attention on the forms being used; (2) written
and oral exercises that entail using the grammar in both non-communicative and
communicative activities; (3) providing frequent opportunities to use the grammar to
promote automatic and accurate use. This is the most effective means of teaching
grammar” (ibid.: 226). The analysis of buxiban advertisements also supports this
argument that the focus-on-forms approach is seen as the best teaching method for
teaching exam and grammar oriented English subjects in Taiwan.
From the point of view of Sheen’s (ibid.: 226) three stages of focus-on-forms
approaches, clearly, the test-oriented method used in buxiban in Taiwan is not exotic
or fancy. The analysis of TET2 and buxiban school fliers and websites show that, it
is a “teacher- centered” method and the class size is very big (ranging from 60-600) if
compared to English language schools. It “focuses on drill and grammar” and
“focuses on whole class activities”. “Students are expected to be quiet and passive and
not permitted to move around”. It “emphasizes features of the language itself in
unauthentic situations” and “uses the students’ native language as a medium of
teaching”. It “depends on set text books” and “presents foreign language literature
as a translation exercise”. It “emphasized one single, acceptable correct answer” and
“constant correction of mistakes”. It “leads students to see the foreign language as
another academic subject in school”. It “focuses on language structure rather than its
international value”. It “is given minimal time within the curriculum or is only
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allocated as a short course”. It “evaluates short-term command of discrete elements of
the language, such as vocabulary and grammar”. The above are the characteristics
of the test-oriented teaching method used in buxiban, which is viewed in Taiwan as
the best teaching method to help student be successful in their English tests, but they
are also key characteristics of a checklist of less effective foreign language learning
that has been offered by the California State Department of Education (as cited in
Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, 1998: 678). This proves yet
again that any decision about which teaching methodology is the best must depend on
the teaching context.
“Many Taiwanese university students, even English majors, can’t speak and write
English”. “There must be something wrong with English Education here… to
upgrade the general public’s English capabilities, the government must strive to
improve English teaching at school” (Her, 2002). Taiwanese people are aware that the
implementation of English education in the past has not been a success, because
students might have been good at grammar, but they lack speaking proficiency. The
MOE has responded by trying to improve English communicative ability. They
believe that “by employing interesting and lively teaching methods, English learning
can be fun and practical for day-to–day necessities, rather than for just coping with
exams” (ibid.: 2002). In order to establish a mechanism to certify English
proficiency in Taiwan, the MOE entrusted the corporate body Language Training and
Testing Center in 1999 to develop a five-level certification system called the General
English Proficiency Test (GEPT). Each level of the test is administered in two stages,
that is, test takers must pass the first stage of listening and reading tests before
proceeding on to the next stage of writing and speaking tests. The system is
intended for students and other individuals from all walks of life. The age range of
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the candidates is very broad, from primary school pupils to senior citizens. As a result
of this, “since the introduction of the GEPT, the market has been filled with test
preparation materials. These materials can improve their test-taking techniques but
offer limited help for the overall improvement of English ability. Students only seek
to improve their GEPT grades not their English ability” (King, 2003). Shen (2002)
points out buxiban business is even brisker than in the past and the pressure on
students has increased, forcing them to attend more buxiban. People in Taiwan know
that the level of English proficiency on paper is not a good indicator of the English
ability of English language learning students. “Passing the TOEFL is no guarantee of
English proficiency, simply showing the ability to study for another exam” (Taiwan
Headlines: September 25, 2001, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=11269; last
accessed on February 1, 2002). According to Chang, the director of the Taipei Cram
School Association, most parents understand this emphasis on memorization will turn
their children into passive learners and test-taking machines – people who can answer
English questions on the test quickly and correctly but without really understanding
English. But teachers cannot avoid this since their job is to make sure their students
pass examinations and that’s why almost every Taiwanese parent sends their children
to buxiban to study (Chang, 1994: 18–23). Successful test or grammar oriented
methods used in buxiban again indicates that there is no best teaching method and it
all depends on its teaching context which I shall discuss in the next section.
7.3 There Is No Best Teaching Method
The evidence of the corpus supports Prabu’s view that there is no one best teaching
method (Prabhu, 1990: 161–176), because (1) the most appropriate method depends
on the teaching context, (2) there is some truth to every method and, (3) we need to
rethink what “best” might mean. In the next sections, I shall look at these 3 points
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respectively.
7.3.1 It All Depends on the Teaching Context
English teaching in language schools in Taiwan attempts to cater directly to social
objectives of English-as-the-global-language, which means focus on speaking
proficiency. Therefore the teaching is designed to develop communicative
competence with little or no curricular demands and free from the pressure of
examinations. One of the tenets of CLT is that teaching must prepare the learner for
real life communication situations. Learners act out imaginary situations that they are
likely to encounter in their future either in Taiwan or in an English speaking country.
As a result, the focus-on-form approach works well in English language schools, as
mentioned earlier, because of their class sizes, highly motivated students, rich
teaching resources, and so on. Especially for teachers in Taiwan, it is obvious that
focus-on-form highlights the importance of English for communicative purposes, but
this is in conflict with the education system in Taiwan.
In the Taiwanese education system traditional or teacher-centered methods are widely
used in junior high school, high school and university. The main reason for that is
that Taiwan is an EFL country and generally speaking there is no need for people in
Taiwan to communicate in English in their daily life situations. English is merely a
part of the school curriculum. Although a national curriculum goal is to learn English
to communicate, not to pass tests, its method of certifying English proficiency is to
encourage students to study for tests. Under such an educational regime, schools have
to use a traditional method or exam-oriented method to help student to pass various
types of English tests. As a result, the analysis of the corpus indicates that buxiban use
identical school teaching materials, even teaching the same English lessons before
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they are taught in schools. The method used in buxiban is that teachers give students
repetitive grammatical practice and then help them memorize grammatical rules by
testing. This has been viewed in Taiwan as the best method.
7.3.2 There Is Some Truth to Every Method
Focus-on-form approaches have been regarded as the most effective, since the wide
spread of CLT in the 1980s. It “refused to give a systematic role to grammar
instruction, and instead gave priority to the exposure to comprehensive input” (Sheen,
2003: 225). An underlying assumption of a focus-on-form is that all classroom
activities need to be based on communicative tasks. As far as grammar instruction is
concerned, Nunan (2001: 198) suggests that traditional structure-focused
methodological practices in grammar classes are not enough in preparing learners to
press their grammatical resources into communicative use. Krashen argues that
grammar should be acquired naturally in his Natural Approach (Knight, 2001: 158).
All grammar learning needs to be based on communicative tasks and not on explicit
language instruction. English should be acquired through classroom interaction to
achieve communicative purposes. Sheen (2003: 225) and Canagarajah (1999a: 106)
point out that the focus-on-form approach is well accepted by ELT and SLA theories,
such as Breen (1985), Littlewood (1988), Long (1991), Nunan (2001), Harmer (2003),
and Savignon (2003). This approach has been promoted by English language
schools and it works, because English language schools are ubiquitous not only in big
cities, but also in rural areas (Liu, L., 2002).
A focus-on-forms is viewed in Taiwan as being less effective, since it assumes that
grammar and vocabulary cannot be learnt effectively by using communicative activity
or problem-solving activities. Nevertheless this is the most effective method of
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teaching grammar, but there is a tendency that ELT and SLA researchers tend to
promote a focus-on-form at the expense of focus-on-forms, as suggested by Sheen
(2003: 227) and Norris and Ortega (as cited in Sheen, 2003: 227). Doughty and Gass
(1991, as cited in Canagarajah, 1999a: 106) point out that deductive pedagogies serve
useful functions at times enabling a more successful acquisition of language in certain
grammar structures. In Taiwan, focus-on-forms methods have made buxiban become
an integral part of life for most students, and if these methods are not the best and
most helpful, they would not have survived for so long (Chang, 1994; Liu, L., 2002).
7.3.3 We Need to Rethink What “Best” Might Mean
English-only immersion and CLT are regarded as best teaching methods in the
English language schools and test-oriented methods are the best teaching methods in
the buxiban, because they seem to yield the best results of learning outcomes in a
given period of time. Normally the learning outcomes are achieved by language
evaluation or testing. However the notion of ‘best’ teaching method needs to be
re-examined. They produced the best learning outcomes in a given period of time,
because “language testing can only hope to give us evidence on the actual growth
achieved at the stage of testing, not on the potential generated for further growth”
(Prabhu, 1990: 170). Shohamy (1993: 17) points out that “language testing policy is
the de facto language policy and the test becomes the de facto curriculum”. In other
words, the power of tests cannot be over-stressed. In her research called “The impact
of language tests on teaching and learning” (Shohamy, 1993), Shohamy focused on
three newly introduced national language tests; an Arabic test for 7-9th grades; an EFL
oral test for 12th grade and an L1 reading comprehension test for 4th and 5th grades,
and their impact on teaching and learning in the school context, specifically, what
happened to teaching once a new test was introduced. One of the main findings with
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all three tests showed that instruction became testlike. Teaching materials and
teaching methods became an integral part of normal teaching as many teaching
activities became testlike.
The result of the English-only immersion method is that “there are small numbers of
successful examples, most students of all-English kindergartens are only capable of
speaking a little English, communicating with others and using simple greetings”.
“When topics are discussed, the children mostly can only get by with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’
answer” (Teng, 2003a). Moreover, Taiwan lacks an English-speaking environment.
Use of English is not part of people’s daily life in Taiwan. English is merely a
compulsory component in the school system, not something to be used in daily life. In
addition to this, when students study at junior and senior high school, English
education emphasizes grammar and a test-oriented approach resulting from the highly
competitive high school and university entrance exam. As Shohamy (1993:16)
suggests, when “teaching and testing become synonymous, the tests become the new
de facto curriculum, overshadowing the existing curriculum”. As a result of this,
secondary school students end up at buxiban studying for passing the tests.
Poor speaking proficiency is due mainly to the inadequate and much criticized
English education in Taiwan, especially the inefficiency of secondary school classes
(Taiwan Headlines: November 22, 2001, http://www.taiwanheadliens.gov.tw/200111
22/20011122o2.html; last accessed on January 30, 2002). The test-oriented method is
the best teaching method to yield the best learning outcomes in terms of exam results,
but it has made it hard for students to improve their speaking and listening abilities.
Some educators have called this grammar oriented teaching method ineffective
because classes consist mostly of lectures. The fact that English instruction has long
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been led by testing has caused students in Taiwan to develop a learning attitude that is
passive and ineffective. The ability of Taiwan’s students to get high scores in high
school entrance exams and university entrance in the past was testament to buxiban
test archives and skills at guessing what would be on the tests. High English scores in
these tests do not necessarily mean the test takers have a good command of English
(Chang, 1998; Taiwan Headlines: November 22, 2001, http://www.taiwanheadliens.
gov.tw/20011122/20011122o2.html; last accessed on January 30, 2002). The
Education system judges students’ performances by grades alone. This focus pervades
the entire education system from elementary school all the way to university as Chang
(1998: 31) suggests. As a result of this, buxiban have excellent reputations for being
able to teach ways of choosing the right answers to test questions, especially multiple
choice questions, even when the student does not completely understand what is being
asked. As a result, “the English proficiency of the average person in Taiwan is very
poor”, despite the enthusiasm for learning English (Taipei Times Online: May 3,
2002, http://www.taipeitimes.com/news/2002/05/03/story/0000134423; last accessed
on September 9, 2002). Exams really push students to study hard, but, paradoxically,
they are also an impediment to mastery of English. Students are more interested in
passing tests than finding out how to really use English.
As a result, many people attend English language schools to improve their English
speaking proficiency, because they have the best teaching method to help them to
acquire their speaking proficiency (Taiwan Headlines: November 22, 2001, http://
www.taiwanheadliens.gov.tw/20011122/20011122o2.html; last accessed on January
30, 2002). The English language schools do not provide a solution to English
education, either. They get into the same cycle. Taiwan is an EFL not an ESL
country and English is not used in people’s daily life. Financially disadvantaged
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students do not have the opportunity to learn English like those from richer families.
This has caused a gap in English ability between rich and poor (Liu, 2002). Neither
the English language schools nor the buxiban that claim to have the best teaching
methods can solve the problem of English education in Taiwan, because the teaching
method is not the decisive factor. Social, cultural and political factors are more
important than teaching methodology.
7.4 A critical Perspective on English Teaching Methodology
Prabhu (1990) and Holliday (1994) argue that there is no one best teaching
methodology since the choice of method should be context-dependent (Prabhu, 1990;
Holliday, 1994). What works in a certain situation or setting will not always transfer
easily to another. The analysis of data from language schools and buxiban supports
this argument. English language schools and buxiban must be examined within the
broader social context of Taiwanese and global culture. To understand how the
ideological concept of the best-teaching-methodology is manifested in daily life in
Taiwan, we need to understand the principles not only of classroom practices in
English language schools, public schools or buxiban but also the more macro aspects
of English teaching, such as those pertaining in ESL countries and other EFL
countries. In this section, I shall use the BF4 buxiban flier to demonstrate that a
contextual approach (Prabhu, 1990; Holliday, 1994; Bax, 2003) and a critical
approach in English teaching (Canagarajaha, 1999; Pennycook, 1994b, Phillipson,
1992a) are needed in ELT.
“Ruguo nin jihua rang haizi dang xiao liuxuesheng huo duan ji nei jiang
yimin, women jian yi nin gen waiguoren xue huihuashi de ertong meiyou.
Rugou ninde haizi yao yi guonei shengxue guandao nian guozhong –
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gaozhong- daxue, namo nin jue dui yao xun ze women zheng tong de
jiaoxueshi ying yu.” (BF4)
“If you plan to send your children to study abroad or to emigrate to an
English speaking country shortly, we suggest that they should learn
American English conversation with foreigners. If your children want to
study in Taiwan in an academic stream – ‘junior high school – high school –
university’, you really must choose our orthodox English teaching
methodology.” (BF4)
In the next sections, I shall use BF4 to examine the global and local relationship of
ELT and SLA.
7.4.1 The Global and the Local Relationship
The analysis in Chapter 5 indicated that English is regarded as a highly valued
commodity. This fact affects Taiwanese people’s motivations for learning English and
their choices about what kind of English to learn, accuracy or fluency; their choices of
teachers, native speaker or non-native speaker; teaching methods, student-centered
(global, western, modern) or teacher-centered (local, traditional); reasons for learning
English, for studying abroad or studying in Taiwan; and kind of schools to study at,
foreign or local, public or private. In other words, BF4 indicates that there is a
dichotomy in ELT in Taiwan, between English teaching methods, English teachers
and the purposes of an English education. Issues like these mentioned above are
politically determined and essentially insensitive to pedagogical considerations. These
choices, it can be argued, have been influenced by “the global and the local”
dichotomy (Block & Cameron, 2002: 6, 8).
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In ELT, geopolitically and culturally speaking, ‘the global’ and ‘the local’ dichotomy
means ‘the center’ and ‘the periphery’ (Phillipson’s term, 1992a), or ‘BANA’ (Britain,
Australia and North America) and ‘TESEP’ (tertiary, secondary, primary) (Holliday’s
term, 1994), or ‘native English communities’ and ‘non-native English communities’
(Canagarajah’s term, 1999a), or ESL (English as a second language) and EFL
(English as a foreign language), or vague terms such as ‘Western’ and ‘the rest’. As
far as English teaching methodologies are concerned, the global approach means the
focus-on-form approach. The local approach also signifies the focus-on-forms
approach. Phillipson (1992a: 238) argues that “part of the professional identity and
image of the Center applied linguistics institutions is that their skills are universally
relevant”. In other words, ELT methodology is particularly linked to Western or
Anglo-Saxon nations’ views of communication. As Holliday (1994: 166) suggests,
most current teaching methodologies were primarily designed for ESL situations.
Take CLT for example, the main problem is that much of the research on CLT has
been conducted “either with native English-speaking teachers, or with non-native
English-speaking teachers in North America, Great Britain, or Australia” (Sullivan,
2000: 118). As a result, many teachers in the world believe that the methods used by
ESL countries are the most effective, efficient and authoritative for their purposes.
The reason for that is that “The dominance of centre applied linguistic circles is
helped by their resources for conducting sophisticated research with hi-tech facilities
and then popularizing the knowledge globally through their publishing networks and
academic institutions” (Canagajah, 2002: 135). There is an imbalanced relationship
in English teaching methodology between the global and the local – the former
dominates the latter.
In spite of the success of these methods in ESL countries, questions have been raised
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about the appropriateness of their use in the non English speaking communities, that
is, in EFL countries. In Canagarajah’s (1999a) critical ethnography of his class at
the University of Jaffna in Sri Lanka, he demonstrates that western teaching methods
used in the classroom did not work because English teaching is connected in a
complex way to the social, cultural and political situations both inside and outside the
classroom. Many researchers (Ellis, 1996; Sullivan, 2000; Cheng, 1987, as cited in
Sullivan, 2000: 121) argue that pedagogical practices influenced by Chinese
Confucianism tend to be teacher centered, and that CLT does not work in Confucian
societies, such as Vietnam and China. Although there are many complaints about
applying western methods in EFL countries, many researchers in EFL countries still
try to introduce western methods by accommodating the local exigencies, that is,
“glocalizing”. Block and Cameron (2002: 10) question glocalization is an opportunity
for empowerment of teachers and students in ELT in the context of
7.4.2 Glocalization
Glocalization (Robertson, 1995 as cited in Block & Cameron, 2002: 3) is “a
synergetic relationship between the global and local as opposed to the dominance of
the former over the latter”. Gary (2002: 166) interviewed EFL teachers in Catalonia
and they believed that a glocal coursebook “would give them ‘a better fit’ and
simultaneously connect the world of their students with the world of English”.
Kramsch and Sullivan (1996: 199–212) point out that an appropriate pedagogy
depends upon local ELT professionals thinking globally while acting locally. McKay
(2003b: 139–148) argues that teaching English as an international language must be
separated from native-speakers models, allowing a locally appropriate pedagogy to be
implemented. Her research on teaching English as an international language was
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conducted at Santiago and smaller communities (Copiapo & La Serena) in Chile. Her
research focuses on three main aspects, the appropriate ELT textbooks, the most
appropriate teaching method, and native and non-native speaking English teachers’
strengths and weaknesses. Questionnaires in Spanish were given to 50 elementary
school bilingual teachers of English from public schools, semi-public schools and
private schools. Thirty-four of these teachers had been teaching English for 5 years.
The main finding of the research is that “Chile can provide a model for the teaching of
English as an international language. … Chilean educators have taken responsibility
for developing a pedagogy that is appropriate to the local context, realizing that they
are the ones who can best develop a locally sensitive pedagogy that can help students
learn an international language” (ibid.: 145–146). The methodology is successful
because 1) the curriculum emphasizes receptive skills (reading 40% and listening
40%) rather than productive speaking (speaking and writing 20%); 2) both MOE and
teachers are de-emphasizing the use of CLT; and 3) Chilean English teachers view
themselves as professionals with many strengths, thanks to their bilingualism.
Although both Chile and Taiwan are EFL countries, their teaching contexts are very
different. In Taiwan, I would argue that glocalization is an additional teaching method
and not a solution. Next, I apply the glocalization concept to ELT in Taiwan and to
indicate that it might be problematic, because the goal of English education for
globalization is English speaking proficiency which is very different from the Chilean
goal. In addition to this, the examination system plays a crucial role in ELT in Taiwan.
If we apply the “glocalization” concept to current English teaching situations in
Taiwan, the resultant eclectic teaching method would require the implementation of
three main methods: English-only immersion, CLT, and test-oriented or
grammar-translation. Applying this eclectic teaching method would be problematic.
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Different teaching contexts, such as English language schools, buxiban, and public
schools would employ different methods. That is what the current English teaching
and learning situation is like in Taiwan, as English language schools use English-only
and CLT, while public schools and buxiban use grammar-translation. The result of
employing this approach in Taiwan would still be that ordinary Taiwanese would still
have very poor English, as only rich families could afford to go to language schools,
as I have demonstrated above.
Another argument is that the same teaching context should use different methods, or
perhaps parts of these methods, since there is some validity to every method, as
suggested by Prabhu (1990: 166–167). He further argues (ibid.: 167) that if every
method is partially correct, none represents the whole answer. The question is: Which
part of English-only immersion, or CLT or grammar translation is valid? Sullivan
(2000: 121) points out that although the idea of ‘group work’ in CLT would fit well in
a Confucian society, “in fact, the American practice of forming small groups works
against Confucian precepts. Grouping in a classroom serves to divide up a class, not
bring it together”. If this eclectic method is to be advocated nationwide it must be
broad enough so it can be appropriated by anyone who uses it. As mentioned in 7.2.1,
the fundamental problem in Taiwan is that public elementary schools are short of
English teachers, and, generally speaking, teachers at secondary and tertiary levels use
grammar-translation. Another implication is that all English teachers, both native and
non-native speakers, need to be bilingual in English and Chinese so they could be
trained to apply this method. The problem is: Who will train these teachers? Moreover,
it might be virtually impossible for all English teachers, both native and non-native, to
become bilingual.
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7.5 Conclusion
If they probe the matter, the Taiwanese will soon discover that social, cultural and
political issues are more significant determinants of language policy than are teaching
methods. They might, for example, ask: “Why is a particular method being
introduced?” “What are the motives behind it?” “What agenda are being followed?
“Who is pushing a particular method and why?” “Who is going to benefit from a
particular teaching method?” “What is being taught – accuracy or fluency – and
why?” “Who will teach and use this particular method and why?” “Who will train the
teachers?” “How will success be determined?” “What are the underlying values
behind this method?” “Who will pay for English language learning?” (adapted, in part,
from Kaplan, 2000; Shohamy, 2001). They will realize that the answers to all these
questions indicate that teaching method is only one of the factors in ELT and that
social, cultural, and political factors play more important roles. English-only and CLT
are introduced and zealously promoted by both the Taiwanese government and
language schools. However, these so-called best teaching methods simply do not
provide a solution to English education problems in Taiwan. The main reason is that
there is no best teaching method. Good teaching is context-dependent. It is impossible
to separate English teaching methodology from the contexts in which it operates.
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CHAPTER EIGHT: “AMERICAN-ENGLISH-AS-STANDARD-ENGLISH”
8.0 Introduction
The focus of this chapter is on the ideology of American-English-as-standard-English
espoused in the promotional materials that constitute my data. Standard English is
“the variety of English used by the formally-educated people who are socially,
economically, and politically dominant in English speaking countries” (Farr, 1994:
4338). Kachru (1986) views world Englishes as 3 concentric circles: native speaking
countries (the Inner Circle), second-language speaking countries (the Outer Circle),
and foreign language speaking countries (the Expanding Circle). English is a foreign
language in Taiwan. This means that English is used for international communication
with both native and non-native speakers around the world (see 2.1). If English is
destined to become the global language, some type of norm is needed for the teaching
and learning of English for international communicative purposes (Modiano, 2001a:
164; Curzan, 2002: 347). EFL countries in Kachru’s Expanding Circle always look
to the Inner Circle for their pedagogical norms of English (Bex, 1993; Modiano,
2001a; Preisler, 1999). Taiwan is no exception. American English is preferred and is
taught. It is almost always presented as proper and correct choice.
Milroy and Milroy (1998) and Lippi-Green (1994) take a critical approach to a
“Standard English ideology”, which they define as “a bias toward an abstracted,
idealized, homogeneous spoken language which is imposed from above, and which
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takes as its model the written language. The most salient feature is the goal of
suppression of variation of all kinds” (Lippi-Green, 1994: 166). Moreover,
Lippi-Green (ibid.: 167) points out that there are four identifiable proponents of
standard language ideology in the USA, “all of which are part of the “dominant
block”: the educational system, the news media, the entertainment industry, and what
has been generally referred to as corporate America”.
I will apply Milroy and Milroy, and Lippi-Green’s notion of a ‘standard language
ideology’ and focus on only one “dominant block” – the educational system as
evidenced in my data. There are three parts in this chapter. First, I will examine how
American English is presented as the standard English in advertisements by English
language schools and buxiban. Second, I will discuss American-English-as-
standard-English in Taiwan having more social and political than linguistic causes.
Third, I will investigate a World Englishes concept which argues that cultural and
linguistic pluralism is best suited to accommodate the needs and desires of English
language learners.
8.1 Data Analysis
I will demonstrate how American English norms are promoted by English language
schools and buxiban while other varieties of English are characterized by an almost
complete absence in the corpus. As before, I will start with the analysis of a television
commercial, before moving on to slogans, short paragraphs, still images, school
names, and English teaching job ads.
8.1.1 TC9 Television Commercial

The TC9 television commercial starts with the voice of a male Mandarin Chinese
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speaker who says, ‘Congxiao daoda, quncheng gueihua’ ‘We design a set of complete
English programs from children to adults’. At the bottom of the screen the written
message ‘Cong jichu ABC dao gaoji huihau’ ‘programs from basic ABC to advanced
English conversation’ appears. There are 5 shots placed in a semi-circular pattern on
the left of the screen, I number them TC9-s1 – s5. There is another shot – TC9-s6 at
the top right corner of the screen. TC9-s1 shows 8 Taiwanese pre-school children and
a male Caucasian standing up and doing some physical movements in the classroom.
TC9-s2 shows another male Caucasian and two Taiwanese elementary school children
(a boy and a girl) standing and talking in the classroom. TC9-s3 shows another male
Caucasian and two male Taiwanese junior high school students standing and talking
in the classroom. TC9-s4 shows four Taiwanese adult students and another male
Caucasian. Two students, a male and a female, and the male Caucasian are standing
and talking in the front of a classroom. The other two female students are sitting and
watching their teacher and their classmates. TC9-s5 shows a female Caucasian and
four Taiwanese adult students. The female Caucasian is talking to a Taiwanese male
adult student in the center of the classroom. The other three students, two female and
one male, are sitting and watching their teacher and their classmate. TC9-s6 shows
another male Caucasian and four Taiwanese elementary school children. The male
Caucasian and one male student are standing and talking in the front of the classroom.
The other three students, two female and one male, are sitting and watching their
teacher and classmate. The talk in TC9-s1 – s6 is inaudible. After that, there is a
close-up of a little Taiwanese boy. He is looking up. The background setting has a
very big American flag with many names of universities in the USA on it such as
University of New York, University of Illinois and Berkeley University. Then the
voice of a male Mandarin Chinese speaker is heard: ‘Cong jichu dao 109ji’ ‘Programs
from basic to the highest level – level 109’. After that, superimposed on the little
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boy is a Taiwanese man. He is wearing a graduation gown, and hood and is still
looking up. And then the voice of the male Mandarin Chinese speaker is heard again:
‘Mian tuofu, zhijie liuxue meiguo’ ‘Study in universities in America without any
TOEFL scores’. This commercial ends with different age groups of Taiwanese
students, that is, elementary school, secondary school, and adult, and male and female
Caucasians standing and talking. At the top, there is the school logo and the school
slogan. The slogan says: ‘Jinru Kejian, zhisheng Meiguo’ ‘Enter Kojen Language
School and feel as if you are in America’.
The fact that the various shots show Taiwanese students from all age groups implies
that English is needed by all Taiwanese people, both children and adults (see chapter
5). TC9-s1 shows a male Caucasian teaching English to a group of pre-school
children which implies the-younger-the-better ideology (see chapter 9). Since all the
talk between the Caucasian teachers and students is inaudible, it is impossible to know
what kind of English is taught and where these Caucasians are from. As far as
teaching methodology is concerned, TC9-s1 – s6 show an interactive teaching
methodology suggestive of English-only immersion. This method is presented as the
ideal-English-teaching-methodology (see chapter 7). In addition, only Caucasian
teachers are featured in this television commercial, which obviously implies that
ideal-English-teachers are Caucasians (see chapter 6). The close-up of the little
Taiwanese boy looking up against the backdrop of an oversized American flag with
names of universities in the USA on it suggests that it is the ambition of Taiwanese
children to study in the USA. Then superimposed on that little boy is a Taiwanese
man. He is wearing a graduation gown and a hood. The implication is that to study in
the USA is the mainstream education value and a USA degree is a sure guarantee for
future success. The commercial ends with different age groups of Taiwanese students
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talking with Caucasians. This implies that there is a strong belief that English is learnt
essentially in order to communicate with native speakers of English. Models for the
acquisition of English are native speakers of English. The television commercial
ends with its school slogan ‘Jinru Kejian, zhisheng Meiguo’ ‘Enter Kojen Language
School and feel as if you are in America’. It can be argued that this commercial
promotes only American English. The dominance of American English representation,
and without any other English varieties and cultures in this commercial shows, that
Taiwanese people perceive American English as standard English. In addition, slogans,
short paragraphs, body texts, still images and school names also show an over
promotion of both American-English-as-standard-English and American culture.
48 (25%) out of a total of 192 slogans and short paragraphs contain the concept of
American-English-as-standard-English (cf. Figure 5-1, p. 121). A salient finding is
that 32 of these texts contain two or three ideological concepts (see Figure 8-1).
Figure 8-1: American-English-as-standard-English and Other Ideological

Concepts of ELT
American-English-as-standard-English
48 texts
American-English-as- American-English-as- American-English-as- American-English-as- American-English-as-
standard-English & standard-English & standard-English & standard-English, the- standard-English only
Ideal-teaching-method English-as-the-global- Ideal-English-teacher younger-the-better & 16 texts
16 texts language 6 texts English-as-the-global-
7 texts language/ Ideal-
teaching-method
3 texts
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Figure 8-1 shows that 16 texts have both the concepts of American-English-as-
standard-English and the ideal-English-teaching-methodology. 7 texts contain both
the concepts of American-English-as-standard-English and English-as-the-global-
language. Another 6 texts have both concepts of American-English-as-standard-
English and the ideal-English-teachers. 3 texts (LF29a, LWM1, LWM5) from
language schools contain 3 ideological concepts. The following are these three texts.
‘Meiyu shi tongwang shijie zuijing de ru.’ (LF29a)
‘American English, for children, is the royal road to the world.’ (LF29a)
‘Wu guojie shidai lailien le, congxiao tigong xiaohaizi shijie tongyong
yuyian (meiyu) de huan jing, peiyang juyou jingzheng nengli de xiayidai.’
(LWM1)
‘The time of the world without boundaries has come. To provide little
children a learning environment in an international language (American
English) and to provide the next generation with competitive ability is
every parent’s hope in the contemporary society.’ (LWM1)
‘Nin zhidao meiguo xiaohaizi ruje kaishi xue meiyude ma? Nin xiwang
ninde haizi yie you tongyangde chufadian kaishi xuemieyu ma? 100%
chunmei huai jian.’ (LWM5)
‘Do you know how American children starting learning their American
English? Do you want your children to start learning English as American
children do? 100% pure American learning environment.’ (LWM5)
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The LF29a slogan appears in both the school flier and the TC7 television commercial
(see 6.1.1). It demonstrates the-younger-the-better ideology, American-English-as-
standard-English ideology and English-as-the-global-language. LMW1 promotes
American-English-as-the-global-language, so children need to acquire this linguistic
capital the earlier the better. LMW1 illustrates three ideological concepts; English-as-
the-global-language, American-English-as-standard-English and the-younger-better.
LWM5 explicitly tells its readers that American English is the standard English and
Taiwanese children need to learn it through an English-only immersion teaching
method, and the earlier the better. These 48 texts indicate that ideologies of ELT in
Taiwan, such as English-as-the-global-language, the ideal-English-teacher, the
ideal-English-teaching-methodology, the-younger-the-better and American-English-
as-standard-English ideology are closely inter-linked.
8.1.3 Body Texts

114 (23.4%) out of a total of 487 terms contain the concept of American-English-
as-standard-English (cf. Figure 6-2, p. 166). Six categories of lexical collocations of
USA, America or American are found (Figure 8-2). They are USA degree (48 tokens,
42.1%), American and/or Canadian teachers (18 tokens, 15.8%), American English
learning environment (16 tokens, 13.6%), American English teaching method (13
tokens, 11.4%), American curriculum & teaching materials (11 tokens, 9.8%), and
KK pronunciation class (8 tokens, 7.1%).
As far as USA degree is concerned, it is used in reference to Chinese English teachers
who obtain their BA, MA or PhD degrees in the USA. Since a North American accent
is regarded as the standard, Canadian English teachers are included. American English
teaching means a focus-on-form approach, either an English-immersion method or
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CLT (see chapter 7). KK pronunciation class also presupposes General American
pronunciation (see 8.2.2. for details). The lexical collocations of USA, America or
American such as, USA degree, American and Canadian English teachers, and
American English learning environment reinforce the notion that only one English –
American English – is standard, appropriate, correct and prestigious. As a result, as
far as ELT in Taiwan is concerned, anything associated with the term USA, America
or American is viewed as the best. The above description also reveals a one English
and one culture notion, since no other varieties of English are found.
Figure 8-2: Lexical collocations of USA, America or American in body texts
USA degree: 48 = 42.1% American/Canadian teacher: American English learning
18 = 15.8% environment: 16 = 14%
Collocations of USA,
America or American
114 = 100%
American English teaching American curriculum & KK pronunciation class:
method: 13 = 11.4% teaching materials: 11 = 9.6% 8 = 7%
8.1.4 Still Images

Only 55 (4.7%) out of 1,181 still images contain American-English-as-standard-
English (cf. Figure 5-3, p. 140). If compared to other ideologies, it has a rather low
frequency. Representation of American-English-as-standard-English are: American
flags (37 tokens, 67.3%), famous US places and landmarks (9 tokens, 16.4%),
prominent Americans (5 tokens, 9.1%), the Eagle as an American symbol (2 tokens,
3.5%) and Going studying in the USA (2 tokens, 3.6%) (Figure 8-3). The American
flag (37 tokens) plays an important role in conveying American-English-as-standard-
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English both in TC9 commercial and still images. The main reason for the low
frequency in still images is that foreign teachers’ nationalities and American English
teaching methods can not be identified in still images.
However, five photos in the corpus depict American or Canadian individuals who are
well-known public figures. These five photos are: LF29-p1 – p4 and LWM5-p3.
LF29-p1 – p4 are in the LF29 school flier. LF29-p1 is one side and LF29-p2 – p4 are
on the other side. LF29-p1 shows Jerry, an American, and a well-know public figure
in Taiwan (see 6.1.1.) looking at a female Caucasian and a group of four little
Taiwanese children (pre-school children) walking happily along the beach. The
heading of the photo says ‘toushen taiwan meiyu jiaoyu 30 duonian, zuigaoxing de shi,
kandao Changjinglumeiyu yoong zhengque de guannian jiaodao shushiwan haizi
xuehao meiyu’ ‘I have devoted myself to American English Education in Taiwan for
more than 30 years. The happiest thing for me is that Giraffe Language School has
been using correct teaching beliefs to millions of Taiwanese children so that they a
have good American English’. LF29-p2 – p4 are on the other side of LF29 school flier.
LF29-p2 shows Jerry talking to a male and a female Caucasian. The heading of the
photo says ‘Dingshengfa qizi jiedai meiguo ji janada guibin’ ‘Father Ding, Jerry, is
receiving guests from the USA and Canada’. LF29-p3 photos shows a male Taiwanese
and these two guests signing a contract. The heading says ‘Changjinglu meiyu yu
meiguo daxiagu daxue chiading shizi peixun, liuxue, youxue jihua’ ‘Giraffe Language
School and Grand Canyon University are signing a contract about studying in the
USA and a teacher training program’. LF29-p4 shows the contract has been signed
and they are holding up the contract and looking at the viewer. The heading of the
photo says ‘Meiguo daxiagu daxue jiaoyu zhang Dr. Jeanne ji Janada UPC xueyuan
xiaozhang Dr. Long yu changjinglu mieyu tiyue’ ‘Giraffe Language School is signing
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a contract with the Director of Studies, Dr. Jeanne of Grand Canyon University and Dr.
Long, the president of United Pacific College’.
There is a short paragraph above LF29-p2 – p4 photos. It says ‘Changjinglu meiyu yu
meiguo, jianada zhimin daxue xishou tuidong taiwan ertong meiyu jiaocai, shixi
qunmian guojihua’ ‘Giraffe Language School cooperates with famous American and
Canadian universities to promote Taiwan’s American English teaching materials for
children and to have an international teaching staff’. The names of these two
institutions, the “famous American and Canadian universities”, hold more promise
than can be justified by their actual academic standings. According to Grand
Canyon University website (http://www.grand-canyon.edu; last accessed on
December 28, 2003), the university’s slogan is “Quality Christian Education for 50
years”. The United Pacific College (UPC) website provides both English and Chinese
versions. According to the website, UPC is a private higher education service institute
in Vancouver and it offers only Business Administration and Management courses
(http://www.pacific.college. net/indexe.html; last accessed on December 28, 2003).
LF29-p2 – p4, nonetheless, clearly tell the audience that Taiwan looks to the Inner
Circle, especially the USA, and Canada for ELT pedagogical models, even though the
quality of these models may be questionable.
The last photo showing prominent Americans is LWM5-p3. It shows The Village
People, a famous American disco band in the 1970s. This photo shows that American
culture is persuasive in Taiwan (see 8.1.5).
The BF31-p4 photo shows an American education exhibition and BF31-p1 shows a
farewell party for a group of Taiwanese students who are about to leave for study in
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the USA. Both pictures provide further evidence that a USA degree is preferred.
In short, these still images (Figure 8-3) explicitly illustrate that Taiwan is strongly
influenced by the USA and cannot dissociate itself from American English norms.
Figure 8-3: American-English-as-standard-English in Still Images
American flags: Places and landmark: Americans: 5 = 9.1%
37 = 67.3% 9 = 16.4%
Symbolic objects of Americans
or American features
55 = 100%
Going studying in the Eagle: 2 = 3.6%
USA: 2 = 3.6%
8.1.5 School Names

15 (14.7 %) out of a total of 102 school names contain the concept of American-
English-as-standard-English. They can be grouped into six categories, they are lexical
collocations of America or American (5 tokens, 33.3% – American, The American,
Pan America, Canadian-American, and American Village); University names in the
USA (4 tokens, 26.7% – Little Harvard, Harvard, Berkeley, and the Ivy League); City
names in the USA (2 tokens, 13.3% – Washington and Beverly Hills); Entertainment
(2 names, 13.3 % – Jackson Five and Sesame Street); and Symbols (2 tokens, 13.3% –
Eagle and Canadian Maple) (Figure 8-4). Names such as these also point to the
promise inherent in American English. School names such as Jackson Five and
Sesame Street illustrate that American popular culture is pervasive in Taiwan, like
the image of The Village People described above.
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Figure 8-4: American-English-as-standard-English in School Names
Collocations of America or University name: 4 = 26.7% City name: 2 = 13.3%
American: 5 = 33.3%
School names
15 = 100%
Entertainment: 2 = 13.3% Symbol: 2 = 13.3%
As far as school names are concerned, every school name contains two parts, for
example, ‘Changjinglu Meiyu’. ‘Changjinglu’ means ‘Giraffe’ and the second part,
‘meiyu’, means ‘American English’. The English name for ‘Changjinglu Meiyu’ is
‘Giraffe Language School’. The name demonstrates that the second part of the school
name, especially in Mandarin, plays an important role in conveying the concept of
American-English-as-standard-English. Therefore, second parts of language school
names are analyzed separately in Mandarin and English (Figure 8-5 & 8-6).
A total of 76 language school names in Mandarin was found (Figure 8-5). There are
six types of schools. They are ‘Meiyu’ ‘American English school’ (39 tokens,
51.3%), ‘Yingyu/Yingwen’ ‘English School’ (16 tokens, 21.1%), ‘Wai yu’ ‘Foreign
Language School’ (11 tokens, 14.5%), ‘Wenjiao jigou’ ‘Educational Organization’ (8
tokens, 10.5%), and ‘Shungyu’ ‘Bilingual School’ (2 tokens, 2.6 %).
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A total of 63 English names was found (Figure 8-6). There are four types of schools.
They are language school (27 tokens, 42.9%), English school (21 tokens, 33.3%),
American English school (13 tokens, 20.6%), and Educational Organization (2 tokens,
3.2%). The analysis demonstrates that school names in Mandarin (39 tokens) play a
more important role in spreading the notion of American-English-as-standard-English
than those in English (13 tokens). Generally speaking, ‘waiyu’ ‘foreign language’
refers to the English language in Taiwan.
Figure 8-5: Types of Language Schools in Mandarin
American English: English: 16 = 21.1% Foreign language:
39 = 51.3% 11 = 14.5%
Language School Names
in Mandarin
76 = 100%
Education organization: Bilingual: 2 = 2.6%
8 = 10.5%
Figure 8-6: Types of Language Schools in English
Language school: 27 = 42.9% English school: 21 = 33.3%
Language school names
in English
63 = 100%
American/ English school: Educational
13 = 20.6% organzation: 2 = 3.2%
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Figure 8-7 shows lexical collocations of America or American found in English
teaching job ads. They are North American accent (15 tokens, 60%), American school
(5 tokens, 20%), American teacher (3 tokens, 12%), and American Curriculum (2
tokens, 8 %). The high frequency of North American accent reveals the extent of its
popularity in Taiwan.
Figure 8-7: Lexical Collocations of ‘American’ in English Teaching Job Ads
North American accent: American school: 5 = 20%
15 = 60%
Collocations of “American”
25 = 100%
American teacher: 3 = 12% American curriculum:
Alternative term: USA native 2 = 8%
speakers
8.1.7 Television English Teaching Program

TET 1, a buxiban television English teaching program, is an hour-long KK American
pronunciation teaching program (see 6.2.1). There is only one figure, a female
Chinese English teacher in the program. She uses a teacher-centered method to teach
how to pronounce KK phonemics to help Taiwanese learners to acquire American
English pronunciation (see 8.2.2). This reinforces the notion that an American accent
is the standard and students are required to acquire it.
8.2 American English Ideology
In the following section, I will discuss language and culture, North American accent,
USA degree, American curriculum, American teaching method, American English
learning environment, and American teaching materials. These concepts are
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inextricably linked to the ideological concept of American-English-as-standard
English.
8.2.1 English Language Teaching and English Culture Teaching
English is a foreign language in Taiwan and the purpose of English teaching and
learning is to enable the learner to communicate effectively internationally. As a result,
the framework of curriculum design and classroom practice associated with
communicative language teaching is widely promoted by both English language
schools and public schools (see 7.2). “The communicative approach considers target
language- based communicative competence to be essential in order for foreign
language learners to participate fully in the target language culture” (Alptekin, 2002:
58). In addition, “culture has to be integrated into the language classroom from the
very first day of language learning” and “culture must be taught in conjunction with
language, not as an adjunct” (Crozet & Liddicoat, 1997: 18, as cited in Ronowicz &
Yallop, 1999: 2). Since “language does not exist apart from culture” (Sapir, 1921: 221,
as cited in Zaid, 1999: 111), it is impossible to dissociate language and culture in EFL
teaching. Therefore target language culture needs to be taught. As a result, in the
context of EFL, “second language learning” has become “second culture learning”
(Brown, 1994: 165), so that learners can “identify themselves with and become part of
that society” (Brown 1994: 154). The notion that target language culture and
language learning are inseparable is well supported in Taiwan. Next, I will look at
the issue of American English and American culture and their practice in Taiwan.
8.2.1.1 American English and American Culture
Tsai Ing-wen, Mainland Affairs Council Chairwoman, Hsi Mu-jung, a famous
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painter-writer, and professor Wang Yu-li, while offering tips on language study, argue
that “Learning foreign languages is a conduit to ‘enter new cultures and new worlds’”,
in other words, “learning a language provides a key to the culture” (China Post
Online: August 13, 2002, http://www.chinapost.com.tw/p_detail.asp?id=35210&GRP
=B&onNews=; last accessed on December 12, 2002). Tsai Ing-wen notes “that
language expresses one’s thinking” and “knowledge about English and American
cultures will help one communicate with native English speakers”. Professor Wang
Yu-li argues that language study can help broaden one’s vision and reports that she
made significant progress in her English proficiency during her study in the United
States (China Post Online: August 13, 2002, htt://www.chinapost.com.tw/
p_detail.asp?id= 35210&GRP=B&onNews=last accessed on December 12, 2002).
The above opinions support a belief that the promotion of English teaching and
learning is based on “culture-specific prescriptive norms” (Modiano, 2001b: 340) and
“foreign language learning as enculturation” (Alptekin, 2002: 58), that is, American
English and American culture in one package.
8.2.1.2 American English and American Culture in the EFL Classroom
Since culture cannot be separated from language, culture needs to be introduced in the
language classroom to the learner. Stern (1983: 251) argues that “Language conveys
culture, so the language teacher is also of necessity a teacher of culture”. Therefore, it
is the EFL teacher who will help students to acquire “knowledge about English and
American culture” so as to help them achieve their learning goals – to “communicate
with native English speakers” in the future, as suggested by Tsai (China Post Online:
August 13, 2002 http://www.chinapost.com.tw/p_detail. asp?id= 35210&GRP=B&on
News=; last accessed on December 12, 2002). In other words, since the EFL teacher
will provide specific cultural information, EFL teachers perceive themselves as
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“cultural ambassadors” (Modiano, 2001a: 170). With ‘culture specific norms’ and the
notion of ‘foreign language learning as enculturation’, there is an effect on both the
roles of the teacher and the students in the EFL classroom in Taiwan. The roles of
EFL teachers in an American culture-oriented language classroom are: to promote
American culture, and to select American English teaching methodology and
American English teaching materials to create an American learning environment. As
a result, American and Canadian English teachers who use CLT or an English-only
immersion teaching method with a North American accent are preferred in Taiwan.
American culture is an integral component of ELT and is seen as appropriate for
Taiwanese students. As far as the roles of students are concerned, a study by Kelman
(1996: 14–17, as cited in Zaid, 1999: 119) found that a target culture-oriented
classroom may result in dissatisfaction among students with their own culture. The
students come to see their indigenous social and cultural practices as being inferior to
those in the USA (or the UK). In Taiwan, the cultural framework for English learning
is inherently an attempt to promote one English speaking community’s culture at the
expense of others (Modiano, 2001a: 161). Students in Taiwan are strongly encouraged
to acquire a North American accent, to learn American culture and to study in the
USA. These issues will be discussed in following sections.
8.2.2 North American Accent
The term “accent” is used as “a loosely defined reference to sets of distinctive
differences over geographic or social space, most usually phonological and intonation
features’, or more generally as – “how the other people speak” (Lippi-Green, 1994:
165). The term, ‘Beimeiyin’ North American Accent – ‘Bei’ ‘North’, ‘Mei’ ‘the USA
or America Continent’, ‘Yin’ ‘Accent’ – originally meant how native speakers of the
USA speak English. Now it means how native speakers of English in the USA and
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Canada speak English, because “the sociolinguistic situation in the USA and Canada,
as far as pronunciation is concerned, is rather different from that of the rest of English
speaking countries” (Trudgill & Hannah, 2002: 35). For the general public in
Taiwan, no distinction is made between American English and Canadian English.
Therefore, North American English or American English refers to American English
and/or Canadian English.
The KK (Kenyon and Knott) system of General American pronunciation was adopted
in public schools in Taiwan in 1969, and it has been used universally since then. In the
following section, first, I will give a brief introduction to the KK system. Second, I
will show that a North American accent is considered the most important aspect of
speaking proficiency. Finally, I will make the point that Taiwanese EFL users will
mostly have a Taiwanese accent.
8.2.2.1 KK (Kenyon and Knott) System
In 1969, the KK (Kenyon and Knott) system of General American (GA)
pronunciation was adopted in public schools in Taiwan. It has been used since then.
The KK system is not a phonetic alphabet. It does not provide symbols for all
languages. The KK system is a “phonemic” transcription of General American
English, that is, it provides a symbol for each one of the distinctive consonants and
vowels of General American English.
Before the Taiwanese government introduced the KK phonetic system in 1969, the DJ
(Daniel Jones) phonetic alphabet, based on Received Pronunciation (RP) – Standard
British English – was used to teach English. Now all the people in Taiwan learn
English in their schools using the KK phonetic system. The KK system and American
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English have been codified and used in dictionaries and educational materials that
have been recognized in English test systems. The ideological concept of a North
American accent, which is deeply rooted in the minds of the people of Taiwan, is part
of a greater power construct. When the government, English language schools and
buxiban work together to promote KK as the standard, the concept instills in the
minds of students that other varieties are of less value.
Every Chinese English teacher has learned the KK system, and not surprisingly they
teach the North American Accent. When an English teacher presents only a North
American accent without providing students with equivalents from other varieties, the
implication is that a North American accent is the standard. Those native speaking
English teachers who do not possess North American accents are not regarded as
properly equipped to teach pronunciation. Only the North American accent is seen
as prestigious and it has established unequal social relationships among native
speaking English teachers in Taiwan, as I will show in the following section.
8.2.2.2 North American Accent in English Teaching and Learning
The issue for an English learner in an EFL setting is not ‘good’ or ‘bad’ English but
‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ English, at least in the educational framework (Preisler, 1999:
239). While questioning what real English is, Widdowson (1994: 378) uses images of
a beverage to illustrate how there many be other kinds of English which are not real or
proper English. “As an analogy, consider a certain kind of beverage. There are all
kinds of cola, but only one which is the real thing” (ibid.: 378).
Employment agencies plan to recruit some teachers from the Philippines and India to
teach in kindergartens and language schools in Taiwan, because these teachers will
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teach for about half the salary of their western counterparts (Taipei Times Online:
January 21, 2003, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2003/01/21/1917
86; last accessed on January 28, 2003). However, the MOE objects to recruiting
English teachers from India and the Philippines, because in these countries English is
not the native language and residents have “non-native accents”. The Ministry clearly
indicates that its plan to import foreign English teachers is targeted at the US, Canada,
the UK and Australia. (Taipei Times Online: January 21, 2003, http://www.taipei
times.com/News/front/archives/2003/01/21/191786; last accessed on January 28,
2003). Then, the MOE in March 2003 announced details of its program for
recruiting foreign English teachers. The first group of 400 foreign teachers with 150
from the USA, 100 from Canada, 80 from Australia and 70 from the UK were to
arrive in the summer of 2003 (Taipei Times Online: March 16, 2003, http://www.taipei
times.com/News/front/archives/2003/03/16/198231; last accessed on March 17, 2003).
This implies that the MOE only considers English teachers from the Inner Circle,
especially the USA and Canada and is reluctant to hire English teachers from the
Outer Circle because of their accents. Since North American is the standard
imposed by the government, the government has the responsibility for its propagation.
The implication of the above policies on hiring foreign English teachers is that the
main criterion for hiring foreign teachers is their accent. The result of this hiring
policy is that “accent becomes both manner and means for exclusion” (Lippi-Green,
1994: 165). In fact, racial discrimination and accent are closely linked. “When people
reject an accent, they also reject the identity of the person speaking: his or her race,
ethnic heritage, national origin, regional affiliation, or economic class” (ibid.: 165).
Clearly, American teachers are preferred, because they speak English with a North
American accent. “Most Taiwanese parents don’t care much about a teacher’s
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education background, as long as they’re white and American … Their perspective is
that if someone is white, they’re American” (Taipei Time Online: June 13,
2000, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=3850; last accessed on February 1,
2002). As a result, it is an advantage for applicants to be American or have a North
American accent as evidenced by their passport. Not surprisingly, many non-North
American native speakers of English tend to adapt their accents to suit the
requirements (Murphy, 1997). Since Taiwanese people prefer a North American
accent, some English language schools even ask their non-North American native
speakers of English to pretend they are either Americans or Canadians. The following
are two examples.
“The people here usually want to hear that you’re “North American”, so if your [sic] not, just
tell them that you lived there for five years…”(January 8, 2002, the Forum
of www.eslcafe.com,http://www.eslcafe.com/jobinfo?asia/sefer.cgi?display:1010488288-1980
1.txt; last accessed on February 2, 2002).
“Owner Monica continues to treat foreign teachers as their marketing tool instead of respected
ESL teachers when she told other English teachers from other countries to pretend to be
American or Canadian in order to cheat parents!” (February 16, 2002, the Forum
of www.eslcafe.com,http://www.eslcafe.com/jobinfo?asia/sefer.cgi?display:101380341-20087.
txt; last accessed on February 20, 2002).
8.2.2.3 Taiwanese English and North American Accent
An American accent is a desirable goal for Taiwanese learners, but “ironically, there is
no official language of the United States, not English nor any other” (Ash, 1999: 250).
Lippi-Green (1997: 43) points out that, despite “the myth of non-accent”, “every
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native speaker of US English has an L1 accent” and it is impossible to substitute one
phonology (accent) for another consistently and permanently. “L2 learners are
nowadays the only English speakers who are still encouraged to approximate an RP or
General American (GA) accent as closely as possible” (Jenkins, 2002: 85). Having a
North American accent as the standard implies the goal of English learning is to
achieve of native like accent. As a result, Taiwanese students are affected by such a
requirement. The following is a paragraph from a TESOL MA student from Taiwan
who talks about her experience while studying in the USA (Brown, 1995: 242).
The most difficult mental barrier that I have to overcome during the course of my language learning
as a non-native speaker of English is that I was expected to speak like a native speaker of English,
without any accent. Ever since I moved to the States, I had the idea that if I was ever to be
understood as a foreigner, I needed to be accent-free. While trying very hard to be accent-free, I
know that I would never be able to speak exactly the way a native speaker would speak. But I was
telling myself that I must achieve this end. This has become the cause of many undue stresses in my
language learning experience. At times, because I was so conscious of my non-native accent, I
became unwilling to speak out. The concept that I was introduced to in this term of not having to
speak native-like and still be a speaker of English is liberating to me. This important concept will
enable me to help my students, in the future, as not to acquire accent-free English, but English that
is intelligible to others.
Taiwanese English learners wish to acquire a native-like North American accent. In
reality, most Taiwanese English users will never attain a native-like North American
accent. Chou, an English professor at National Taiwan University (Taiwan Headlines:
May 8, 2001, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=8839; last accessed on February,
1, 2002), points out that Taiwanese people tend to consider that good English is
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spoken with an American accent. In fact, many people speak elegant English with all
sorts of accents. The American Accent does not necessarily have to be the standard.
Why should people feel embarrassed about speaking English with the accents of their
native languages? I shall now argue that the model of ‘Taiwan guoyu’ (Taiwanese
Mandarin) could be used in the acquisition of English in Taiwan.
Taiwan was returned to China from Japanese control in 1945. In 1946, a KMT
“Taiwan Committee for the Promotion of Mandarin” was established. The language
policy of the Nationalist government can be briefly described as uni-directional
bilingualism (Chan, 1994, as citied in Tsao, 1999: 365). That is, all speakers of a
local language had to speak Mandarin, but native speakers of Mandarin were not
required to study a local language. The result was that the Mandarin policy was very
successful (Tsao, 1999). However, the Mandarin that has developed in Taiwan since
1946 is referred to as “Taiwan Guoyu” – Taiwanese Mandarin. When Taiwanese speak
Mandarin, they have their own Taiwanese accent. Taiwanese people are very proud of
their Taiwanese Gouyu, because it signifies that Taiwan is a separate entity, that is,
independent of Mainland China (Tsao, 1999; Kowal, 2002). English used in Taiwan
every day is called “Taiwan Yingyu” – Taiwanese English, because a Taiwanese
variety of English is already emerging (Kowal, 2002). He argues that the Nationalists
tried to “Chinese-ize” the inhabitants in Taiwan, but Taiwan’s people “colonized”
Mandarin and made it their own. The result of these processes is “what we can see
today in Taiwan: English and Mandarin are both ‘Taiwanized’ and have become
‘Taiwanese’ languages” (Kowal, 2002).
Taiwanese English has been used in English classrooms in all levels of schools
(Chung, 2003a). Chung (2003a) identifies and describes the features of the sounds and
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allophones of Taiwanese English and shows how Taiwanese English differs from a
North American accent. Taiwanese English is only one of the countless varieties of
foreign-accented English or “national EFL dialects” (Chung, 2003b). Most countries
or regions in the world have their own characteristic ESL or EFL accents, such as
Singaporean English, Hong Kong English, and Japanese English. In other words,
Taiwanese English constitutes one of the many international varieties of “World
Englishes”. Kowal (2002) argues that Taiwanese English should be wisely promoted
by the government, since it fits in well in Taiwan’s multicultural and multilingual
society. In addition, it gives Taiwan a new identity to represent itself to the outside
world.
Clearly, to acquire a North American accent is an ideology. Another concept which is
associated with American-English-as-standard-English ideology is the USA degree.
8.2.3 USA Degree
Ample evidence in the corpus shows that North American English is currently the
dominant variety. The TC9 television commercial explicitly shows that the USA is
the most popular location for studying abroad. Language school names (see Figure
8-4), and still images (see Figure 8-3) indicate that a USA degree is preferred. Only 4
photos present other English cultures in the corpus. LF17-p7 shows a group of
Taiwanese elementary students standing in front of Buckingham Palace in England
(see 7.2.1.2). BWM18-p7 and p8 show some cities in Canada, since the language
school focuses only on studying abroad in Canada. BF30-p10 shows three famous
landmarks in the world, the Statue of Liberty, the White House and the Sydney Opera
House. In addition, there are 48 tokens of Chinese English teachers who have USA
degrees (Figure 8-2), but only 3 tokens of Canadian degrees, 2 tokens of British
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degrees and 2 tokens of Australian degrees (see 6.4.1, Figure 6-15).
‘Lai lai lai, lai Taida, qu qu qu, qu Meiguo’ ‘Come, come, come, come to National
Taiwan University; go, go, go, go to the United States’ – this popular phrase summed
up the mainstream education values from the 1950s through the 1990s in Taiwan.
Students from the most prestigious University, National Taiwan University, invariably
go to the United States if they choose to further their studies overseas. According to
statistics from the Institute of International Education (Teng, 2002), Taiwan was the
single largest source country of overseas students on American campuses during the
1970s and 1980s. Since the early 1990s, there has been a moderate but steady decline
in the number of Taiwanese students going to America. In 1994 there were 37,581
Taiwanese students pursuing studies in the States. After that their number declined.
In the year of 2002, the figure was 28,930. Before 1988, in terms of studying in an
English speaking country, the majority of Taiwanese students went to the USA and no
other destination made it to much above 100 students. Since then, there has been an
explosion of students going to other English speaking countries. “In the year 2000, the
figures had gone (1988 figures first) from 41 to 2,104 in Australia; 15 to 2,538 in
Canada; 2 to 496 in New Zealand; from 49 to 8,567 in the United Kingdom; and from
6,382 to 15,547 in the U.S." (Babb, 2002). In 2002 there were about 8,000
Taiwanese students in the UK, and Australia and Canada each had 2,000. Taiwan’s
brain drain began when the United States began issuing student visas to Taiwanese
during the 1950s. The graduates of Taiwan’s top institutions clamored to leave for the
United States, as the above phrase ‘Come, come, come, come to National Taiwan
University; go, go, go, go to the United States’ suggests. As a result, “Taiwan suffered
a so-called “brain drain” in the 1960s and 1970s”, because “young intellectuals chose
not to return to Taiwan after completing their studies” (Ide, 1999). Even today the
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USA is still the most popular destination among Taiwanese for study abroad, and it is
strongly encouraged and supported by Taiwanese scholars.
Frank Shu, a member of the American National Academy of Sciences and of Taiwan’s
Academia Sinica points out that “Europe still does not have the comprehensive level
of scientific achievement as there is in the USA. Countries like Canada, Australia and
New Zealand cannot for the time being compare with the States. Taiwan is a small
country, and cannot develop every kind of technology by itself. Some people must go
abroad to learn the latest developments and then bring them back. Generally speaking,
the US is the best place to do this”. Another scholar, Wu Ching-chin argues, “Under
globalization, it is especially important to have English skills, and North American
English is currently the dominant form. Even New Zealand has invited US residents
to teach American English in that country. If Taiwan’s future elites want to understand
how elites in other countries think, the best way to do this is to study at American
universities” (Teng, 2002). The above arguments insist that if Taiwan wants to
maintain competitiveness in the world, people need to study in the USA. North
American English is the global language, not only for EFL countries like Taiwan, but
even English speaking countries like New Zealand in the Inner Circle, supposedly
need American English. First English swept across the globe. The second wave is
American English.
There are 48 tokens of USA degrees in the corpus (Figures 8-2 & 6-15). Among
these degrees 40 are MAs and 8 are PhDs. Generally speaking, Buxiban hire Chinese
teachers who have USA degrees to teach TOEFL, GRE and GMAT to help more
Taiwanese students to study in the USA. “There’s a lot to prepare before going abroad.
The most important thing is language and few people succeed without attending cram
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schools to prep for the TOEFL, GRE and GMAT” (Teng, 2002). Since a large
number of people study in the USA, they are acquiring American English. American
English will probably continue to be privileged both in theory and in practice in
Taiwan in public and private schools. However, there are fears about the decline in
the number of Taiwanese students going to the US. As well, average scores of TOEFL
from Taiwan are below the global average. The numbers of students on US campuses
from China, India, Korea, Indonesia, and Thailand all increased from 1999 to 2001,
but Taiwan suffered a decline (Teng, 2002). Among 23 Asian countries, Taiwan ranks
fourth from the bottom in the TOEFL examinations, which is far behind fourth-ranked
China. In other words, Taiwan’s biggest fear is from China, since there are more than
50,000 mainland Chinese students studying in the USA. China has now been the
leading source of foreign students in the US for three years in a row since the year
2000.
Chen Wei-chao, President of National Taiwan University, worries that it is clear there
is no new generation taking the place of the old in American Academic circles. Wu
Jing (Teng, 2002), a professor at Cheng Kung University and a member of the
Academia Sinica, returned to his alma mater, the University of Iowa. The school
president told him that over the last two years, the University of Iowa had hired 24
professors of Chinese ancestry and every single one of them came from China.
Wu argues “American university professors often participate in government
policy-making and shape opinion. If there is a decline in the US in the number of
academics from Taiwan who will understand Taiwan affairs, Taiwan’s voice will be
that much weaker” (Teng, 2002). The implication is that the decline in the number of
Taiwanese students going to the USA and the great increase of Mainland Chinese will
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impact on the academic research and teaching, high-tech industry, economics and
culture of the two sides. Taiwan will not be able to keep up with China in these
aspects.
A USA degree also implies that American English signifies competitiveness. To
study in the USA is the key to competing with China and other countries in the world.
The myth that Taiwan’s ability to solve its current social, educational, economic and
political problems is directly related to its degree of American cultural assimilation is
promoted by the urgings to obtain a USA degree.
In short, if Taiwan wants to retain competitiveness in the context of globalization, it
supposedly needs more people to study in the USA. Since American English is the
gateway language, its acquisition will provide Taiwanese people with access to
economic and political power in the world. As a result, an American curriculum, an
American English learning environment, and American teaching method and
materials are promoted by the government and English language schools.
8.2.4 American Curriculum, American English Learning Environment, American
Teaching Method and Materials
There are 17 tokens of American English teaching method in slogans and short
paragraphs (Figure 8-1) and 16 tokens in body texts (Figure 8-2). American English
learning environment (16 tokens, Figure 8-2), American Curriculum (11 tokens, 7
tokens in Figure 8-2; 2 tokens, in Figure 8-7), and American English teaching
materials (4 tokens, Figure 8-2) are also found in the corpus.
“Any teaching curriculum is designed to answer three interrelated questions: What is
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to be learned? How is the learning to be undertaken? To what extent is the former
appropriate and the latter effective?” (Breen & Candlin, 2001: 9). An American
curriculum in language schools means North American English needs to be learned
and the teaching process is to be undertaken by Caucasian native speaking English
teachers with a North American accent and using an English-only or CLT method and
American teaching materials. These components consist of a so-called American
English learning environment, which is considered appropriate and effective for
learners to acquire their English. Such a learning environment gives students the
fullest possible introduction to the American speech community and reinforces the
concept of American-English-as-standard-English. Canagarajah (1999a: 84) argues
that “Western cultural agencies serve as a conduit for the influence of center
institutions, in particular commercial organizations involved in textbook production,
and educational institutions involved in teacher training.” In Taiwan, not only in
English language schools, but also in public schools, American curriculum, American
teaching methodology, American English teachers, American teaching materials and
other ELT activities used are considerably influenced by the USA and promoted by
the Taiwanese government.
Here are some news items which demonstrate that American English is the standard
English. Since it is perceived to be the appropriate and correct variety to learn, Taiwan
relies on American norms, such as teaching methods and training programs to help the
education ministry train English educators.
The MOE officially introduced the College Board, a US non-profit educational organization, as its
collaborative partner in advancing the professional development of the nation’s English teachers.
Robert DiYanni, the director of International Service College Board, argues that professional
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English educators from the USA will bring ideas and experiences to those confronting issues of
learning and teaching English in the Taiwanese school system (Taipei Times Online: March 6,
2003, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives /2003/03/06/196942; last accessed on
March 7, 2003).
“Nineteen young Americans teaching English in the remote counties of Nantou and Chiayi are
providing rural farming communities with a solid backbone of English language and cultural
learning” Their main goal is to teach students “to be able to talk with foreigners and to be
comfortable with English. Making it fun and exciting is the best way to do that”. As a result,
students are enthusiastic about what teachers say and tireless to learn. In short, “students have
been eager to learn from their foreign teachers” (Taipei Times Online: March 16,
2003, http://www.taipeitiems.com/News/archives/2003/03/16/0000198238; last accessed on
March 17, 2003).
The Taiwanese government’s exclusive promotion of American English shows that
there is an acceptance of the beliefs and behaviors of the native speaker of American
English. As a result, American English is considered the educational standard and as
superior to other English varieties. The choice of which English should be taught,
how English should be learned, who is going to teach it and who will train the
teachers in the school system is not made locally or individually, but by the
government. The result is that the diffusion of American English has become an
issue of political power in English teaching and learning. Next, I shall discuss the
spread of American English in Taiwan.
8.3 The Spread ofAmerican English in Taiwan
There seem to be two ways to represent the spread and development of English. One
way is that “there is a single English language but many varieties”. The other one is
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that “it is no longer appropriate to treat English as a single language containing a
common core to which all the varieties can be referred” (Smith, 1983: 1, as cited in
Bex, 1993: 250). The former assumes a standard English. The latter proposes a World
Englishes notion, which will be discussed in 8.4. As far as English teaching and
learning is concerned, there is a prevailing belief that there is a standard English,
which it is the appropriate variety for non-native speakers to learn. The English
language possesses two very similar and stable versions in ELT in EFL countries –
British English and American English.
8.3.1 British English and American English
The choice of a standard English depends in part on each nation’s history (Fiedrich,
2002: 441). Research on an awareness of regional differences, in particular the
distinction between the two major varieties, American and British English, was
conducted in Denmark (Preisler, 1999). The main finding is: a vast majority (66%) of
Danes prefers British English because they regard this variety as more “cultivated”
than American English. British English is viewed as having “tradition and spiritual
values” and American English is seen as “ugly” (ibid.: 249). With regard to the
perceived relative suitability of American or British English in various contexts in
Denmark, the results indicate that a majority (68%) prefers British English in an
educational or teaching context. American English is associated with leisure-time
interests, such as film and television series with actions, pop music, computer games,
and so on (ibid.: 251). Preisler (ibid.: 249) argues that “given British tradition in the
teaching of English in European schools”, Danes find it somewhat more difficult to
like American English. The influence of pop music and cinema has made American
English more attractive to the young. In other words, for geographical, political and
historical reasons, EFL countries in Europe tend to select British English as a standard
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because they see it as “prestigious”, “proper”, and “correct” (Modiano, 2001a: 168).
Choices like this one are based on powerful social myths rather than desirable
linguistic benefits (Bex, 1993: 249).
Within Europe, it would seem that British English has been the standard English, but
Europe is becoming increasingly influenced by American English (Bex, 1994;
Modiano, 1996). Many educational establishments in Europe have gone beyond
exclusively promoting British English and several countries now officially accept
both American and British English (Modiano, 1996: 207). In Taiwan, there is only one
single English – American English. “The chief characteristic of a standard ideology is
the belief that there is one and only one correct spoken form of the language, modeled
on a single correct written form” (Milroy, 1999: 174).
In the following section, I will argue that Taiwan’s historical, political and social
relationships with the USA have resulted in American-English-as-standard-English.
The choice of American-English-as-standard-English has more social and political
causes than linguistic ones.
8.3.2 USA and Taiwan Relations
English teaching and learning in Taiwan means having an American-centered view of
the language, that is, native speakers of American English and American culture. That
is not surprising, because of the close historical USA and Taiwan relations. The
Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan and the United States were allies during the
Second World War and signed the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty to
consolidate their bilateral relationship in 1954. Taiwan and the USA have a strong and
solid relationship although there are no diplomatic relations between the two countries.
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Their relationship has continued in the realms of political interaction, security affairs,
trade and investment, culture and more (Wen, 1998). On January 1, 1979, the United
States switched diplomatic recognition from the ROC on Taiwan to the People’s
Republic of China. On March 29, 1979, the U.S. Congress enacted the Taiwan
Relations Act (TRA), which has served as the basis of the new relationship between
the ROC and the USA to this very day. TRA is an act “to help maintain peace,
security, and stability in the Western Pacific and to promote the foreign policy of the
United States by authorizing the continuation of commercial, cultural, and other
relations between the people of the United States and the people of Taiwan, and for
other purposes” (http://ait.org.tw/ait/twinfo/tra.html; last accessed on August 17,
2003). Taiwan and the USA have signed a total of 142 treaties and agreements since
1954. (http://www.tecro.org/relations.html; last accessed on August 12, 2003). The
following are some examples which indicate the close relationships in political,
cultural, and commercial dimensions between Taiwan and the USA.
“Approval of the Foreign Relations Authorization Act for fiscal year 2003 by the U.S.
Senate and the House of Representatives is a demonstration of U.S. congressional
support for Taiwan. The act will help regulate bilateral military links between the
United States and Taiwan and represents apparent congressional respect and backing
for Taiwan’s democratic achievements” (Taiwan Headline: October 2, 2002, http://th.
gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=15512; last accessed on August 17, 2003). This act
also indicates that Congress is expected to play a more important role in U.S. arms
sales to Taiwan.
The following statistics from Taipei Economic and Cultural Office (TECO) show the
close relations between the USA and Taiwan (http://www.tecro.org/relations.html; last
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accessed on August 12, 2002). In 2002, Taiwan was the USA’s eighth largest trading
partner, its ninth largest export market, and its eighth largest source of imports.
Taiwan has always cooperated very closely with the USA in the field of education. In
the year 2002, 28,930 students from Taiwan were studying in the USA. The USA is
the most popular destination outside of Asia for Taiwanese tourists. In 2002,
Taiwanese made about one million trips by both direct and indirect flights to the
United States.
Since Taiwan shares many values with the USA and has maintained a long strong
friendship and close contacts with each other, for these reasons alone, American-
English-as-standard-English is synonymous with knowledge and privilege. American-
English-as-standard-English serves a political, social, cultural and economic agenda
and has resulted in an ideology that American English is regarded as prestigious,
appropriate and correct English. American English not only has a strong influence in
Taiwan, but also countries within Europe and the world. “American English
represents a New World hegemony insensitive to how US mass-produced culture and
aggressive multi-national cooperative programs impact on both developed and
developing nations ” (Modiano, 2001a: 169). Some scholars have started viewing the
pervasive American influences as “coca-colanization” (Mazrui & Mazrui, 1996: 284,
as citied in Bamgose, 2001: 359) and “MacDonaldization” (Phillipson, 2001b: 10).
8.3.3 American English and Ideology in ELT
Taiwan agrees with one single English language and as a result only American
English is taught. Taiwanese people are learning English, but they are not aware of the
linguistic diversity around the world. American English gives learners a restricted
knowledge of English and its cultures. It is misleading to assume that America is a
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linguistically homogeneous country. On the contrary, it contains considerable
diversity (Lippi-Green, 1997). Generally speaking, Taiwanese students are exposed
only to American English and that means their awareness and understanding of the
world may be limited as well. An incomplete presentation of the English language
may also lead to confusion or resistance when students are confronted with different
types of English users or uses (Matsuda, 2002: 438).
In both public and private schools in Taiwan, English teachers, curriculums, test
systems and so on all follow American practice. This practice has been deeply
rooted in Taiwan for some time. Kachru (1988, as citied in Brown, 1993: 61) argues
that students from Expanding Circle countries will return home to promote the
teaching of English after studying in Inner Circle countries, and they will support
Inner Circle scholars developing collaborative frameworks with Outer and Expanding
Circle colleagues for their teaching. Many former overseas students in the USA
become outstanding scholars and teachers in Taiwan and reach the pinnacles of
business, the professions, the public service and government (Babb, 2002). As a result,
defense of British English or other varieties of English is lacking, because the
majority of English language scholars or educators has a USA degree and few have a
degree from other English speaking countries, such as England, Australia, Canada and
New Zealand. The government supports and promotes American English. Teachers
who favor other varieties of English would oppose those who speak and endorse
American English. For example, Tsai, Mandarin Affairs Council Chairwoman, who
obtained a master’s degree in the USA and a doctoral degree in Britain, while giving
tips on English language learning, focused only on knowledge about English and
American culture. However, she did not mention other varieties of English, such as
British English (China Post Online: February 22, 2003, http://www.chinapost.com.tw/
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p_detail.asp?id=35210&GRP=B&onNews=; last accessed on March 24, 2003).
Strict adherence to American English by the government does not really provide
students an opportunity to learn other varieties of English. As Americans become
more involved in the lives of the Taiwanese through multinational corporations,
government, and military ties, education, the media and entertainment, and the influx
of Taiwanese students, as well as visitors, going to study in, or visit the USA,
American English will continue to be the standard in Taiwan. Even Europe is
increasingly influenced by American English. Modiano (1996: 169) describes this
phenomenon as “the Americanization of Euro-English”. “The learning of American
English potentially threatens to impose a number of ideologies on learners”. EFL
speakers should be provided with a space where they can attempt to be culturally,
politically and socially neutral (ibid.:169). Therefore, a neutral variant of English, a
World Englishes concept (WE) or English as an International Language (EIL) that
provides the second language and foreign language speaker with an opportunity to
avoid ideological influences of either British English or American English is needed,
and is promoted by some scholars (Jenkins, 1998; Modiano, 2001a; Smith, 1983). In
the following section, I will look at World Englishes, which might provide an
alternative for ELT in Taiwan.
8.4 World Englishes (WE)
A World Englishes perspective is characterized by three elements: “a belief that there
is a ‘repertoire of models for English’, that ‘the localized innovations [in English]
have pragmatic bases’, and that ‘the English language now belongs to all those who
use it’” (Kachru, 1988:1, as cited in Brown, 1995: 233). The recent shift is that
non-native speakers in the Expanding Circle using English for international
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communication now outnumber its native speakers (Crystal, 1997; Graddol, 1997).
This implies that non-native speakers of English will play a significant role in
globalization. The shift of English in use also has major implications for ELT. Since
“EFL speakers primarily need the language for cross-cultural communication (which
most often, for such people, takes place with other non-native speakers)” (Modiano,
2001a: 170), English as an International language which focuses on cross-cultural
communication and the recognition of varieties of English used by non-native
speakers needs to be taught and used as a lingua Franca (Jenkins, 2002; Modiano,
2001a; Matsuda, 2002; Petzold, 2002; Smith, 1983).
In the context of globalization, although standard English is associated in particular
with the standards of Britain and North America, it is too culture specific in terms of
cross-cultural communication. Since it challenges the autonomy of other Englishes in
the world, a World Englishes or English as an International Language (EIL)
pedagogical model which emphasizes cultural and linguistic diversity with a more
global perspective is preferable. “Language teaching would benefit by paying
attention to the L2 user rather than concentrating primarily on the native speaker”
(Cook, 1999: 185). Therefore, a descriptive model of EIL needs to be “codified,
legitimized, and standardized” (Modiano, 2001a: 170).
With respect to teaching a WE course, Kachru (1992: 10, as cited in Brown, 1995:
238) outlines theoretical and case-study material which is available for instructor use.
He suggests at least eight aspects of WE should be dealt with:
1. an overview of World Englishes from a sociolinguistic perspective;
2. an introduction to particular varieties;
3. the validity of such varieties on their own terms (‘attitudinal neutrality’);
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4. the functional and pragmatic range of particular varieties;
5. the contrasting pragmatic functions and realities of particular varieties;
6. the multidimensionality of functions, that is, the ‘implication of the functional
ranges of English’ in various setting;
7. an expanded understanding of various canons of English;
8. the importance of cross-cultural intelligibility of particular varieties of
English.
As far as English pronunciation is concerned, Jenkins (1998: 119) points out that
“the acquisition of a native like accent is no longer the ultimate objective of the
majority of the learners, nor is communication with native speakers their primary
motivation for learning English” in the context of EIL. In other words, a native-like
accent as the target of pronunciation teaching is unrealistic and the phonology of EIL
with a focus on the pragmatics of non-native communication in English needs to be
taught. Therefore, a phonological core of intelligibility – “the Lingua Franca Core
(LFC)” is established by Jenkins. LFC is based on extensive data collected in
multilingual EFL classes. It is a “sociolinguistically based and empirically
researched pronunciation for EIL” (Jenkins, 2002: 83). The core is intended to be an
inventory of features which is essential for speakers of EIL to get right in order to
ensure intelligibility anywhere in the world.
8.4.1 EIL in Practice in the world
A WE approach to EFL “can contribute to language pedagogy” (Brown, 1995: 233).
A WE approach is “more than a good idea”, it is “an ethical obligation” (McHenry,
2002: 451). Clearly, EIL is an attractive option to many foreign language curriculum
developers in EFL countries (Matsuda, 2002: 436). However, this perspective does
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not solve the problems of choosing a pedagogical model (Petzold, 2002: 425). When
the concept of WE moves into a language classroom, some issues such as “who
teaches, what is taught and how it is tested” remain unsettled (Bamgbose, 1998: 9).
Crucial to these questions are school and examination syllabuses, teaching materials,
teaching methods, teachers, teacher training and optimum the learner’s age for
acquiring EIL. Although WE is finally gaining acceptance in theory, in practice it has
had little impact on applied linguistic research design and even less on English
language teaching and teaching materials (Jenkins, 2002: 84). In addition, there is
no academic course entitled ‘English as an International Language’ available in the
world (ibid.: 101). Matsuda (2002) points out that recent Japanese English textbooks
reveal almost a complete absence of the Outer Circle, but few teaching materials for
EIL are available. This is the most important factor causing Inner Circle varieties to
continue their popularity in the Outer and Expanding circle (Petzold, 2002).
Lowenberg (2002: 431) questions whether English proficiency assessments, such as
TOEFL and TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) should be
solely based on native-speaker, that is, often American English norms, since
Expanding Circle norms might have more communicative relevance for vast numbers
of English speakers. However, no English proficiency assessment based on EIL is
available in EFL countries. As a result, the norms for Standard English usage,
English teaching and learning, and testing continue to remain those of the native
speakers in the Inner Circle (Lowenberg, 2002: 431).
A pronunciation syllabus for EIL based on the Lingua Franca Core (LFC) is available
for ELT. However, incorrect word stress, rhythm and intonation that are widely
regarded as a source of unintelligibility in spoken English are omissions from the core
(Levis, 1999; Walker, 1999). Pennington (1996: 242, as cited in Levis, 1999: 378)
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argues that “the intonation of basic communication such as set types of questions and
answers” is an essential part of intelligibility. On the other hand, Jenkins (1997: 18,
as cited in Levis, 1999: 378) argues that final pitch movement is not important to
teach, indeed cannot be taught, and is only marginally involved in intelligibility.
Keys and Walker (2002: 300–301) ask “if imposing RP/GA on students was wrong,
why is imposing the LFC right?” In addition, Keys and Walker ask “how can the
robustness of the LFC be tested and improved?”. And Levis warns that “While
several writers have tried to define what is needed for intelligibility both between
native and nativized varieties and within intra-group communication for nativized
varieties, the importance of intonation in an EIL framework is not clear” (Levis, 1999:
378).
In order to communicate internationally, all teachers, native and non-native, will need
to be well educated in EIL (Jenkins, 1998: 125). Both native and non-native
speakers need training in EIL (Campbell et al., 1983: 35). Thus the question arises:
if everyone needs training in EIL to improve understanding in communication
internationally, who is qualified to teach EIL – locals or a mixture of multi-nationals
each of whom is speaking his/her own dialect of international English? And who is
qualified to train the EIL teacher? As far as age of acquisition of EIL is concerned,
what will be the ideal age for learning EIL in the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and
the Expanding Circle respectively? As far as proficiency in EIL is concerned, which
one is more important – fluency or accuracy? Since the teaching methodology of EIL
will be very different (Smith, 1983: 4), what kind of teaching methodology will be
appropriate to teach EIL? How will success of EIL be determined and what are the
best teaching materials for teaching EIL? These questions raise a lot of concerns that
cannot be addressed easily. Clearly, consequences of promoting EIL remain largely
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unsupported and uncomprehended (Jenkins, 2002: 101).
8.4.2 EIL in Practice in Taiwan
Kaplan (2000: viii) points out that factors such as convenience, student numbers,
teacher expertise, and available resources influence what language will be taught in
the public school systems. In an EFL country, a specific variety choice is influenced
by factors such as the teacher’s own education, availability of materials, political,
cultural or economic contacts (Petzold, 2002: 424). Understanding the factors
involved in choosing a pedagogical model is a necessary aspect of teaching English in
an EFL country. WE, it is believed by many scholars, will in time become the
standard in educational programs throughout the world (Modiano, 1996: 208).
However, “when a country, a ministry or a teacher chooses a pedagogical model,
much comes packaged with it” (Petzold, 2002: 423). In short, the choice of the
model of English that is presented to students and by which their English is evaluated
ought to be considered in a pragmatic manner.
The choice of American English as the standard English in Taiwan depends on
Taiwan’s close historical, political and economic relationships with the USA. The
introduction of a World Englishes perspective into the English program may take time
not only in Taiwan but also around the world. The reason is that there are no teaching
materials and teaching methods of EIL available. Even when English language
learners or English educators hear the arguments of EIL, they may still wish to work
towards the goals of attaining a native speaker accent and standard English. EIL
involves potential costs and it does not provide a solution to current problems in
English education, that is, the shortage of English teachers, the English test system,
teaching methods and so on (see 7.2). Taiwan will continue to gravitate toward the
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American English norms and those norms will be privileged in theory and in practice.
Although EIL probably will not be suitable for ELT in Taiwan under the current
situation, Taiwanese people need to think critically about the social, political, and
educational implications of American-English-as-standard English. “The most
powerful strategy in ELT seems to be to foster critical awareness with regard to
English domination, construction of identities, and social, linguistics, racial, and
ethnic inequality” (Kubota, 1998: 302). English teachers need to help their students
broaden their “cultural/linguistic perspectives through recognizing multiple identities
of English” and “English curriculum needs to include varieties of English and
literatures from the Outer and Expanding Circles in addition to the Inner Circle
varieties” (ibid.: 304). As far as the macro-social level is concerned, the Taiwanese
government needs to shift the focus away from only American English norms, and
develop respect and appreciation of other varieties of English, since the government
will play the most crucial role in avoiding the American-English-as-standard-English
ideology.
8.5 Conclusion
Taiwan is an EFL country and English is being learnt for international communication.
Even though there is a growing demand and importance of English for cross-cultural
and international communication, Taiwan will still look to the USA variety as a model
for correctness, because of its close relationships in the political, cultural, economic,
and educational spheres. As a result, Taiwanese people view American English as the
only possible model. The ideology of American-English-as-standard-English means
that Taiwan needs to maintain a dependency relationship with Inner Circle countries,
mainly the USA, for pedagogical advice. In addition, unfamiliarity with the existence
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of any other varieties of English has resulted in linguistic and racial inequalities
between English varieties and their speakers.
In reality, Taiwanese English is growing in popularity and it can be considered one of
the varieties of World Englishes. With the knowledge that non-native speakers in EFL
countries are the fastest growing Circle, a new orientation in ELT called World
Englishes (WE) or English as an International language (EIL), is intensively promoted
by many scholars in the world. A WE approach is free from the presupposition of
British and American English, accommodates many varieties of English and is
comprehensible to speakers of other varieties in international communication. Since
many issues, such as teacher training, teaching materials, and teaching methodologies
of EIL still remain unsettled, Taiwan will not use an EIL approach for the time being.
However, Taiwanese need to reexamine their beliefs about American-
English-as-standard-English which they have taken for granted for so long. They need
to adopt a more thoughtful, sensitive, and critical attitude toward differences in
language and English language teaching as a whole.
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CHAPTER NINE: “THE-YOUNGER-THE-BETTER”
9.0 Introduction
The focus of this chapter is on another ideology in English teaching and learning in
Taiwan, namely that English should be learned as early as possible. In this respect,
Taiwan is no exception, as around the world, children are being compelled to learn
English at younger and younger ages (Nunan, June/July 1999; Cameron, 2003: 105).
Many EFL countries in Asia, such as Japan, Korea, Thailand and Taiwan, have
recently introduced the teaching of English to students in elementary schools. As
Nunan (1999) and Tucker (2001) point out, the drive to introduce English at younger
and younger ages is based on the assumption that the-younger-the-better is true, even
if uncorroborated by any empirical data. In Taiwan, although the Ministry of
Education mandated that all public elementary schools should start English courses in
the fifth grade in 2001, nearly 90% of elementary schools in fact begin to teach
English earlier (Taiwan Headlines: August 19, 2003, http://publish.gio.gov.tw/iisnet/
20030819/20030819s2. html; last accessed on August 22, 2003). My data show that
some language schools offer English programs for children as young as 1.5 years.
Thus, there can be no doubt that both public and language schools subscribe to the
argument that English should be taught at an early age.
The notion of the-younger-the-better has in fact become a slogan whenever English
education is mentioned in Taiwan (Han, 2003). It is widely accepted by Taiwanese
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people because it is believed that children have an extraordinary ability to learn
English. As long as children have some training at a very early age, it is assumed
they are guaranteed a superior English ability as an adult.
In this chapter I shall discuss three main aspects in relation to the concept of the-
younger-the-better in Taiwan. First, how the concept of the younger the better is
presented in advertisements by language schools and buxiban. Second, I shall review
current research that engages with the question of the optimal age of foreign language
learning in an EFL setting such as the one in Taiwan. Finally, I will argue that the
early introduction of English education needs to be adequately supported, resourced,
and closely monitored and evaluated, if it is to be successful.
9.1 Data Analysis
About 80% of Taiwanese elementary schools currently start their English courses in
the first grade (Taiwan Headlines: August 19, 2003, http://publish.gio.gov.tw/iisnet/
20030819/20030819s2.html; last accessed on August 22, 2003), and pictorial
materials will be considered to contain the concept of the-younger-the-better, if
pre-school children (i.e. children who appear to be 6 years old or younger) are
depicted.
9.1.1 Language School Television Commercials

TC3 TV commercial starts with a close-up of a male Caucasian and three little
Taiwanese children (approximately 4 years old) sitting on the floor. Then, there is a
close-up of the male Caucasian. He is smiling happily. He tries very hard to say a
sentence in Mandarin in front of the little Taiwanese children. This sentence is
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unintelligible because of incorrect word order, incorrect intonation, and tones. After
that, the screen shows only three big Chinese characters ‘Xue Ying Yu’ ‘To learn
English’. The film then shows that one of the little Taiwanese boys is trying to correct
and teach the white Caucasian by pronouncing ‘YING-YU’ ‘English’ loudly, slowly
and articulately. The male Caucasian is smiling and says to the little boy - OK, OK.
He tries to say the sentence again, but it is still unintelligible. One of the little boys
says “So - so” to him. The male Caucasian is still smiling and says, “So - so, OK, I
will try to do better”. He tries again, but it is still unintelligible. The screen shows five
big Chinese characters ‘Jia Yin Xue Ying Yu’ ‘To learn English at Joy Language
School’. Then, the little Taiwanese children say the sentence together very slowly and
clearly – ‘Xue - yingyu - jiayin - gen - Joy’ ‘Learning English at Joy Language School
is more joyful’. The male Caucasian repeats the sentence again, ‘Xue yingyu, jiayin
gen Joy’ ‘Learning English at Joy Language School is more joyful’. Although the
sentence is intelligible, it is marked by a very strong foreign accent. As a result, the
three little Taiwanese children laugh very hard. The screen shows the school name in
Mandarin ‘Jiayin Yingyu’ ‘Joy Language School’ and a little Taiwanese boy’s voice is
heard saying ‘Jiayin Yingyu’ ‘Joy Language School’. This commercial ends with this
group of little Taiwanese children’s loud voices chorusing I AM JOY – in English.
At first glance, this television commercial does not really show that it is about second
language teaching and learning. First, compared with the TC5 commercial (see 6.2.1)
and the TC1 commercial (see 7.1.1), this commercial does not demonstrate the
features of a typical language classroom, such as a whiteboard, desks, chairs,
textbooks, teaching aids and computers. Second, the male Caucasian is not depicted
as a teacher. The little children are not depicted as students, either. Instead, the
children try their best to help the male Caucasian to say the sentence in Mandarin
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correctly. However, the children are not depicted as teachers because at the end they
laugh very hard when the male Caucasian fails to achieve accurate pronunciation.
Third, TC3 employs a kind of scare tactics as it features an unsuccessful second
language learner as the main character.
However, the TC3 television commercial implicitly tells its audience that this is about
second language learning. First, the male Caucasian in this television commercial is
presented as someone who may never achieve native-like pronunciation because he
did not learn his second language at an early age, as the little Taiwanese children do.
Second, the little Taiwanese children and the male Caucasian in the commercial
implicitly demonstrate that there is a critical period in second language learning.
Third, pronunciation in particular is presented as his main problem and as subject to
critical period effects. Even though the Caucasian is finally able to say the sentence
correctly, the little children laugh at his strong foreign accent.
The little Taiwanese children in TC4 television commercial are about 4 or 5 years old.
This television commercial starts with a close-up of a little Taiwanese girl who is
laughing and then says Joy happily. Then there is a close-up of another two little
Taiwanese boys. One is smiling on the left and the other one is smiling at the top right
corner. The two little boys say Joy together happily. The school name JOY is also
found in a very large print at the bottom right corner. Then there is a close-up of
another two little Taiwanese boys. One is smiling on the left and the other one is
looking up and smiling at the bottom right corner. Then the two little boys say Joy
together happily. The school name JOY appears in very large print at the top right
corner. After that, the screen is divided into two halves. The top shows ‘Joy Jiayin
Joy’ ‘Joy, Joy Language School, Joy’. The bottom shows three close-ups of three little
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Taiwanese children – a girl and two boys. They are smiling and say Joy together
happily. Next, there is another close-up of a little Taiwanese boy. He is making a
sad face and says Joy. After that, the screen is divided into quarters. A little Taiwanese
girl is smiling at the top right corner. A little Taiwanese boy is smiling at the bottom
left corner. The little girl and boy say Joy together happily. The school name JOY is at
the top left corner. The school name in Mandarin ‘Jia Yin’ ‘Joy’ is at the bottom right
corner. After that, there is another close-up of a little Taiwanese girl. She is smiling
and says Joy happily at the left and the school name JOY is at the right. After that,
there is a close-up of a Taiwanese woman. She is smiling and says Jiayin, Joy ‘Joy
Language School, Joy’. Then there is a close-up of a male white Caucasian. He is
smiling on the left and school names in both Mandarin and English ‘Jiayin, Joy,
Jiayin, Joy, Jiayin’ are placed from the top to the bottom at the right. The male
Caucasian says the school slogan in Mandarin, ‘Xue yingyu, jiayin gen Joy’ ‘Learning
English at Joy Language School is more joyful’. The sentence is intelligible, but it is
characterized by a very strong foreign accent. The screen shows ‘Jiayin Yingyu’ ‘Joy
Language School’. The commercial ends with the characters of seven little Taiwanese
children. They say I AM JOY together happily.
This commercial illustrates that to learn English is joyful, if one starts at an early age.
Early childhood years should be spent learning English in a joyful way. The main
focus of English courses for children should be fun and joyful. The male Caucasian
reminds the audience that, as far as native-like pronunciation is concerned, Taiwanese
children need to learn English as early as possible, otherwise it will be impossible to
achieve. English can be learned in a joyful and natural way, if students learn English
at an early age. Age is represented as the critical factor that matters to one’s success in
English language learning.
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In reality, although education reformers have advocated “happy learning” for many
years, “it remains tantalizingly out of reach” (Chang, C. F., 2003). The reason is that
children’s individual qualities may differ, but they are all under the stress of a heavy
study workload in Taiwan. As a result, the vast majority are surely not happy.
According to a survey conducted by the Child Welfare League Foundation in August
2002, based on 344 questionnaires from parents and 267 from children, one major
finding is that nearly 30% of pre-school age children are frustrated and afraid to speak
English because they have not been successful in learning English (Taipei Times
Online: August 14, 2002, http://www.taipeitimes.coom/news/2002/08/14/story/
0000160230; last accessed on September 9, 2002). Moreover, Chang, the chairman of
the English department at National Taiwan Normal University points out that he came
across a child who earned excellent grades in English in year one and two. However,
the child was unable to afford private study, and accordingly lost ground in his regular
English classes. Attending English classes became a source of torment for him. He
completely lost his confidence. Asked what his greatest hope was, the child replied:
“No more English class!” (Chang, 2000). While this is anecdotal and involves only
one child, it may signify a valid problem of social inequality.
24 (12.5%) out of a total of 192 slogans and short paragraphs contain the concept of
the-younger-the-better (cf. Figure 5-1, p. 121). The following are two representative
examples.
‘Bei rang haizi shu zai qipaodian sheng’ (LF20b)
‘Don’t let your children lose out at the starting point’ (LF20b)
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‘6 sui yiqian shi xuexi yuyan de guanjian qi’ (LWM24)
‘The critical period for language learning is before the age of six’ (LWM24)
The grammatical choice of the LF20b slogan is an imperative (cf. 5.1.2.1). The
implication of this slogan is that the advertiser does not simply give information that
English needs to be acquired at a young age. This slogan also tells the reader that
they need help from the advertiser. Not surprisingly, a lot of language schools provide
English programs and encourage children to learn English as early as possible (see
9.1.3). The grammatical choice of the LWM24 slogan is an “attribute clause” (Li &
Thompson, 1981) which means: it is certain/true (cf. 5.1.2.1). This slogan explicitly
states that it is true that there is critical period (see 9.2 for a discussion) for language
acquisition.
9.1.3 Body Texts

60 (13.3%) out of a total of 487 terms in body texts contain the concept of
the-younger-the-better (cf. Figure 6-2, p. 166). Generally speaking there are three
different English programs provided by language schools. They are ‘Chengren ban’
‘Adult English class’, ‘Ertong ban’ ‘children English class’, and ‘Youer ban’ or
‘Youyou ban’ ‘pre-school children English class’. “Ertong ban” “children English
class” means English classes for elementary school children who are 7 - 12 years old.
‘Yourer ban’ or ‘Youyou ban’ ‘pre-school children English class’ means English
classes for pre-school children who are 1.5 – 6 years old. A total of 60 ‘Youer ban’
‘pre-school children English class’ are advertised for in the corpus (cf. Figure 6-2,
p.166). In addition, a salient feature is that every language school provides ‘youer
ban’ ‘pre-school children English class’. This shows that although public schools start
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teaching English from 5th grade, the language school market pressures Taiwanese
parents to send their pre-school children to language schools or English
kindergartens to get a head start (Teng, 2003a).
9.1.4 Still Images

215 (18.2%) out of 1,181 still images contain the concept of the-younger-the-better
(cf. Figure 5-3, p. 140). These 215 still images show children who look younger
than 6 years old. 163 out of these 215 still images were counted more than once
(Figure 9-1): 64 (29.7%) pictures were counted twice and 114 (53%) were counted
three times, because they contain more than one ideology. For instance, they show
Caucasian teachers who are using English-only immersion methods or CLT either in a
classroom or outdoors to teach pre-school children. Pre-school children in still images
play a crucial role in two ideological concepts in particular, namely English-as-
the-global-language and the-younger-the-better. In these still images pre-school
children are associated with symbolic objects such as the globe and English textbooks.
These photos illustrate that English is needed by the younger generation in the context
of English-as-the-global-language (see 5.1.3). 37 photos (17.2%) depict pre-school
children who are either looking directly at the audience or who are involved in some
activities such as a Christmas party, an English summer camp, and speech contests.
Figure 9-1: The-younger-the-better and Other Ideological Concepts of ELT (cf.

Figure 5-3)
The-younger-the-better
215 = 100%
Early start ideology & The-younger-the-better The-younger-the-better & The-younger-the-better
Ideal-teaching-method & & Ideal-English-teacher English-as-the-global- only
Ideal-English-teacher 51 = 23.7% language 37 = 17.2%
114 = 53% 13 = 6%
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9.1.5 School Names
15 (14.7 %) out of a total of 102 school names contain the ideological concept of
the-younger-the-better (cf. Figure 5-6, p. 155). The decision about whether a school
name contains the concept of the-younger-the-better is based on the lexical
collocations of ‘xiao’ ‘little’, ‘yo’ or ‘you’ ‘young, younger, pre-school’, ‘er’ ‘children,
kids, pre-school children’ in Mandarin and kid(s) or little in English. Clearly, these
lexical collocations imply that the schools provide English programs for pre-school
children. The 15 school names can be put into four categories (Figure 9-2). First, the
lexical collocations of kid or ‘er’ (5 names, 33.3%), namely Happy Kids, The
International English Village of Kidsland, Kid Castle, Kidel and ‘Zin Bei Er’
‘Precious Kids’. Second, the collocations of little or ‘xiao’ (4 names, 26.7%),
namely Little Red Dragon, Little Harvard, ‘Xiao Bo Shi’ ‘Little Doctor’ and ‘Xiao
Qun’ ‘Little Kids’. Third, the collocations of ‘yo’ or ‘you’ (3 names, 20%), namely,
‘Youjia’ ‘The-Younger-The-Better’, ‘Yo-Yo’ ‘Pre-school Children’ and ‘Youfu’
‘Pre-school Children’s Fortune’; and Others (3 names, 20%). These are Jump Start,
‘Zhaoyang’ ‘Sunrise’ and ‘Beihe’ ‘Numerous Seedlings’. These three names can be
interpreted as “symbolic qualities” (see 5.1.1.4), because they have very strong
connotations of young age. Like the LF20b slogan, “Don’t let your children lose out
at the starting point” (see 9.1.2), Jump Start suggests learning as early as possible.
‘Xiyang’ ‘sunset’ is a term used to describe old people and ‘Zhaoyang’ ‘Sunrise’ is
used to describe younger children (pre-school children) in Taiwan. Clearly, the school
name ‘Zhaoyang’ ‘Sunrise’ means the school provides English programs for
pre-school children. ‘Shuren’ ‘Shu - tree, ren - people’ means to cultivate the young
(elementary school student and/or junior high school students). ‘He’ ‘seedling’ is used
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to describe pre-school children. The school name ‘Baihe’ ‘Numerous Seedlings’
means the school is for pre-school children.
Figure 9-2: School Names Containing the Concept of The-younger-the-better
Collocations of “kid” Collocations of “little”
5 = 33.3% 4 = 26.7%
School names
15 = 100%
Collocations of “younger” Others
3 = 20% 3 = 20%

The recruiters behind English teaching job ads also demonstrate the concept of the-
younger-the-better. There are four categories in the recruiter element in English
teaching job ads (Figure 9-3). These are language school (60 tokens = 50.8%),
employment agent (21 tokens = 17.8%), kindergarten (20 tokens = 16.9%), school (13
tokens = 11%) and individual (4 tokens = 3.4%). At first glance, job seekers might
think there are many different options open for them, as suggested by terms such as
positions available in colleges, high schools, elementary, private schools, language
school, and kindergarten (see Figure 9-3). However, the majority of the English
teaching jobs are for language schools and kindergartens. By contrast, there are
comparatively few jobs available for colleges. Clearly, kindergartens (20 tokens =
16.9%) provide English classes for pre-school children. Although recruiters such as
language schools (60 token = 50.8%) and employment agents (21 tokens = 17.8%)
and individual do not specifically indicate that English classes for young children are
to be provided, it is clear that many of them provide English classes for pre-school
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children as is evidenced from the body texts (see 9.1.3).
Figure 9-3: Lexical Collocations of School in English Teaching Job Ads
Kindergarten: 20 = 16.9% Public School: 13 = 11% Language school: 60 = 50.8%
Alternative term: preschool High school: 7 = 5.9% Alternative terms: xxx school,
Elementary school: 5 = 4.2% American school, English learning
College: 1 = 0.8% center, English classroom,
Recruiters:
118 = 100%
Individual: 4 = 3.4% Employment agent: 21 = 17.8%
English club: 1 = 0.8% Alternative terms: English service,
Community center: 1 = 0.8% English service consults,
Parents: 2 = 1.7% English association, XXX English
Job fairs in Canada
9.1.7 Summary
Both language schools and the great majority of Taiwanese parents strongly believe
that English should be learned at an early age. At a meeting with the MOE and local
educational authorities, English teachers from private language schools pointed out
that “students should begin learning English as early as possible” (Taiwan Headlines:
March 17, 2003, http://publish.gio.gov.tw/iisnet/20030317/20030317s2.html; last
accessed on March 19, 2003). According to Dai Wei Yang, a professor at National
Taiwan Normal University, “Parents have made English lessons a top requirement
when choosing kindergartens” (Chou, W., 2002). The notion of
the-younger-the-better is one of the selling points of language schools because the
schools view English lessons for pre-school children as “a goldmine” (ibid.: 2002).
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9.2 Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
As I have shown, age is considered a primary factor determining success of learning
English in Taiwan. This ties in with a widespread belief that there is a critical period
in language learning. The term critical period for language acquisition means “a
period of time when learning a language is relatively easy and typically meets with a
high degree of success” (Marinova-Todd et al., 2000: 9). Lenneberg (1967) was the
first to formulate the critical period hypothesis (CPH). He describes a biologically
determined critical period for the possibility of reaching native-like levels in second
or foreign language acquisition. This critical period ends around the age of puberty.
Afterwards, there is a decline in language learning ability, and diminished second
language performance is the consequence of normal brain maturation. The CPH has
been influential since the 1960s but its existence and relevance to second or foreign
language acquisition remains contentious.
The following is Lenneberg’s (1967: 176, as cited in Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson,
2000: 152) original hypothesis, which relates to second and foreign language
acquisition:
automatic acquisition from mere exposure to a given language seems to disappear
[after puberty], and foreign languages have to be taught and learned through a
conscious and labored effort. Foreign accents cannot be overcome easily after
puberty. However, a person can learn to communicate at the age of forty. This does
not trouble our basic hypothesis [ . . .] .
Based on the formulation in the quotation, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson (ibid.: 152)
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revise the CPH in point form:
(i) Younger language learners are ‘better’ at second language learning than older
learners.
(ii) Younger learners outperform older learners with respect to eventual outcome.
(iii) Younger learners acquire second languages automatically from mere exposure,
while older learners have to make conscious and labored efforts.
(iv) Younger learners can reach native-like level of proficiency, but older learners
cannot.
(v) The turning-point age for differences between children and adults in (i)-(iv) is
around puberty.
In the following, I will show how the CPH (both in its original formulation and its
re-phrasal by Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson) is received, modified, and perpetuated as a
language ideology in Taiwanese media discourses. As is often the case with ideologies
(Bialystok & Hakuta, 1999; Birdsong, 1999; Davis, 2003; Hyltenstam &
Abrahamsson, 2000; Lightbown, 2000; Marinova-Todd et al., 2000; Piller, 2001b),
there is not one single belief that is voiced, but rather different, or even contradictory
voices can be heard. I will first explore discourses in support of the CPH, that is, those
that voice the ideology of “the younger, the better” (section 9.2.1), and then move on
to those that are critical of the CPH and the pressures it places on children and their
parents (section 9.2.2).
9.2.1 The Younger, the Better
There is ample evidence in my corpus that testifies to the belief that age is a primary
factor determining the success of learning English (Hyltenstam & Abrahanmsson’s
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points i & ii). Children are said to need to learn English as early as possible in order
to maximize the eventual outcome. The evidence can be grouped into those
discourses that consider age the primary factor (section 9.2.1.1), those that suggest
that children are better language learners (section 9.2.1.2), and those that claim a
turning point age (section 9.2.1.3).
9.2.1.1 Age – the Primary Factor
A survey conducted by Eastern Broadcasting in September 2002, collected responses
from 1,079 parents who have pre-school-aged children. 79.7% of the respondents said
pre-school-aged children should learn English. 48.2% of respondents said they should
start as early as three years old or even younger (Taipei Times Online: October 6,
2002, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2002/10/15/175738; last
accessed on December 6, 2002). Another survey conducted by the Children Welfare
League Foundation in August 2002, based on 344 questionnaires from parents and
267 from pre-school aged children – found that 85.4% of the parents think that it is
necessary for their children to learn English. About 65.9% of the parents claim that
they are, or they had been giving their pre-school aged children private English
education (Taipei Times Online: August 14, 2002, http://www.taipeitimes.com/news/
2002/08/14/story/0000160230; last accessed on September 9, 2002). Clearly, it is
the trend for parents to send their pre-school children to learn English, because they
believe the notion of “the younger the better” (Taipei Times online: August 14,
2002, http://www.taipei times.com/news/2002/08/14/story/0000160230; last accessed
on September 9, 2002).
Moreover, the notion of the-younger-the-better is also supported by many English
educators. A survey sponsored by Citigroup polled the English teachers of 1,004
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elementary schools about English teaching. One main finding is that 48.6% of the
polled English language teachers agree with the catchphrase “pick up English very
early to gain an edge’ (Taiwan Headlines: August 19, 2003, http://publish.gio.gov.tw/
iisnet/20030819/20030819s2.html; last accessed on August, 22, 2003). Thus, there is
ample evidence to the pervasiveness of the belief that English learning should start as
early as possible.
9.2.1.2 Children – Better Second Language Learners
Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson’s point (iii) attempts to explain child-adult differences
in second or foreign language acquisition. Point (iv) emphasizes the ability to reach
native-like levels of proficiency. Point (iii) and (iv) imply that children are better
second language or foreign language learners than adults, because of their biological
differences. Children depend on innate structures but adolescents and adults depend
on more general learning abilities. Therefore, adolescents and adults no longer can use
the innate structures to acquire a language as well as children do. Many studies
support this point of view. Most pro-CPH studies have focused on learner
phonological achievement. Generally speaking, these studies show that older learners
have a noticeable non-native accent (Lightbown & Spada, 1994: 43). Apart from
phonology, some studies also look at syntax, morphology and other linguistic domains
and there is significant research support for the CPH particularly in the domain of
pronunciation (Long, 1990; Moyer, 1999; Oyama 1976, as cited in Moyer, 1999;
Patkowsi, 1990; Weber-Fox & Neville, 1999).
In Taiwan, the acquisition of English phonology is often regarded as the strongest
behavioral evidence for the CPH. It is assumed that children can acquire native-like
English pronunciation naturally as long as they start learning English at an earlier age,
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as in the following data.
Chang, an English teacher trainer at the English Advanced Association in Taipei,
argues that children stand a much better chance of becoming “accent free”, if they
learn a language before they hit puberty. “If the teacher fails to demonstrate accurate
pronunciation from the very beginning, most learners may never achieve clear
pronunciation later” (Chang, J. P., 2001). An elementary English teacher in Taipei
suggests, “children in these earliest grades soak up everything like a sponge”, so this
is the ideal time to establish their listening comprehension and pronunciation”
(Taiwan Headlines: March 13, 2001, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=7949;
last accessed on February 1, 2002).
9.2.1.3 A Turning Point Age
The CPH includes the argument that there is a turning-point age for second language
acquisition that is around puberty (Point v). However, whether puberty really
constitutes a turning point in language acquisition remains a point of contention (e.g.
Marinova-Todd et al., 2000; Piller, 2002 for recent reviews). In this section I will
provide some folk beliefs in Taiwan as evidenced by media discourses.
Dai Wei-yang, a professor of National Taiwan Normal University, sets the age limit at
eight and argues that it is the best time to learn languages because children absorb
everything and after that the chance is gone forever (Chou, W., 2002). Ruby Hsu, a
famous English teacher, argues that the best time for students to learn English is
between the ages of 4 and 8 (Taiwan Headlines: March 17, 2003, http://publish.gio.
gov.tw/iisnet/20030317/20030317s2.html; last accessed on March 19, 2003).
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Taiwanese media regularly carry stories that are construed as evidence for the CPH.
For instance, this is the story of Donald (Taiwan Headlines: August 9,
2001, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=10458; last accessed on October 10,
2001). This five-year-old boy became Taiwan’s youngest published writer on how to
teach yourself English. Donald attends two hours of English lessons every day in his
pre-school. He incorporates English into his life, which means he uses English with
his parents, teachers and friends in school. Asked how he was able to memorize more
than 4,000 English words in one year, he replied, “Because I needed to use them”.
Another example is Huang Chu-shieh who is eight years old. He started learning
English at an all-English kindergarten when he was two years and seven months old.
He speaks English like a native speaker and his goal is to study at Harvard University
in the USA some day. His standard of English has already reached the Cambridge
intermediate level, equivalent to the fourth year of primary school in Britain (Chang,
C. F., 2003). Stories like these help to entrench support for the CPH among the
general public, and even researchers (as the introductory quote from Dai Wei-yang
shows).
9.2.2 The Younger, the Better?
There are many anti-CPH studies in second language acquisition. Many researchers
argue that there is no critical period for a native-like mastery across various linguistic
domains in second language acquisition. An age effect on ultimate attainment is not
obviously linked to any specific age span (Singleton, 1989; Bialystok & Hakuta,
1999). Singleton (1989: 137) asserts that there is no consistent support in the literature
for the notion that younger second language learners learn more efficiently or
successfully than older learners. Moreover, adult starters who achieve a native-like
second language proficiency or native-like second language competence do exist
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(Birdsong, 1999). Marinova-Todd et al. (2000) point out three misconceptions about
age and L2 learning. The first misconception is that children are fast and efficient at
an L2. The second misconception is that children outperform adults because age
differences in language abilities are related to neurobiological factors. The third one is
that most adult learners of an L2 end up with lower than native-like levels of
proficiency. In other words, the CPH has been challenged from several different
points of view.
9.2.2.1 First Type of Challenge
The first type of challenge is based on the general notion of the-younger-the-better
(see 9.2.1, point (i) & (ii)). Krashen et al. (1979) were the first to point out that older
learners outperformed younger learners in second language acquisition. Voices critical
of the-younger-the-better ideology can also be heard in the Taiwanese media.
Krashen himself, who has a high profile in Taiwan, while commenting on current
Taiwanese English education, supports the view that younger does not mean better.
He is reported to have said that younger is not faster; on the contrary, older children
acquire second languages faster than younger children. Starting later is thus more
efficient (Krashen, 2003a). Snow and Shattuck of Harvard University, in their
speeches delivered at the International Symposium of English teaching in Taipei in
2000, also reiterated the argument that older children can acquire second languages
even faster than younger children do (Chen, 2003). Ruby Hsu, an English teacher at
one of the nation’s biggest chain of buxiban argues that 90% of her students from
junior and senior high schools attended English language schools during their
childhood, but there are very few whose English proficiency is outstanding (Taiwan
Headlines: March 17, 2003, http://publish.gio.gov.tw/iisent/20030317/20030317s2.
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html; last accessed on March 19, 2003). Chang, the chairman of the department of
English at National Taiwan Normal University, points out that many top-notch
talented students in English at the English department in National Taiwan Normal
University, lack the benefit of an early childhood English education. Instead, their
achievement is rooted in either the fact that they had an excellent English teacher
during high school, or their exceptionally strong interest in English (Chang, S. E.,
2002). In addition, the results of the English part of the competency test held in May
2002 for junior high school graduates indicate that whether or not students have
studied English prior to entering school will not have any obvious effect on their
results after junior high school graduation (Chou, C. T., 2002).
9.2.2.2 Second Type ofChallenge
The second type of challenge is that late or adult learners can achieve native-like
proficiency in various linguistic domains. Birdsong (1999) cites several studies
carried out during the 1990s that have revealed a fairly large number of learners who
achieved native-like proficiency after puberty. In the phonological domain,
Bongaerts’s (1999) three studies investigated ultimate attainment in the L2
pronunciation of advanced post-critical period learners. The target language in the
first two studies was English, and in the third study it was French. The results of these
three studies demonstrate that it is possible for post-critical period learners to achieve
native-like pronunciation. Moreover, Bongaerts et al. (2000) investigated 30 highly
proficient Dutch foreign language learners, who were native speakers of eleven
different languages. The results of this study also demonstrate that in spite of the
claims of the critical period hypothesis, late learners can achieve native-like accent in
a second language.
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In Taiwan, the only English Radio, International Community Radio Taipei (ICRT)
hired David Wang, a college graduate, to be the first local DJ, because he sounds like
a native American on air. What is surprising is not that ICRT broke its tradition of not
using Chinese announcers, but that Wang, a native Taiwanese, had never lived or
studied in an English speaking country or in any special environment (Chang, 1990:
72). His interest in the English language began in high school, but he did not speak
English until he was a college student. Clearly, he learned English after puberty. Now
he teaches English conversation at Shih Hsin University and is the author of several
publications on English conversation and pronunciation. He argues that “learning a
language is a lifelong process, so it’s never too late to start” (Hwang, 2002).
9.2.2.3 Third Type of Challenge
Apart from phonology, late learners have also been found to reach native-like levels
of proficiency in other linguistic domains, such as grammar and vocabulary. Birdsong
(1992) discovered that 15 of his 20 late foreign language learners of French (L1 =
English) performed within the range of native speakers on a difficult grammaticality
judgment task. Juffs and Harrington (1995) found that Chinese ESL learners who
began learning English as adults were just as accurate as native speakers in making
judgments about subjacency, a structural rule, which does not exist in Chinese.
In Chang’s (1990) book titled How I learned English, he collected the stories of 40
successful Taiwanese adult learners of English in Taiwan. All these successful adult
learners had no measurable exposure to the target language until the critical period
had passed. These learners surpass performance limits predicted by the CPH. They
have achieved native-like proficiency across various linguistic domains. The
following are two examples from Chang’s book.
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Shullen Shaw, Taipei bureau chief of United Press International (UPI) did not have a
college degree. He did not start to learn English seriously until he was 27 (Chang,
1990: 1–3). Another example is Osman Tseng. He had not attended a day of school in
his life. He joined the Army in China when he was 15 years old. And soon he went
with the troops to Taiwan. He started learning his English with a petty officer when he
was 20 years old. He mastered English and now he is the vice president of China
Economic News. His analyses of the Taiwan economy, which he writes in English,
appear once a week in the widely-read Economic News Weekly (ibid.: 35–36). These
40 successful English learners in Taiwan provide a challenge to the claim that older
learners are prevented from achieving native-like proficiency in English learning.
Marinova-Todd et al., (2000: 18) point out that the widespread belief in a critical
period in L2 results in an enormous emphasis on unsuccessful adult L2 learners.
People tend to ignore the significance of older learners who achieve native-like L2
proficiency.
9.2.3 Pedagogical Implications
Although there are numerous arguments for either pro- or anti-CPH in second
language acquisition, the role of the critical period in second language acquisition is
still an ideology. However, as a pervasive belief, it has important pedagogical
implications.
9.2.3.1 Native-like Mastery
From pro-CPH perspectives, only early starters can achieve native-like mastery of
their second or foreign language acquisition. From anti-CPH perspectives, all second
language or foreign language learners can become native-like or near native-like.
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Bialystok and Hakuta (1999) question whether age and ultimate success are linked
causally. They point out that a persistent problem in researching this issue is that
correlational data do not provide firm evidence of cause and effect. The successful
Taiwanese English learners presented in 9.2.1 and 9.2.2 show both early and late
learners who could attain native-like proficiency, even if the evidence is anecdotal,
rather than empirical. However, the reality is that in Taiwan the majority of English
language learners, both early starters and late starters, do not attain native-like
proficiency. Moreover, no legitimate assessments support the assertion that these
successful Taiwanese English learners have achieved native like proficiency. The
reason is that the definition and assessment of native-like language proficiency in L2
are controversial (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1999: 165). One example is David Wang (see
9.2.2), the famous radio DJ in Taiwan. He claims that Taiwanese people think he is
American because of his native-like pronunciation, but some native speakers of
English do not agree (Chang, 1990: 73). Bialystok and Hakuta (ibid.: 165) argue that
most linguistic research on native-like proficiency is based on native speaker
judgments, but native speakers do not perform judgment tasks with 100% accuracy.
9.2.3.2 Objective of English Education
The objective of elementary English education in Taiwan is to cultivate students’
interest in learning a foreign language as well as basic speaking and listening ability.
The objective of elementary English education does not focus on native-like English
proficiency. Lightbown and Spada (1994: 50) argue that if native-like proficiency in
an L2 is the goal, then learners will benefit from an early start. If the goal is basic
communicative ability in a school setting, it may be more efficient to begin an L2 at a
later rate (Lightbown & Spada, 1994: 50).
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9.2.3.3 ESL vs. EFL Countries
The majority of the CPH research is conducted in ESL contexts, not in EFL countries.
Therefore, many researchers look at age-of-arrival (AOA), the amount of time spent
speaking an L2, and length of residence in an English speaking country, especially in
the USA. There is an assumption that findings in ESL countries can be easily
transferred to EFL countries. It is often overlooked that the effortless development of
bilingual skills in immersion situations in ESL settings will not necessarily transfer to
EFL countries in which English learners rarely use their English outside the classroom.
Nunan (December 1999/January 2000) points out that the ESL/EFL distinction has
been an important one in language pedagogy. The reason is that the teaching taking
place in these two contexts is very different, with different materials, syllabuses and
pedagogy.
9.2.3.4 Optimal Age of English Language Learning
Neither the pro-CPH perspectives nor the anti-CPH perspectives can answer the
question – when is the optimal age for English language acquisition in EFL countries.
There is no fixed critical period in pro-CPH arguments, so English education can be
implemented roughly before 13 or before puberty. From anti-CPH arguments
English education can be implemented at any age. When to start English education in
an EFL country may be affected by the country’s language policies on funding,
teaching resources, teacher training, assessment, first language development and other
issues. A reasonable assumption is that second or foreign language acquisition
involves a number of complex learner variables, such as motivation, attitudes towards
learning, learning styles, aptitude, conditions for teaching and learning, and goals of
English education. Age is one of the factors, but there are factors from the macro
domains such as political, social, economic, and teaching contexts that also need to
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taken into consideration.
However, in Taiwan, the age to start learning English has been constantly falling.
Many cities and counties have disregarded the MOE’s requirements that English
teaching should start in the fifth year of elementary school. Taiwan will officially
implement English education in the 3rd year of elementary school islandwide in the
year 2005. It is a fact that English has been widely taught at preschool levels (see
Introduction). This phenomenon indicates that Taiwanese people support the CPH and
believe that English should be learned as early as possible. Under these circumstances,
Taiwanese need to consider the significant challenges of instituting English at the
early age.
9.3 Pedagogical Challenges
The field of teaching English to young learners has expanded enormously in the last
10 years, but it is only just now beginning to be researched (Cameron, 2001: 2). The
age at which English is introduced is steadily dropping in Asian countries, but
researchers have not done much research into English education on preschool children
in Asia (Nunan, June/July 1999). Nunan (2003, as cited in Ong, June/July/August
2003) considers three major challenges to teaching English to young learners (EYL)
in Asia. These three challenges are: (a) allocating resources to support programs; (b)
addressing the mismatch between curriculum and classroom practice; and (c)
attenuating the impact of the introduction of English, particularly on literacy, in the
learner’s mother tongue. In the following section I shall discuss these three
challenges and their implications for English education at elementary school and
preschool levels.
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9.3.1 Teaching Resources
What is to be taught and learned in an English classroom is based on the language
learning goals. According to Liu I-chuan, the director-general of the MOE’s
Department of Elementary and Junior High Education, the major objective of English
teaching at the elementary level is to “cultivate students’ interest as well as basic
speaking and listening abilities, so as to build their confidence … By employing
interesting and lively teaching methods, English learning can be fun and practical for
day-to-day necessities, rather than for just coping with exams” (Her, 2002). In other
words, what should be taught is not merely focused on passing exams, but for overall
communicative competence. Teaching materials are a pivotal factor in determining
the success of English instruction. Increasing numbers of textbooks for younger
learners are being published in Taiwan, but how effective are they? Next, I will look
at current teaching materials used in elementary schools and their pedagogical
implications.
9.3.1.1 1,000-Word List
The Ministry of Education released a pocketbook – Basic English Vocabulary for
Elementary and Junior High School Students in January 2003. The book contains
3,000 English words, 1,000 of which will be incorporated into the Basic proficiency
Test, the selection test for entry to senior high school (Chang, 2003). However, the
main objective of English education in elementary and junior high schools focuses on
students’ overall communicative competence rather than passing exams. The
introduction of the word list as teaching material for the competency test is
contradictory to the objectives of English learning at elementary school and junior
high school levels. Generally speaking, achieving the goals of communicative
competence in English language learning means that teachers have to focus on
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teaching children how to use English in a variety of contexts, rather than on teaching
them a specific feature of English. As far as teaching methodology is concerned, the
word list encourages teachers to use test-oriented teaching methods (see 7.2.2), that is,
to present vocabulary in isolation. The purpose of the test-oriented teaching method is
to pass exams, rather than to acquire communicative competence. Teaching and
testing methodologies are at variance with each other.
9.3.1.2 Contents of English Textbooks
According to a recent report, a research group inspected 30 English textbooks
published by eight publishers (Huang, 2003b). Their main finding is that English
teaching materials are too difficult for elementary school children. They found that
much of the vocabulary was beyond the range of the 1,000-word list drawn up by the
Ministry of Education. These textbooks are designed so that even first and second
graders have to learn listening, speaking, reading and writing concurrently. If
children find the books are too difficult, they have to study at language schools,
because many of the textbooks were published by language schools. In addition, the
content of English textbooks has become increasingly difficult, especially those books
used in city schools.
The “Teach what is teachable” proposal by Manfred Pienemann (1988, as cited in
Lightbown & Spada, 1994: 94) focuses on why it often seems that some things can be
taught successfully while others “even after extensive or intensive teaching still
remain unacquired” (Lightbown & Spada, 1994: 92). Their proposal suggests that
some linguistic structures cannot be taught, because students are not
“developmentally ready” to learn (ibid.: 94). Researchers support this view and
point out that vocabulary and some grammatical features can be taught at any time
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(ibid.: 92). As far as vocabulary learning for young learners is concerned,
vocabulary learning is about more than learning words. It is about learning “formulaic
phrases or chunks, finding words inside them, and learning more about those words”
(Cameron, 2001: 73). Many English educators in Taiwan erroneously emphasize the
size of vocabulary. They treat every single English word as a discrete unit. When the
MOE published the 1,000-word list, Krashen (2003b) pointed out that the list would
result in rote learning of vocabulary. Shih Yu-hui, a professor of National Taiwan
Normal University, is the convener for the committee that came up with the
1,000-word list. According to Shih, the vocabulary list was produced primarily as a
guide for students, parents, teachers and administrators to consult when preparing for
or making up tests. However, many English teachers said that “memorizing the
1,000-word list has become de facto homework for their students” (China Post Online:
January 22, 2003, http://www.chinapot.com.tw/archive/p_detail.asp?id= 34318&
GRP=1&onNews=; last accessed on January 28, 2003).
Another important issue in teaching English to young learners is “over-reliance at
primary level on literacy skills in English” (Cameron, 2003: 106). Cameron points out
that when English teaching and learning depend on being able to read and write, some
children will always begin to fall behind or to fail. This does not mean they cannot
learn to speak English, but that they need more time to master the complications of
reading and writing. Cheung Hi-tat, an associate professor at National Taiwan
University’s Graduate Institute of Linguistics, supports this argument. He also points
out that children who learn English at an early age need more resources, something
only a few families can afford. If parents are unable to evaluate for themselves the
merits of learning English, they are prey to the marketing pressures of the language
schools. Teaching English to young learners has placed a heavy burden on financially
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disadvantaged families and their children (Taipei Times Online: September 3,
2003, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2003/09/03/2003066286;
last accessed on September 9, 2003).
9.3.1.3 English Textbooks in Urban and Rural Areas
The content of English textbooks used in city schools is more difficult, revealing a
gap between students’ English ability in urban and in rural areas. The discrepancy was
caused by the varying rates at which English programs were implemented in urban
and rural areas. For instance, Taipei city and county has started English programs
from the first grade. In addition, children in Taipei are required to read 100 children’s
books in English prior to graduation (Chang, V., 2002). Regarding the problem of
diverging development rates in English language education, the Control Yuan’s 2003
report (Teng, 2003b) criticized the MOE, as the highest executive authority on
national education responsible for defining and regulating, for not allowing local
governments to decide when and how to implement their English programs. Thus, the
MOE forces the disparity in students’ English achievement levels. It seems that the
gap between urban and rural will continue widening, because of the continual and
uneven expansion of English programs, and this English proficiency gap will affect
the education system and society (see 4.3.1.1).
9.3.2 Curriculum and Classroom Practice
English education has been extended to elementary schools as part of educational
reform – the Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum. English was implemented in the 5th
grade islandwide in 2001. The major goal of English learning in elementary schools
focuses on communicative competence. The chosen teaching method by the
government is CLT. English is taught once a week for 40 minutes. Nunan (1999)
argues that governments in many EFL countries have introduced English education in
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the early years of schooling, but “there appears to be a general reluctance to come up
with adequate levels of funding”. Moreover, the matter becomes a political issue of
“getting adequate resources to enable teachers, curriculum developers, and material
writers to design, deliver, and evaluate effective language programs” (ibid.: 1999).
Taiwan is no exception.
9.3.2.1 Curriculum Design
A recent survey polled English teachers at 1,004 elementary schools (Taiwan
Headlines Online: August 19, 2003, http://publish.gio.gov.tw/iisnet/20030819/2003
0819s2.html; last accessed on August 22, 2003). As far as curriculum is concerned,
78.9% of the polled English teachers worried that English education in elementary
schools did not connect well with that of junior high schools because of
inconsistencies in teaching materials and methods. In addition, Chang Sheng-en, a
lecturer of English at National Taipei College of Business, commenting on English
textbooks used in elementary schools, and junior high schools, and high schools,
points out that the quality of textbook publishers is uneven. Some textbooks are
extremely difficult with inappropriate content that is seldom used in daily life. As a
result, many Taiwanese students quickly lose their interest in learning English (Chang,
S. E., 2003).
9.3.2.2 The Shortage of Elementary School English Teachers
Another problem in English education is that rural schools were quite often unable to
hire accredited English teachers, as reported in a government paper entitiled
“Problems in Elementary School English Education”, at the end of year 2002 (see
7.2.1). In addition, according to the survey mentioned above (see 9.3.2.1), about 62%
of the polled English teachers were required to teach other subjects. 48.8% of teachers
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thought the number of English teachers was insufficient. The survey also shows that
there is a shortage of qualified English teachers. In 1999, 3,500 trainees who passed
the MOE’s qualifying English proficiency examination were required to undergo 360
hours of training, and to take 40 credits worth of education courses. And then they
needed a year of supervised teaching practice at an elementary school. If they made
the grade, they would be issued a teacher certificate. Since the MOE provided no
guarantee of employment, and since criteria used to hire English teachers varied from
school to school, only about 1,400 people took positions as elementary English
teachers. As a result, there are not enough English teachers. To solve this problem,
current elementary school teachers, who were only obligated to take about 70 hours of
training, were accredited as English teachers by the MOE. According to Hsu
Chia-ling, a professor of Foreign Languages at National Taiwan University, there have
been teaching pronunciation courses for this kind of training program in Taipei county.
She points out that some teachers, who previous lacked any experience or background
in English language, started teaching English after finishing only 70 hours of training
(Teng, 2003b). The MOE plans to import 400 native English speaking teachers in
2004 to teach English in rural areas to solve the problem of the shortage of teachers.
However, native English speaking English teachers are not the solution to solve the
problem as demonstrated earlier in Chapter 6.
In addition, Chang Chiang-jiun, the director of the Graduate School of Children
English Education at National Taipei Teacher’s College questions whether rural areas
are the most resource deprived and whether living conditions such as transportation
and communication barriers present formidable obstacles for foreigners expected to
function as English teachers (Teng, 2003b). Lee Young-ping, a legislator, argues that
the shortage of qualified English teachers in elementary schools has forced parents to
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send their children to language schools and that has increased their financial burden.
Lee also argues that “this vicious circle will mire parents in problems if the MOE
does not take further measures” (Taiwan Headlines Online: August 19, 2003, http://
publish.gio.gov.tw/iisnet/20030819/20030819s2.html; last accessed on August 22,
2003).
9.3.2.3 Assessment, Teaching Methods, and Students with Different Levels
Another problem for English education for younger learners is the method of
assessment. The MOE announced that starting in the 2005 academic year, elementary
school students will have to pass general proficiency tests in Chinese, English and
mathematics to graduate (Wu, 2002). The proficiency test imposed on elementary
school students will encourage teachers to use test-oriented teaching methods. That is
contradictory to the goals of English education for young learners (see 9.3.1). While
the MOE has mandated the use of CLT in the nation’s English classrooms and
textbooks, it has yet to provide training for teachers at all levels. There are many
reasons why CLT does not work well in the public school system in Taiwan.
Unqualified English teachers is one of them (see 7.2.1). Another important factor is
that students have different English abilities. As a result, some parents have to send
their children to private language schools. The following are two examples. Mrs. Su’s
son began learning English when he was four, and so when he went to elementary
school, the English lessons were just too simple for him. The only thing to do was to
keep on sending him to the private language school (Taiwan Headlines: March 13,
2001, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=7949; last accessed on February 1,
2002). Mrs. Chang said from the very beginning the teacher spoke English only and
her son suffered a lot of setbacks. He just could not understand a thing his teacher was
saying, so she had to send him to a private language school (Taiwan Headlines: March,
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13, 2001, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=7949; last accessed on February 1,
2002). Lee Chia-tung, a professor at National Chinan University, points out that
students give up on English in elementary schools or junior high schools because they
have no money for supplementary schooling or tutoring (Lee, 2002).
9.3.2.4 English Instruction Hours
As far as English instruction hours are concerned, an English program should be
based on a realistic estimate of how long it takes to acquire any sort of competence in
English. Lightbown and Spada (1994: 113) argue that one or two hours per week of
L2 instruction, even for seven or eight years, will not produce any advanced second
language speakers. Lightbown and Spada’s argument is based on a learning
environment with qualified English teachers, appropriate and sufficient teaching
resources and so on. The English instruction hours are two hours per week in
Taiwanese elementary schools. It will probably take much longer than seven or eight
years for Taiwan to produce advanced second language speakers under the current
circumstances, such as inadequate teaching resources, poor curriculum design and
unqualified teachers. If the government is willing to solve current problems in
English education in a determined way, it needs to devote more funding to it.
Qualified English teachers cannot be found, good English textbooks and curricula
cannot be developed and appropriate English teaching methodologies cannot be
applied without a sufficient budget from the government.
9.3.3 Impact on Mother Tongues
When the goal is basic communicative ability for all students in schools, it may be
more efficient to begin second language teaching later, since learners who start later
catch up very quickly with those who started earlier (Lightbown & Spada, 1994: 50).
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Perera (1984, as cited in Cameron, 2001: 12) points out that children of 11 years of
age tend not to use relative pronouns, for example, whose, or preposition + relative
pronoun, for example, in which. Children have problems with co-ordinators, including
but and yet after 11 years of age. Clauses introduced with although or unless can
cause problems even for 15 year olds. Cameron (ibid.: 12) argues that first language
acquisition will be largely complete by the age of 15 and the same would be true or
similar for other languages. This suggests that learning English as a foreign language
at an early age might have a negative impact on the performance of the mother
tongues. The following are some arguments regarding mother tongues in early
English as a foreign language education.
9.3.3.1 Chinese in Early English Education
Many linguists and educators argue that Chinese plays an important role when
learning English, and that learning English at an early age might harm children’s
mother tongue acquisition.
Krashen (2003a), commenting on current English education in Taiwan, argues that
studies of bilingual education show that those with a better knowledge of the first
language do better in second language acquisition. Su I-wen, a professor at National
Taiwan University, points out that no matter what kind of approach had been taken in
second language learning, children who had a good command of their mother tongues
learnt the second language faster (Huang, 2003a). Lee Sy-ying, a professor of
National Taipei University, also shows in her research that those who develop
efficient writing strategies in their first language, Chinese, tend to develop efficient
strategies in English (Lee, 2003). The head of the ministry’s Bureau of International
Cultural and Educational Relations, Li Chen-ching, who also has a doctorate in
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linguistics argues that “competence in English is related to competence in Chinese”
(Taiwan Headlines: March 17, 2003, http://publish.gio.gov.tw/iisnet/20030317/2003
0317s2.html; last accessed on March, 19, 2003). As a result, the MOE will implement
English teaching programs in elementary schools at the third-grade level in 2005 and
it will not be extended to the first grade. The reason is that second language
acquisition specialists and education administrators argue that learning English at an
early age does not necessarily lead to better proficiency, and that learning English at
an early age might undermine Chinese (Taiwan Headlines: March 17, 2003, http://
publish.gio.gov.tw/iisnet/20030317/20030317s2.html; last accessed on March 19,
2003).
9.3.3.2 Negative Impact on Chinese
Han Shu-jean, the chairperson of the teachers association at National Chu-Pei High
School, argues that many schools start teaching three languages: Mandarin, English
and Indigenous languages (Hokkien, Hakka, and aboriginal languages) at the first
grade by different phonetic systems, at the same time. This not only places a heavy
burden on children, but also confuses them (Han, 2003). According to a recent survey
by the Child Welfare League Foundation, based on 267 questionnaires from the young
English learners, 31% of the children say that they are confused because they do not
know when to speak English and when to speak Chinese (Taipei Times Online: August
14, 2002, http://www.taipeitimes.com/news/2002/08/14/story/0000160230; last
accessed on September 9, 2002). Chang Chiang-jiun, the director of the Graduate
School of Children English Education at National Taipei Teachers College, sent her 2
years and ten months old daughter to an all-English kindergarten. As a result her
daughter has problems with her Chinese grammar and intonation. She admonishes
parents not to let their children study English at the expense of learning their mother
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tongue (see 7.2.1). There are more than 3,000 kindergartens in Taiwan. 65% of them
offer all-English classes and have replaced the former curriculum for pre-school
children with English language courses, according to a survey of preschools
completed in 2002 by National Chiayi University. In November 2002, 31 bodies for
preschool education held a press conference and expressed their opposition to the
manner in which English instruction is destroying the healthy development of
children’s education. Their slogan is: “Don’t let ABCs dominate a child’s studies”
(Teng, 2003a).
9.3.3.3 Implication for English Learning
Although many researchers and some evidence strongly support the view that learners
who have a firm foundation in Chinese will do better in English, in reality, more and
more parents are eager to send their children to kindergartens to obtain an English
education at an earlier age. They tend to ignore the fact that their children will be
disadvantaged eventually for being deprived of some basic knowledge in their first
language. It is believed that English is a solution to Taiwan’s existing economic,
social and educational problems without any possible negative side effects. As a result,
many people prefer English to Mandarin learning, because they think English is more
important than local languages (see 4.3.2.2). In a recent surveys in 2002, Taiwanese
people were in favor of making English the second official language, alongside
Mandarin (see 4.3.2.2). Many consider it more important for their youngsters to learn
English than Mandarin Chinese (Chou, 2002). Reports from the ministry showed that
at least 17 of 25 cities and counties have started English education in grade one or
even in kindergarten (Taiwan Headlines: March 17, 2003, http://publish.gio.gov.
tw/iisnet/20030317/20030317s2.html; last accessed on March 19, 2003).
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The Taiwanese government has always admired Hong Kong and Singapore for
starting their English education at a very early age. To start English education at a
very early age probably will result in the language and identity dilemmas that Hong
Kong and Singapore have faced. Both Hong Kong and Singapore were not supportive
of their mother tongue education, but overwhelmingly promoted English as their
national language (Tung et al., 1997; Rudby, 2001). As far as Hong Kong is
concerned, it suffers from “an inferiority complex and identity conflict which prevents
them from learning English effectively and being fluent in Chinese” (Tsou, 1983, as
cited in Bolton and Lim, 2000: 433). In the case of Singapore, English is mainly
linked to economic success. Some argue that English cannot be used to express
Singapore’s cultural identity (Rubdy, 2001: 352). English has a different status in
Hong Kong and Singapore. It is a foreign language in Taiwan, but it is a national
language in Hong Kong and Singapore.
Nunan (1999) suggests that every individual has the right to an education in his or her
first language, but this right might be violated with the premature introduction of
English into elementary education. The government needs to evaluate carefully
whether devoting so much energy to studying English at an early age really results in
a guarantee of superior English ability as an adult. Moreover, the hurried introduction
of English education at an early age could result in a lower proficiency in Chinese,
without necessarily improving English proficiency.
9.4 Conclusion
With a global trend towards learning English at an early age, Taiwanese people are
also in favor of beginning English classes as early as possible. The reason is that
many people believe the ability to acquire English effectively is limited by a critical
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period. The CPH as a language ideology has pedagogical implications for young
learners of English. My analysis shows that the social, cultural, and political issues
regarding teaching English ever earlier are very complex. They influence teaching
and learning in English classrooms. To sum up, English for young learners may even
be negative and can be counterproductive, unless the education is supported by a
well-designed curriculum, high quality materials, qualified teachers, appropriate
teaching methodology, sufficient funding, appropriate assessment, and, finally and
most importantly, favorable attitudes to mother tongues.
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CHAPTER TEN: CONCLUSION
10.0 Introduction
The EFL profession in Taiwan, by and large, limits its concerns to learner variables,
the latest teaching methods, materials, and techniques, but ideological assumptions of
ELT and SLA are rarely discussed. Entrenched in the field are ideological beliefs such
as English-as-the-global-language, the ideal-English-teacher, the ideal-English-
teaching-methodology, American-English-as-standard-English, and the-younger-the-
better. These ideologies constitute the context in which English language policies
are formed and in which English is taught and learned. They impose constraints on
individual choices which can best be understood by investigating the political, social,
economic, and cultural factors.
In this concluding chapter, I shall first summarize the major findings of this research
and point out their implications. Then, I will look at how this study contributes to
applied linguistics and English teaching and learning in Taiwan. Finally, I discuss
limitations of this research.
10.1 Summary of Findings
In this study I have examined ideologies of ELT and SLA in Taiwan. I have
investigated these ideologies from different perspectives such as political, social,
educational, economic, by questioning Taiwanese beliefs regarding (1) English as
the global language, (2) who is the ideal English teacher, (3) what is the best English
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teaching methodology, (4) which English is standard English, (5) when Taiwanese
children should learn their English, and (6) what the underlying meanings of current
English language policies are. The study has provided significant insights and
possible answers to the research questions formulated in Chapter One, “What are the
underlying ideologies of English teaching and learning in Taiwan?”, “Why is English
teaching and learning regarded as an essential element of social change in Taiwan?”,
and “What are the implications of English teaching and learning in Taiwan in the 21st
century?” Next, I will present a summary of the major findings.
In exploring the ideological concept of English-as-the-global-language, I have
discussed two prevalent perspectives: a global perspective and an individual
perspective (Mackay, 1993). Those who view English from a global perspective
believe that English is the key to globalization. English is considered a solution to
current Taiwanese economic problems. Those who view English from an individual
perspective believe that English is the most important factor in their careers and future
success. Taiwanese people who approach English teaching and learning from both a
global perspective and an individual perspective consider English as a form of
linguistic capital. They give attention only to the economic value of English both for
the nation and for every individual. As a result, this attention often reinforces the
ideology that English alone is sufficient to lead to economic advancement and
globalization, with globalization regarded as inherently beneficial.
In investigating the ideological concept of the ideal-English-teacher, I have shown
that English teaching and learning in Taiwan reflect a native-speaker-model ideology.
A native-speaker-model means that native and non-native English speaking teachers
have an equal opportunity to become good English teachers, only if they are teaching
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separately in different teaching contexts, that is, either in English language schools or
in buxiban. However, the study has argued that Taiwanese people’s motivation for
learning English derives from a desire to communicate. As a result, the
ideal-English-teacher for teaching English speaking proficiency is a native speaker
with an American accent. It is assumed that people with these desired characteristics
are Caucasian. If foreign teachers do not look white, they face job discrimination. The
selection of English teachers is more reliant on looks than on quality. Especially,
native speakers of English are hired, regardless of their professional training,
personality, and professional attitude. This native-speaker-model has resulted in racial
and social inequalities. In addition, issues raised in this study such as a native and
non-native dichotomy, white and non-white dichotomy, and native speaker ideology
have shaped the lives of the teachers, the learners, the parents, and the language
policy makers.
In examining the ideological concept of the ideal-English-teaching-methodology, the
study has demonstrated that there is no best English teaching methodology. The
research has shown that the success of English language schools has served as a
model for Taiwanese public schools, because the English language schools use CLT
and/or an English-only immersion teaching method. English-only immersion teaching
is probably the most popular teaching method for children. However, as was pointed
out in the study, the assumption that English-only immersion should be used in the
EFL classroom is an unexamined ideology. The main after-effect of this method is
mother tongue rejection. Moreover, this method reinforces the ideology of native
speakers of English as ideal-English-teachers.
The other popular method is CLT. CLT has been promoted with zeal by the Taiwanese
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government, English educators, and English language schools. Although the goal of
English teaching and learning focuses on communicative competence, curriculum
demands, pressure of examinations, lack of qualified English teachers, class size and
number of instruction hours have made CLT inappropriate in the school system in
Taiwan. Since the two methods are difficult to implement with the Taiwanese school
and exam systems, traditional grammar-translation is considered as a more
appropriate method. In short, these so-called best teaching methods from the West
do not provide a solution for English education problems in Taiwan. Like Prabhu
(1990), Holliday (1994), Bax (2003), and Ellis (1996), this study concludes that the
most appropriate English teaching method is a context-dependent one.
Regarding the ideological concept of American-English-as-standard-English, the
study has pointed out that American English, especially an American accent, is
preferred and is taught, and is always presented as proper and correct in Taiwan,
because of the close historical and political USA and Taiwan relationship.
American-English-as-standard-English has political, social, cultural, and economic
agenda which have resulted in an ideology that American English is viewed as
prestigious, appropriate and correct English. This ideology has resulted in racial and
linguistic discrimination, as only American English is taught in Taiwan. American
English gives Taiwanese learners a restricted knowledge of English and its culture.
Taiwanese people are learning English, but they are not aware of other varieties of
English or World Englishes.
Crystal (1997) and Graddol (1997) show that non-native English speakers in EFL
countries using English for international communication now outnumber their native
counterparts. This leads many researchers to believe that a new orientation in ELT and
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SLA – World English (WE) or English as an International Language (EIL)
emphasizing cultural and linguistic diversity – will in time become the standard in the
world. However, some issues of a WE approach still remain unsettled, such as teacher
training, teaching method, assessment and teaching materials. Therefore, in Taiwan,
American English norms will continue to be preferred and privileged both in theory
and in practice.
The last ideological concept in this study is the-younger-the-better. My data show that
children are compelled to learn English as early as possible around the world. Taiwan
is no exception. The study has shown that there is a widespread belief that a second or
additional language is acquired in the same way as the first language. As a result, an
L2 learner’s goal is to achieve native-like competence. To judge an L2 learner’s
performance in relation to native-like performance, the Critical Period Hypothesis
(CPH) has been used by many researchers since the 1960s.
Researchers have argued for and against the existence of maturational constraints and
a critical period for language learning, but neither the pro-CPH nor anti-CPH answer
when is the optimal age is for English language acquisition in EFL countries. In fact,
many researchers argue the CPH cannot be applied in second language acquisition in
EFL contexts. The study also shows that even when Taiwanese English learners begin
at an early age, the reality is that perfect mastery of English is rarely attained. The
main reasons are: a lack of suitably trained English teachers, a lack of time available
for contact with English, a lack of teaching resources, insufficient funding and
negative attitudes towards mother tongues. The research has also demonstrated that in
EFL countries it is likely to be more effective to begin English instruction when
learners have reached adolescence, since they can make use a variety of learning skills,
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including their L1 literacy.
Finally, I have examined the current Taiwanese English language policies in which the
above ideologies of ELT and SLA are present. The basic tenet of current English
language policies is that English is the key to internationalization. It is presumed that
Taiwanese people will have a better life and a richer future if they have a good
command of English. English is being learned for economic reason. The study has
demonstrated that more and more resources and priorities are allocated to English
rather than to other Chinese languages.
10.2 Implications
As was pointed out in this study, ELT and SLA cannot be taken as simply teaching
and learning a language, because they involve both political and economic benefits.
Ideologies of ELT and SLA seem less tangible and less immediately relevant to the
role of teachers, teaching methods, teaching techniques, and classroom management.
However, ideologies of ELT and SLA are the products of political, social, economic,
and cultural factors. These factors are embedded in every decision the government or
English language educators make. In short, these ideologies have political,
economic, cultural, social, educational, and research implications which I shall
present them in the following sections.
10.2.1 Political Implications
The study records that in Taiwan those who view learning English from a political
perspective believe that English can change Taiwanese people’s lives. A very
important political implication is that English serves a larger goal of claiming a new
national identity for Taiwan vis-à-vis the rest of the world. This new national identity
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is distinct from that of mainland China.
Diplomatically speaking, in 1971, Taiwan was forced to give up its seat in the United
Nations after the United Nations General Assembly's decision to oust Taiwan and
admit China. Since then Taiwan has been anxious to alleviate its diplomatic isolation.
Taiwan is particularly keen on maintaining the affection of the US Congress. English
is the only language that can be used for that purpose.
The study records government concerns that Taiwanese students don’t want to go
abroad to study any more and the number of students studying in the USA has
declined. When compared with the number of students studying in the USA from
China, India, Indonesia, Korea, and Thailand, only Taiwan has suffered a decline.
However, Taiwan’s biggest fear over the decline in the number of Taiwanese students
studying in the USA is the increasing number of students from Mainland China.
Mainland China has now been the leading source of foreign students in the USA since
2000. There is also an increase in the USA in the number of academics from Mainland
China. The implication is that Taiwan will not be able to compete with China in
various spheres, such as economics, academia, or high-tech industry. Another
implication is that people around the world will not understand Taiwan’s affairs, so
that Taiwan’s voice will be much weaker.
Taiwan has been promoting English vigorously recently, especially after both China
and Taiwan became members of the WTO at the same time in 2001. The Taiwanese
government usually encourages local business people to improve their English to do
business with the rest of the world, so that they will not be limited to doing business
with China, and Taiwan won’t become economically bound to China. There is no
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doubt that “Taiwan’s interest in English will reach even greater heights, especially
since Taiwan feels increasingly threatened by big brother China” (Liu, L., 2002).
The study has shown that Taiwanese people are in favor of making English the
quasi-official language, alongside Mandarin. A nation’s official language is associated
with its national identity, and the two cannot be separated. The Taiwanese government
wants to use English to claim a new national identity, just as Singapore did. For the
Taiwanese government, Singapore is a model in the way English has helped
Singapore achieve its excellent economic performance, and in the way English
learning has shaped the nation, and in the way the nation thinks about itself and
presents itself to the outside world. However, the study has shown that Taiwan is not
ready to adopt English as a quasi-official language. The political, economic, social,
and linguistic situations are very different in the two countries, so the government
should not draw comparisons between the two countries (Chang, M. C., 2003).
In short, the near-universal recognition of Beijing as the sole representative of the
people of China has resulted in Taiwan’s isolation from the international diplomatic
community. Taiwan has found itself officially marginalized by most of the
international community. However, if the government views the English language as
a tool to fight the battles of reunification and independence and disregards the nation’s
current economic, social, and other problems, Taiwan may soon be unable to compete
globally.
10.2.2 Economic Implications
The study has demonstrated that the government argues that the lack of English
proficiency will eventually lead to the economic decline of the country. If Taiwan is
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unable to compete in an international market, lack of English proficiency must be
viewed as the major cause of economic decline of the nation. As a result, English
serves a gatekeeper function in determining who will or will not be able to use their
professional knowledge for getting a better job. The central argument in this section is
that English as a key to internationalization has resulted in an overemphasis on
English language learning.
If English is the key to internationalization, former British or American colonies such
as India, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and some African countries should be
internationalized and well-developed. In reality, these countries actually lag well
behind much of the world in terms of internationalization and development. Certainly,
many EFL countries, such as Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are more
internationalized and developed. This contrast shows that the key to
internationalization is not determined merely by English language ability. Despite a
widespread belief in Taiwan that Hong Kong and Singapore perform better than
Taiwan, because of their mastery of English, Taiwan outperformed both places during
the recent Asian economic crisis (Ward, 2002b). Chang Ming-Chung, (Chang, M. C.,
2003), a professor of economics at National Central University, claims that, because
of Taiwan’s peculiar international and political status, it is quite difficult for it to
attract foreign investment and tourists in the same way that Hong Kong and Singapore
can. However, it is not valid to judge whether a country is internationalized by
looking at the number of foreign firms and foreigners in the country. Chang (ibid.:
2003) specifies two gateways to achieve internationalization. First, “the influx of
international capital and human resources can facilitate internationalization”. Second,
“internationalization can be achieved through trade”. According to Chang, Taiwan has
used international trade as the means to facilitate internationalization and its degree of
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internationalization is as good as that of Hong Kong and Singapore. Clearly, Taiwan
does not have to use English ability to achieve internationalization.
However, the current English language policies stress the economic benefits by
focusing on English proficiency that is always associated with global competitiveness.
When English is valued by Taiwanese society for its economic rewards, the
government is often willing to invest capital in promoting English. The government
believes this will increase Taiwan’s competitiveness. English appears to be capital,
learners invest money and effort in the hope of various occupational rewards and/or a
better future. Unfortunately, many Taiwanese English learners believe that their
efforts to acquire English proficiency will necessarily result in a well-paid job and a
better future. In reality, a variety of other factors may be far more important to
obtaining this well-paid job and/or better future.
10.2.3 Cultural Implications
The study has pointed out that the globalization slogans currently popular in Taiwan
are focused only on economic globalization or “Western-led globalization” (Liao,
2000). Western-led globalization will have serious consequences for at least some
aspects of Taiwanese society – for traditional cultures and for disadvantaged classes,
regions, and ethnic groups within Taiwan (Liao, 2000). I have looked especially at the
impact of English teaching and learning from a cultural perspective.
The study has shown that for Taiwanese people, globalization in practice means only
Westernization, or Americanization in particular. For example, the term ‘foreigner’
almost always refers to Caucasians. However, for the past 10 years, the largest
number of foreigners in Taiwan has come from South East Asia (Thailand, Indonesia,
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The Philippines). According to the Department of Statistics (www.moi.gov.tw/w3/
stat/home.asp; last accessed on December 18, 2003), there are about 281,000 foreign
residents from South East Asia and only about 16,000 foreign residents from the USA
and European countries.
In 2001, there was an article called “Foreigners contribute to local education”
published by one of the government’s publication – Taipei Journal (Taiwan Headlines:
August 28, 2001, http://th.gio.gov.tw/show.cfm?news_id=10801; last accessed on
October 18, 2001). This article describes how foreigners have long contributed to
local education. The article used the term “modern day Marco Polos” to describe
these foreigners who are mainly from the USA and Canada. Local education refers
to English education only. The main focus of the article is that these modern day
Marco Polos have not only provided English language instruction, but new and more
creative ways of thinking.
English language teaching and learning is always in reference to American English
teaching and learning. The term meiyu (American English) is ubiquitous in media
discourses in the public and the private sectors. The premise of current English
policies is that English is for international communication. Therefore, English
teaching and learning should no longer focus on western culture only, but various
cultures, since one of the major reasons many individuals have for learning English is
to enter the global village. However, it seems that Taiwan unilaterally accepts
American English norms and ignores other varieties of Englishes and cultures.
The study has shown that Taiwanese people are in favor of making English the
quasi-official language, alongside Mandarin. English as the quasi-official language, it
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is believed, will help enhance Taiwan’s globalization. The implication of English as
the quasi-official language is that if Taiwan wants to become internationalized, its
people have to abandon their local languages. However, Taiwanese people have
ignored one of the most important functions of language. Language is not only a
tool of communication, but it serves also as a carrier of cultural heritage. In the past,
both the Japanese and the KMT’s national language policy created a single common
language and the deliberate suppression of local languages caused those cultures to
wither. Taiwan suffered severe language and cultural loss. Taiwan will suffer
another severe cultural loss if English becomes the quasi-official language without
any complementary measures to support native cultures.
To avoid a cultural dilemma resulting from economic globalization, Taiwan needs
some measures to get its people firmly rooted in its native cultures. What needs to be
done is to upgrade the status of local languages. Taiwanese people should be allowed
to choose their own languages when receiving education, taking national
examinations, and engaging in business. As far as English education is concerned,
English educators and the government should emphasize the importance of sharing
ideas and cultures with other nationalities in cross-cultural encounters. In short,
language policies, ideally, should be based on the concept of plurality, that is,
linguistic diversity and cultural diversity. In this way, Taiwan can avoid the blinkers
imposed by sole reliance on American or western cultures.
10.2.4. Social Implications
The major finding of this section is that all English language programs and English
language policies implicitly or explicitly reflect a set of social priorities. All those
who are involved in English teaching and learning, such as English educators, the
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government, material writers, policymakers, learners, and parents need to carefully
consider important pedagogical issues that arise from the perspective of English
teaching and learning as a social practice.
As was pointed out in the study, current English language policies, English program
design, English curriculum design, and English assessment are all based on
communicative competence, especially listening and speaking proficiency. The
ultimate goal of these English policies, English programs, curricula and assessments
is to achieve international communication. Curriculum designers and policymakers
believe that English learning will help learners bring about social change. However,
the study has shown that English teaching and learning has not solved current political,
economic, and educational problems, but it has, on the other hand, led to a variety of
inequalities.
English education creates linguistic inequality, because English is a threat to
languages spoken in Taiwan, such as Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, and aboriginal
languages. English teaching and learning did not provide equal education for all, but
only for a privileged minority. As a result, there is a seriously imbalanced distribution
of English study resources between urban and rural areas and a widening gap between
the rich and the poor. English has become a major criterion for employment and for
access to the key institutions dominating Taiwan’s academic, economic and political
life.
The government needs to reduce linguistic and social inequalities in a determined and
responsible way. To reduce linguistic and social inequalities, there are some questions
that English language policymakers and educators should examine. First, when
language policymakers formulate any English language policy, they need to avoid
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undermining the value of local languages or cultures. Second, English should not be
promoted as a panacea for current Taiwanese political, economic, and educational
problems. Third, individuals without a good command of English should not be
viewed as a social problem. Fourth, English should not be viewed as the primary
factor determining students’ success or failure in the school system. Fifth,
policymakers and educators need to consider the promotion not only of English but
also of local languages in public schools. They should promote an appreciation of the
critical value of local languages and local cultures to ensure national prosperity.
Sixth, the government and educators need to realize that although mastering English
may be an important goal for learners, the learners may have some other agenda that
are equal or greater importantance to them, such as their personal lives and family.
10.2.5 Educational Implications
Learning English has become a hot pursuit in the government and private sectors alike.
However this English craze has not produced satisfactory results. The average score
of Taiwanese who took the latest TOEFL was only better than that of Japan.
According to Taipei Times Online (November 22, 2002, http://www.
taipeitimes.com/News/edit/ archives/2002/11/22/180514; last accessed on November
23, 2002), many third to seventh grade students cannot identify the letters of the
English alphabet. Many college students with 10 years of English learning experience
are unable to speak English with foreigners, let alone to express their thoughts in
writing. The study has also shown that English education in Taiwan has been very
frustrating, and that many students have given up on their studies of English. In short,
the rush to jump on the bandwagon of English language learning without a thorough
evaluation of its educational impact is problematic.
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My study has pointed out that current English language decisions made by political
and educational leaders, such as concerning English education in primary schools,
promotion of CLT, General English Proficiency Test, and hiring native English
speaking teachers are not producing fluent English speakers. The implication is that a
successful English education needs a well-designed curriculum, qualified English
teachers, sufficient funding, sufficient instruction hours, appropriate teaching
materials and teaching methods, appropriate assessment, positive attitudes towards
local languages and a thorough evaluation of the educational impact.
There are many problems in English education in Taiwan. As was pointed out in the
study, the most overwhelming difficulty is the lack of qualified English teachers. An
appropriate teaching method or a well-designed English program cannot be
implemented if English teachers are not qualified. Both English educators and the
government share the responsibility to provide good quality English programs. The
following are some suggestions for both the government and English educators to
provide a better English program.
First, English proficiency, professional skills and suitable personalities (including
patience and compassion) should be prerequisites for English teachers. Second, the
government needs to conduct English teaching workshops regularly, in rural areas in
particular to promote effective teaching. Third, the government and English
educators need to undertake various kinds of research, so that better designed
programs and curricula can be developed to meet the needs of all English learners.
Fourth, the government and English educators need to conduct research in relation to
how particular first languages affect the acquisition of English. Finally, the
government and English educators need to research English teaching and learning as
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it exists in particular economic, political, and cultural contexts so that they can better
understand the dynamics and ramifications of English teaching and learning. Unless
the government and English educators take these steps, they may be unable to provide
the programs that students desire.
10.2.6 Summary: ELT in Taiwan
As was pointed out in Chapters One and Two, ideologies of English teaching and
learning have been given very little attention and have not yet been documented in
Taiwan. This study constitutes a substantial contribution to an understanding of
English teaching and learning in Taiwan.
First, this study has contributed some insights into the repertoire of English teaching
theories and practices for those who are interested in, have been or will be engaged in
English education in Taiwan. Existing problems are embedded in a larger political,
social, and cultural context. Second, as was pointed out in Chapter One, the aim of
this research is to escape blindly accepted ideologies of English teaching and learning.
Ideologies raised in the study will alert those who are involved in making English
language policies, introducing contemporary Western teaching methods, designing
English curriculum and promoting English teaching and learning, to the need to be
more critical and concerned about the social, political, and linguistic impact of their
work. Third, this study has shown that the latest teaching methods, teaching
techniques, teaching materials and resources, and native speaking English teachers
cannot by themselves solve current English teaching and learning problems. What is
suggested in the study is that there is a need for a shift from the currently popular
methodological focus to a focus on language and power and language, and identity in
EFL teacher preparation. Fourth, the study has contributed to the field of economics.
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It is hoped that the issues raised from an economic perspective alert those who believe
that English is an economic panacea. Investigation revealed that the view that English
is the key to internationalization needs to be seriously reconsidered. Finally and most
importantly, issues raised in the study will alert Taiwanese people to recognize ethnic
and linguistic pluralism as valuable resources for Taiwan to keep abreast with the rest
of the world.
10.2.7 Applied Linguistics
This study has explored a wide range of issues related to English language teaching
and learning, globalization, language and ideology, language and identity, and
language and power in an EFL setting. Having opened up a large range of concerns,
this study has contributed some insights to the field of applied linguistics.
As was pointed out in the study, globalization has made English a highly valued
commodity and has created structural and cultural inequalities in contemporary
Taiwanese society. Moreover, English has the potential to become the greatest agent
of social change. In fact, English is having a significant impact not only on Taiwanese
English education, but also on the fields of politics, social life, and economics. That
process should be carefully monitored and documented. In short, more work is needed
to investigate how and why political, social, cultural, educational and economic
agenda affect an individual’s endeavor to acquire the English language.
More and more researchers in Applied Linguistics (Auerbach, 1995; Canagarajah,
1999a; Kubota, 2002; Pennycook, 2001; Phillipson, 2002) argue that a critical
approach to ELT and SLA will empower teachers and learners, and foster in greater
social, political and economic equality. They have used a variety of critical
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approaches to explore the relationship between language and identity, language and
culture, and language and power. As was pointed out in Chapters One and Two,
there exist no published works in relation to English teaching and learning that apply
critical media discourse analysis to language school promotional materials. Therefore,
the research methods used in the study have contributed to the field of applied
linguistics. Linking SFG and media discourse analysis is a more effective research
method than either SFG or media discourse alone. To the best of my knowledge, this
study is a pioneer in linking SFG and media discourse to explore how language
functions in language school promotional materials and how these materials construct
and project ideologies of English teaching and learning.
10.3 Limitations
In the search for possible answers to the questions raised in Chapter One, this study
explored the influence and implications of ideologies of English teaching and learning
in Taiwan. The inquiry involved a wide range of concerns: globalization, language
policies, the spread of English, teaching methodology, ideal English teacher, standard
English, optimal age of English education, mother tongues, language and identity, and
language and power. The study used a synthesized and multi-dimensional pursuit to
answer the research questions. However, there are some limitations from external
constraints that were beyond the researcher’s control.
The main limitation is that this study was based on two data-collection instruments:
language school promotional materials and news media discourses from the
newspapers and the internet. Although the data provide ample evidence, whether these
data reflect the reality in the classroom remains unclear. An ethnographic study is
needed to fill the gap. Participant-observation, classroom observations, ethnographic
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interviewing, photography, and document collection in a language school or a buxiban
or a public school would be highly desirable to triangulate the findings of the study.
However, this study was motivated by my long-standing observations of ideologies of
English teaching and learning in various English teaching contexts in Taiwan. For the
past 10 years, my personal experiences as an English teacher and a teacher trainer in
one of the leading English language schools (1993-2000), an English teacher in a
buxiban (1993-1996), a language school director and owner (1998-1999), an English
instructor for the Kaohsiung City Government (1999-2000), a lecturer in the
in-service training program for elementary English teachers in Pingtung City and
County (2001-2002), and a director of an English summer camp for Taiwanese
aboriginal and financially disadvantaged children funded by MOE (2002) led me to
seek solutions to avoid the ideologies of English teaching and learning which I
encountered. In this way I have been a participant-observer of ELT in Taiwan for a
longer time than any research project would allow, and I believe this experience has
added to my research in a way that extends the validity of my findings beyond the
corpus of media discourses that provided my data.
A second limitation comes from the national orientation of my corpus. English as the
global language, as has been pointed out repeatedly, is a major element in Taiwanese
life. As evidence of that there are numerous language schools or education services
for international students in English speaking countries. Thus, Taiwanese people are
not only exposed to national discourses on EFL but also international ones. In my
personal experience as an international student in a language school in Canberra,
Australia, and as a language school director and owner, organizing study tours or
English summer/winter camps in English speaking countries and recruiting English
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teachers from overseas, I have found no major discrepancies between the ideologies
espoused by the Taiwanese language school and media more generally, and those
international discourses to which Taiwanese people are exposed.
Finally, since the beginning of this research, internet language learning has become a
major source of English teaching and learning in Taiwan. New pedagogies, like online
English teaching and learning may create new and different ideologies. For example,
online English learning uses technology which allows subscribers to practise their
speaking skills through voice-recognition software. In this way, if we ask the
following questions regarding online English teaching and learning: Who is the
ideal-English-teacher?, What is the best-English- teaching-method?, Which English is
standard?, and What is the optimal age of English learning?, the answers may differ
from those of the ideologies presented in this study. Further research in this emerging
area is needed.
346
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385
APPENDIX A: SCHOOL FLIERS
A-1 English Language School (Total: 32)

Coding School Names (English) School Names (Mandarin)
LF1 KNS’s Language Institute ‘Dun Huang Ertung Yingyu’ ‘Caves Children English
School’
LF2 Kid Castle ‘Ji De Bao Meiyu’ ‘Lucky Castle American English’
LF3 J. Bridge Language School ‘Jian Qiao Meiyu’ ‘Bridging American English’
LF4 Line Up ‘Lai Leng Meiyu’ ‘Come and Master American English’
LF5 Hess Educational Organization ‘He Jia Ren Gouji Jiaoyu Xueyuan’ ‘Hess International
Education Academy’
LF6 GEOS Language Academy ‘Da Shi Jie Waiyu Xueyuan’ ‘Big World Foreign
Language Academy’
LF7 David’s English Center ‘Da Wei Meiyu’ ‘David’s American English’
LF8 Beyer Language School ‘Bai Er Meiyu’ ‘Beyer American English’
LF9 Famous American School ‘Minren Meiguo Xuexiao’ ‘Famous People American
School’
LF10 Little Red Dragon School ‘Xiao Hong Long Meiyu Xuexiao’ ‘Little Red Dragon
American English School’
LF11 Bears Language School ‘Bei Er Meiyu’ ‘Bears American English’
LF12 Global Village Organization ‘Di Qiou Cun Meiyu’ ‘Global Village American English’
LF13 The Best Language School ‘Le Bei Si Te Meiyu Xuexiao’ ‘The Best American English
School’
LF14 Santa Language School ‘Shengta Meiyu Xuexiao’ ‘Santa American English
School’
LF15 Koden English School ‘Ke Deng Meiyu Xuexiao’ ‘Koden American English
School’
LF16 Sunflower Language School ‘Xiang Ri Kui Meiyu’ ‘Sunflower American English’
386
LF17 Joy Language School ‘Jia Ying Yinyu’ ‘Excellent Melody English’
LF18 Kojen English Language School ‘Ke Jian Meiyu’ ‘Kojen American English’
LF19 American English School ‘Mei Li Jian Meiyu’ ‘American American English’
LF20 Love and Charm American ‘Qi En Meiyu’ ‘Amazing Grace American English’
School
LF21 LMI language School ‘Luo Si Mei Li Wai Yu’ ‘LMI Foreign Language’
LF22 Sesame Street ‘Zhi Ma Jie Meiyu’ ‘Sesame Street American English’
LF23 Tony ESL/ESF English School ‘Tang Ni Meiyu Xuexiao’ ‘Tony American English
School’
LF24 Henry English Preschool ‘Heng Li Shuang Yu’ ‘Henry Bilingual Preschool’
LF25 Hilton American English ‘Xi Er Dun Meiyu’ ‘Hilton American English’
LF26 Yo –Yo American English X
LF27 Melissa’s Language School ‘Meng Li Sha Meiyu’ ‘Melissa’s American English’
LF28 N.C. American English ‘N.C. Meiyu’ ‘N.C. American English’
LF29 Giraffe Language School ‘Chang Jing Lu Meiyu’ ‘Giraffe American English’
LF30 Camp David English School ‘Da Wei Ying Meiyu’ ‘Camp David American English’
LF31 Today’s English ‘Jin Ri Yingyu’ ‘Today’s English’
LF32 Gram English School ‘Ge Lan Ertong Yingyu Xuexiao’ ‘Gram Children English
School’
Note: X – Not applicable
A-2 Other Language Schools (Total: 16)

OLF1 X ‘Xiao Quan Youzhiyuan’ ‘Little Group Kindergarten’
OLF2 X ‘Xio Bao Shi Youzhiyuan ‘Little Doctor Kindergarten’
OLF3 X ‘Jin Bei Er Shungyu Youeryuan’ ‘Gold Precious Children
Bilingual Kindergarten’
OLF4 X ‘Ju Zhou Anqin Xueyuan’ ‘Huge Continent After-School
Center’
OLF5 X ‘Zhao Yang Waiyu Wenjiao Jigou’ ‘Morning Sun Foreign
Language Institute’
OLF6 X ‘Yo Fu Weijiao Xueyuan’ ‘Children’s Fortune Literature
Education Institute’
OLF7 X ‘Ding Dang Mao Anqin Caiyi Buxiban’ ‘Ding Dong Cat
After-School Center’
OLF8 X ‘Yo Jia Tuoersuo’ ‘Young Excellence Nursery’
OLF9 X ‘Ming Shen Tuoersuo’ ‘Future Saint Nursery’
387
OLF10 X ‘Qi De Er Tuoersuo’ ‘Unique & Virtuous Kid Nursery’
OLF11 Bae Her Kindergarten ‘Baihe Youzhiyuan’‘Bae Her Kindergarten’
OLF12 Joel A. Newson English ‘Jiao An Li Yinwenshe’ ‘Joel A. Newson English Club’
Club
OLF13 Situation Interactive English ‘Qingjing Hudong Yingyu Julebu’ ‘Situation Interactive
Club English Club’
OLF14 The International English ‘Kaishiland Meiyu Guojicun’ ‘The International English
Village of Kidsland Village of Kidsland’
OLF15 American Village International ‘Guoji Meiyucun’ ‘International American Village’
Institute
OLF16 Taiwan Knowledge Bank ‘Shuwei Xuetang’ ‘Taiwan Knowledge Bank’
A-3 Buxiban Fliers (Total: 31)
BF1 X ‘Ming Ru Wenli buxiban’ ‘Future Scholars English, Math,
Physics & Chemistry Buxiban’
BF2 X ‘Guan Nan Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Unmatched in the South
English, Math, Physics & Chemistry Buxiban’
BF3 X ‘Xue Xian Wenli buxiban’ ‘Virtuous Learning English,
Math, Physics & Chemistry Buxiban’
BF4 X ‘Tang Kai Ming Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Tang Kai Ming English,
BF5 X ‘Li Xue Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Starting Learning English, Math,
BF6 X ‘Zhi Sheng Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Success-Oriented English,
BF7 X ‘Gao Gan Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Outstanding English, Math,
BF8 X ‘Dong Da Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Big East English, Math,
BF9 X ‘Li Chang Wenjiao Jigou’ ‘Achieving Prosperity
BF10 X ‘Lian Deng Wenjiao Jigou’ ‘Unite & Reach Education
Institute’
BF11 X ‘Guan Hou Wenjiao Jigou’ ‘Outstanding People
BF12 X ‘Mingshi Jiajiao Zhongxin’ ‘Famous Teachers Tutoring
Center’
388
BF13 X ‘Liu Yi Yingwen’ ‘Liu Yi English’
BF14 X ‘Wen Yin Yingwen’ ‘Wen Yin English’
BF15 X ‘Han Sheng Yingwen’ ‘Entering Literary Circles English’
BF16 X ‘Bai Han Waiyu’ ‘Vast Foreign Language’
BF17 X ‘Wan Guan Waiyu Jigou’ ‘Numerous Crowns Foreign
Language Institute’
BF18 X ‘Wen Cheng Sheng Daxue’ ‘Literary Circles University
Entrance Exam Buxiban’
BF19 X ‘Yuan Jian Sheng Daxue’ ‘Farsighted University Entrance
Exam Buxiban’
BF20 Far East Education Institute ‘Yuan Dong Sheng Daxue’ ‘Far East Buxiban for
University Entrance Examination’
BF21 X ‘Ru Lin Sheng Daxue Buxiban’ ‘Literary Circles
University Entrance Exam Buxiban’
BF22 X ‘Li Xing Sheng Daxue Zhongxin’ ‘Action University
Entrance Exam Buxiban’
BF23 X ‘Jian Gong Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Great Contributions English,
BF24 Li-Kung Educational Group ‘Li Gong Jiaoyu Wenhua Shiyie’ ‘Achievement
Educational and Cultural Enterprise’
BF25 KCJ Education Institute ‘Jian Zhi Wenjiao Jigou’ ‘Ambitious Education Institute’
BF26 X ‘Guan Lin Wenjiao Jigou’ ‘The Best in Medical
Profession Education Institute’
BF27 X ‘Yu Da Wenjiao Jigou’ ‘Cultivating & Reaching
BF28 X ‘Da Dong Hai Wenjiao Jigou’ ‘Big East China Sea
BF29 Cambridge Foreign Language ‘Kong Qiao Waiyu’ ‘Cambridge Foreign Language’
Center
BF30 Ching Shan Language Institute ‘Qing Shan Waiyu’ ‘Blue Mountain Foreign Language’
BF31 Oxford Language School ‘Qio Jing Waiyu Zhongxin’ ‘Looking for High Quality
Foreign Language Center’
389
A-4 Example (LF19 – Side A)
390
A-4 Example (LF19 – Side B)
391
APPENDIX B: SCHOOL WEBSITES
392
B-1 English Language School – English Websites (Total: 15)
Coding School Names Websites
LWE1 Jackson Five English school www.jacksonfive.com.tw
LWE2 Jump Start www.jumpstart.com.tw
LWE3 Joy Language School www.joy.com.tw
LWE4 Principal Educational & Cultural Foundation www.principal.com.tw
LWE5 Hess Educational Organization www.hess.com.tw
LWE6 Gram English Center www.gram.com.tw
LWE7 Gloria English School www.glo.com.tw
LWE8 Kojen English Language School www.kojenenglish.com
LWE9 The American Language Center www.elstaiwan.com
LWE10 Deeson Language School www.customer.wingnet.com.tw
LWE11 Canadian-American Language School www.can-am.org/main.html
LWE12 KNS’s Language Institute www.kns.com.tw
LWE13 Happy Kids American Preschool/ www.happykidsschool.com.tw
Kindergarten
LWE14 Big Bite Language School www.bigbyte.com.tw
LWE15 Jordan’s Language School www.jordan.com.tw
B-2 English Language School – Mandarin Websites (Total: 24)

LWM1 Flying Dragon American School http://.home.pchome.com.tw/education/fdli/cla
‘Zhan Quan Waiyu’ ‘Outstanding in a Group ss.html
Foreign Language’
LWM2 Go-Go Bear English School http://home.pchome.com.tw/educaton/gogobea
‘Huo Li Xuong Meiyu’ ‘Lively Bear r/option.htm
American English’
LWM3 Vela English Learning Center www.geocities.com/CollegePark/Field/3188
‘Wei La Meiyu’ ‘Vela American English’
LWM4 Summer Hill Language School www.geocities.com/Soho/Coffeehouse/4838
‘Xia Shan Meiyu’ ‘Summer Hill American
English’
LWM5 Ivy League Language School www.ivy-tpr.com.tw
‘Chang Chun Teng Meiyu’ ‘Ivy League
American English’
393
LWM6 Win-Win Language School http://twowin.uhome.net/winwin1.htm
‘Shuang Ing Meiyu’ ‘Win-Win American
English’
LWM7 Love English School http://home.pchome.com.tw/educaton/l_lovee
‘Love Yingyu Xuexiao’ ‘Love English School’ mily/menu.html
LWM8 Washington American School www.washington.com.tw
‘Hua Sheng Dun Meiyu Xuexiao’
‘Washington American School’
LWM9 Royal English Language School www.imagenet.com.tw
‘Hong Jia Yingwen Xuexiao’ ‘Royal English
Language School’
LWM10 Eagle American School www.eagleschool.com.tw
‘Da Lao Ying Meishi Meiyu Yoer Xuexiao’
‘Big Eagle American Learning Style Younger
Children School’
LWM11 Everyday American School www.everydayschool.com.tw
‘Ai Fei De Meiyu Xuexiao’ ‘Everyday
American School’
LWM12 Tony ESL/EFL English School http://study.wingnet.com.tw
‘Tang Ni Meiyu’ ‘Tony American English’
LWM13 St. George American School http://home.kimo.com.tw/st-george/class.htm
‘Sheng Qiao Zhi Meiyu’ ‘St. George
American English’
LWM14 Mark & Elaine’s Language School www.ieltstest.com
‘Ma Ke Yuwen Zhongxin’ ‘Mark Language
Center’
LWM15 Kid Castle English School http://home.kimo.com.tw/kidcastle_school/log
‘Ji De Bao Meiyu’ ‘Lucky Castle American o/html
English’
LWM16 Giraffe Language School www.e-giraffe.com.tw
‘Chang Jing Lu Meiyu’ ‘Giraffe American
English’
LWM17 Sesame Street www.c-opensesame.com.tw
‘Zhi Ma Jie Meiyu’ ‘Sesame Street American
English’
LWM18 Hua Language Institute www.hua.com.tw
‘Hua Laoshi Yingyu Jiaoshi’ ‘Teacher Hua
English Classroom’
394
LWM19 Susan’s English School www.englishschool.com.tw
‘Xu Laoshi Meiyu Jiaoshi’ ‘Teacher Xu
English Classroom’
LWM20 Secure English Computer School http://home.pchome.com.tw/education/fsw051
‘An Xin Meiyu Diannao Xuexiao’ ‘Secure 5/history.html
English Computer School’
LWM21 The World Language Center www.usnet.com.tw
‘Bi Li Fo Meiriyu’ ‘Beverly English and
Japanese’
LWM22 Jackson Five English School www.jacksonfive.com
‘Jie Ke Sen Meiyu’ ‘Jackson American
School’
LWM23 Jordan Language School www.jordan.com
‘Qiao Deng Meiyu’ ‘Jordan American
English’
LWM24 Harvardland English Computer School www.taianfly.com
‘Xiao Ha Fo Diannao Meiyu’ ‘Little Harvard
Computer English School’
B-3 Other Language School – English Websites (Total: 2)

OLWE1 American Language Village www.kidscamp.com.tw
OLWE2 United Resources International Business http://home.kimo.com.tw/salespro/up/htm
Consultants
B-4 Other Language School – Mandarin Websites (Total: 5)

OLWM1 ‘Quanqio Zhuanyie Yingyu Shijie’ www.iproducts.com.tw
‘The Globe Professional English World’
OLWM2 English Smith www.EnglishSmith.com.tw
OLWM3 Rick & Joy http://home.kimo.tw/jungyichen
OLWM4 Asia International Education Center www.aicnet.com.tw
‘Da Ya Diannao Guoji Jiaoyu Zhongxin’
‘Big Asia International Education
Center’
395
OLWM5 ‘Zhongguo Wenhua Daxue Tuiguang www.cec.pccu.edu.tw/IEI
Jiaoyubu IEI Waiyu Zhongxin’
‘Chinese Culture University – Extension
Program IEI Foreign Language Center’
B-5 Buxiban – English Websites (Total: 3)

Coding School Names (English) Websites
BWE1 Ching Shan Language Institute www.chingshan.com.tw
BWE2 Cambridge Language Center www.edu-fair.com
BWE3 Gauden Language School www.wtos.com/gauden
B-6 Buxiban – Mandarin Websites (Total: 24)

BWM1 ‘Shang Jing Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Bright Future English, www.top-go.com.tw
BWM2 ‘Hong Sheng Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Great & Advanced http://freehomepage.taconet.com.tw/
English, Math, Physics & Chemistry Buxiban’ Thisis/taconet/exp//hongshen/
BWM3 Talent Arts and Sciences School www.guass.com.tw
‘Da Ren Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Great Mercy English, Math,
BWM4 ‘Si Kao Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Thinking English, Math, http://freehomepage.taconet.com.tw/
Physics & Chemistry Buxiban’ Thisis/taconet/exp//shihkou/
BWM5 ‘Guan Nan Wenli Buxiban’ ‘Unmatched in the South http://customer.wingnet.com.tw/guan-
English, Math, Physics & Chemistry Buxiban’ south
BWM6 ‘Zhui Fen Buxiban’ ‘Pursuing Sores Buxiban’ www.to100.com.tw
BWM7 ‘Tong Yi Buxiban’ ‘United Buxiban’ www.toyi.com.tw
BWM8 ‘Shuo Shi Buxiban’‘Master’s Degree Buxiban’ www.broad.com.tw
BWM9 ‘Lai Lai Buxiban’ ‘Welcome Buxiban’ http://customer.wingnet.com.tw/lailai/
data.htm
BWM10 ‘Jie Ming Buxiban’ ‘Fast & Famous Buxiban’ www.geocities.com/Athens/Styx/117
BWM11 ‘Pei Wen Buxiban’ ‘Cultivating Scholars Buxiban’ www.24hrs.com.tw
BWM12 ‘Jian Ru Buxiban’ ‘Wishful Buxiban’ www.csie.nctu.edu.tw
BWM13 ‘Liu Yi Yingwen Jiaojiaoban’ ‘Liu Yi English www.learnschool.com.tw
Classroom’
BWM14 ‘Li Qi Yingwen Jiaoshi’ ‘Li Qi English Classroom’ http://www.richieenglish.com.tw
BWM15 ‘Fai Ge Yingwen Jiaoyu Zhongxin’ ‘Fai Ge English www.faigon.com.tw
Center’
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BWM16 ‘Xu Laoshi Wenjiao Jigou’ ‘Teacher Xu English www.best-action.com.tw
Center’
BWM17 ‘Yu Da Wenjiao Jigou’ www.gotowin.com.tw
‘Cultivate & Reach Education Organization’
BWM18 Han Yin English Education Institute www.hanyin.com.tw
‘Han Ying Wenjiao Shiyie Jigou’ ‘Chinese & English
Literature Education Organization’
BWM19 ‘Fan Mei Yingyu Jigou’ ‘Pam America English http://web1.eu.com.tw/www3/service
Organization’ s/services
BWM20 Taiwan Anglo-French Institute www.tafi.com.gw
‘Jia Yan Yuwen Zhongxin’ ‘Excellent
Language Language Center’
BWM21 Tony Chen www.tonychen.com.tw
‘Tang Ni Yingyu’ ‘Tony English’
BWM22 TCK Buxiban www.tck.com.tw
‘Jian Gong Wenli Buxiban’‘Making Great
Contributions English, Math, Physics & Chemistry
Buxiban’
BWM23 Elite Language Institute www.elite-inst.com.tw
‘Xian Jie Waiyu’ ‘Fast & Advanced Foreign
Language’
BWM24 ‘Jia Feng Yuwen Wenli Buxi Xuexiao’ ‘Canadian www.wangcom.com/ehome.html
Maple Language Buxiban’
397
B-7 Example (LWE12)
398
APPENDIX C: ENGLISH TEACHING JOB ADS
C-1 China Post (Total: 54)
399
400
401
C-2 www.teach-in-Taiwan.com (Total: 48)
T1
Teach Adult English in Gaoshung or Hshindu (views: 105)
Location:All over Taiwan
Email School: Formosa English (61.13.195.174)
This job was added on Sunday July 1st 2001 @ 08:23 AM EST
Adult classes available for upcoming term. Work permit provided by school. Good working hours
available and good pay. Pay depending on experience. No degree needed but a plus. Send a resume for
review to [email protected]
T2
English Teacher (views: 110)
Location:Taichung
Email School: Spontaneous Language School (163.32.4.165)
This job was added on Monday July 2nd 2001 @ 08:00 AM EST
Language school teacher,partime or fulltime ,have a passport from an English-speaking country. Good
pay. adult group class. Please Fax 886-04-23266638 Tel:886-04-23266777
T3
Interviews to be held in Canada in August (views: 83)
Location: All over Taiwan
Email School: ESL Canada (61.13.195.20)
Job fairs to be held in Vancouver August 18th, Edmonton and Calgary area August 20-25th, 27-30th
Toronto area. Representing 25 in Taiwan ROC. Information available and interviews will be held.
Contact Dale or Ellen at [email protected]
T4
Position in Hshindu (views:173)
Location: Hsinchu
Position in Hshindu. 50 000 Nt a month base. Good working hours. Free accomadation available.
Curriculum provided. Contact us at [email protected]
T5
ENGLISH TEACHER WANTED (views: 229)
Location: Changhua
Email School: international village (61.216.250.89)
This job was added on Thursday July 5th, 2001 @ 09:39PM EST
We are looking for a full-time or part-time teacher for day and evening classes. The students are
adults, primarily from local universities. We can provide a work visa for teachers with a BA. We are
402
wanting someone who can begin immediately. Please contact us by phone or email: (04)2258-0865
sharon [email protected]
T6
Teacher of English as a second language (views: 254)
Email School: Libelle Canada (216.18.21.250)
This job was added on Thursday July 5th 2001 @ 04:59 PM EST
50 TEACHERS REQUIRED TO TEACH IN TAIWAN IMMEDIATELY! *Roundtrip Airfare Provided
- SALARY: Starting salaries between NT$40,000/month - NT$58,000 month; Bonuses vary from
position to position
- POSITIONS: Kindergarden classes, Primary classes, High school classes and/or Adult classes at
various schools and tutoring centres in Shinju (1hour from Taipei) and San Chung, Lujou,
& Wuku (30minutes from Taipei)
- WORK HOURS: 25 classes average work week (each class approx. 40-50 minutes)
- HOUSING: Teacher residences (highly subsidized by school); Single or shared accommodation
(may be subsidized depending on school); Homestay (may be offered through school connections)
- MEDICAL COVERAGE: All foreigners must comply to the National Medical Insurance Program
policy in Taiwan
POTENTIAL CANDIDATES must be a native English speaker with a valid passport from Canada,
USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand or South Africa and a have degree from an accredited university
from one of the above countries
ALL INTERESTED APPLICANTS Please email, fax, or send the following:
- Resume with current contact information
- Copy of university diploma (and other certificates)
- Copy of valid passport (including photo)
TO: Libelle Canada
L203 - 560 Beatty Street
Vancouver, BC Canada V6B 2L3
Fax: 604-681-9687 Email: [email protected] Tel: 604-681-9623
T7
Children's English Teacher (views: 154)
Location: Taipei
Email School: Merry Angel Kindergarten (202.178.245.235)
This job was added on Saturday July 7th 2001 @ 12:10 AM EST
Children's English Teacher Wanted! North American Accent Working Hours: 9:00am ~12:00noon
Monday ~ Friday and/or 2:15pm~3:15pm on Monday, Tuesday and Thursday Fixed Curriculum, Great
Working Environment Good Pay: NT$600/HR, Job Starts ASAP! Please call (02) 8789~1771 Pin
403
T8
English Instructor (views: 295)
Location: Taipei
Email School: Soeasy English Learning Center (211.21.43.210)
We are a newly established adult English learning center. We are currently recruiting part-time and
full-time native English speakers. Our courses are based upon American English conversation.
Teaching experience is preferred. We also prefer teachers who wish to live in Taiwan for an extended
period of time. To discuss further details, feel free to contact Aaron or Ingrid at 886-02-2370-4358.
T9
Seeking for English teachers (views: 99)
Location: Yuanlin
Email School: Maaggie Young English Classroom (61.217.157.223)
This job was added on Thursday July 12th 2001 @ 08:24 AM EST
There is a great opportunity for hardworking English teachers in Taiwan.
REQUIREMENTS AND ADVANTAGES
1.Passport and visa 2.Work permit 3.Teachers must have a degree 4.100 working hours per
month 5.Salary will be NT$50,000 per month(work more get more)
Please send CV and photo. Contact:Maaggie Young Cellphone:886-958373929
Fax:886-5962100 Email:[email protected]
T10
Private tutor (views: 95)
Location: Taichung
Email School: Private tutor (61.216.65.114)
Job Description:
I am looking for a female English teacher. The location is Taiping city which is only 15 mins drive
from Taichung train station. The teacher will be responsible for at least two classes, one class for a 13
year-old girl, the other classes for several kids with ages ranging from 3-5 year-old. To reduce the
traveling time, the classes can be arranged on the same day if necessary.
Qualifications:
The candidate should have a degree and at least one year teaching experience. Most of all, the
candidate has to be available to teach for at least a year. Candidates should send a copy of their C.V.
to [email protected]
T11
Email School: SAETEACHER (211.21.137.6)
404
This job was added on Friday July 13th 2001 @ 09:08 PM EST
If you have a bachelors degree, speak English fluently and are a South African citizen then South
African English Teachers can place you at a good school in Taiwan. Please e-mail your resume with a
recent picture to [email protected]. Please include a contact number!
T12
English Consultant (view: 98)
Location:Taipei
Email School: Willow Tree English Consulting (61.219.210.122)
This job was added on Saturday July 14th, 2001 @ 05:08AM EST
English Consulting company looking for experienced english teacher for adults.
North American accent, University graduate, Experience in business english teaching , long and short
term contracts available, minimum of 3 months commitment, work visa available for the right applicant
insurance, training, benefits for long term, Classes are scheduled in the evenings in our client's
companies. Please submit resume
T13
Adult Learning ESL70 000NT (views: 64)
Email School: FORMOSA ENGLISH Assoc. (61.13.196.222)
This job was added on Tuesday July 17th 2001 @ 08:46 AM EST
Formosa English Association has 4 positions available at member schools for early August start.
Free accommodation, salary with paid overtime to 70 000. Must have a degree with North American
accent. Please contact us at [email protected]
T14
Part time 45000 (views: 84)
This job was added on Tuesday July 17th, 2001 @ 08:50AM EST
Want a great part time job in the evenings 3-4 hours leading English activities. Social club
atmosphere. Applicants should have a related degree/diploma and be very outgoing. Lead a social
club. NO BORING TEACHERS APPLY!! Pay is 45 000 NT a month. Evenings only. 4 locations to
choose from. For more details contact us in Taichung at [email protected]
T15
ENGLISH TEACHER REQUIRED (views: 246)
Email School: Formosa Island Language School (203.24.100.131)
I NEED MORE THAN 20 ENGLISH TEACHERS FOR AUGUST.......MUST HAVE UNIVERSITY
DEGREE!!!!!....REAL ONE....I MET LOTS OF FAKE CERTIFICATES!!! AND NO TRUCK
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DRIVER, COOLIE,PLUMBER, UNEDUCATED ETC ETC ETC.......... MUST HAVE REAL
UNIVERSITY DEGREE PLEASEEEEE........SOME NATIVE SPEAKERS COULD NOT EVEN
SPEAK ENGLISH PROPERLY....THEY ARE CHEWING RATHER THAN SPEAKING!!!!!!!!
WE WANT ENGLISH TEACHER THAT SPEAKS LIKE THE NEWS REPORTER (CLEAR
WORDS AND SENTENCES ).........AND PLEASE BACKPACKER & UNEMPLOYED PEOPLE
IN THEIR OWN COUNTRY DON'T APPLY!!!!! WE WANT YOU TO TEACH NOT HAVE
HOLIDAY HERE USING THE PAID SALARY AND CONVINCING US THAT YOU COULD
SPEAK ENGLISH JUST BECAUSE YOU WERE BORN IN ENGLISH COUNTRY...........I MET
MANY NATIVES SPEAKER THAT COULD NOT EVEN WRITE CORRECTLY......THEY WRITE
"RECIEVE" INSTEAD OF "RECEIVE" AND 'BELIEVE' INSTEAD OF ‘'BELIEVE'.......WITH
WRONG GRAMMARS IN A SENTENCE.....WE WILL PAY YOU GOOD SALARY UP TO
NT95000 IF YOU CAN DEMONSTRATE TO US THAT YOU REALLY COULD SPEAK "REAL
ENGLISH". THOSE OF YOU STUDYING ENGLISH LITERATURE BEFORE SUCH AS
SHAKESPEAR,MCBETH ARE ENCOURAGED TO APPLY. NO BACKPACKER OR
UNEMPLOYED PLEASE
T16
Foreign English teachers (view: 125)
Location: Kaohsiung
Email School: Haburg Language School (163.32.157.97)
teacher wanted: F/T or P/T, Good pay , If interested please call 07-354-1448, 07-353-1222 Joanne
T17
English teacher (views: 111)
Location: Taichung
Email School: Victoria American Children Schoo (61.217.29.108)
We are looking for native speakers, North American accent, college degree, love to teach children age
3-8 years old. Part time/ Full time, for more information, Please call Kristy/Ariel 04-23506919
option 1. near howard prince hotel (Taichung) option 2. near Morrison Academy (Taichung)
T18
ESL English teacher (views: 114)
Location: Changhua
Email School: Duchies Language School (61.216.153.183)
This job was added on Monday July 23rd 2001 @ 09:32 PM EST
Be an English teacher and lean Chinese free. Call:04-7860196 now!
406
T19
Location:Taipei English Zone (163.30.154.103)
This job was added on Tuesday July 24th 2001 @ 04:17 AM EST
Full Time English Teacher Wanted ¡¯ Native speaker with degree ¡¯ Work permit ¡¯ National
medical insurance ¡¯ Training, organized program ¡¯ Good working conditions
To teach mainly children in Yung Ho (walking distance to Ting Shi MRT) Starting mid August
Tel¡GMark 0926086114 Charlie 0926085164
T20
Full/Part Time Teacher (views: 88)
Location: Taichung
Email School: PLI's Language Institute (61.216.106.172)
This job was added on Wednesday July 25th 2001 @ 11:54 PM EST
Full-Time Benefits: 1. NT$550 ¡V 610 per hour. 2. 14 ¡V 32 hours per week. 3. Monday ¡V
Friday only. 5. 1 week paid vacation. 6. 3 paid personal days every six months. Positions opening
August & September 2001 Fax resume to:(04) 22
T21
Position around 70 000 NT (views: 157)
Location: Taichung
Position available. Evening classes flexible hours. Per hour. Most teachers earn 70 000. Good job.
Contact us [email protected]
T22
Canadian Owned Language School (view: 213)
Location: Taichung
Email School: Jackson Five English School (61.216.251.116)
This job was added on Tuesday July 31st, 2001 @ 10:13AM EST
School Mandate: Teaching students the true joy of speaking English without rote learning, homework,
or tests. http://www.jacksonfive.com.tw/Students/Students.htm Work with other creative Candian
teachers in a resource-rich environment. Canadian owned. No burnout schedule. A good place to
develop a great teaching career. Because we are devoted to education, we don't hire anyone fresh off
the boat. Excellent package for the right candidate: F/T: NT$58-65,000/month. Only 22 teaching
hours a week max. Visa and Health insurance card provided. Good candidate should possess
Bachelor of Education, TESOL, and/or comparable teaching experience.
Please email CV and photo to [email protected] or call (04) 24737578.
407
T23
An English Club (views: 305)
Location: Taipei
Email School: Taipei First Girls' High School (163.31.51.167)
This job was added on Wednesday August 1st 2001 @ 10:46 PM EST
Hi!!!!! My name is Rita,a leader of an English club. I'm looking for a part-time English teacher,
(native English speaker)teaching at 4:30~6:00PM every Friday,$1000 per class since September.
You're not required to have any teaching experience. You just have be an outgoing and humorous.
Connect me if you're interested. Thanx!!!
T24
Preschool Teacher (views:158)
Location:Taipei
Email School: Happy Kids American Preschool (163.31.21.230)
This job was added on Friday August 3rd, 2001 @ 12:10AM EST
We are an American curriculum kindergarten, providing child-centered learning to the local expatriate
and overseas Chinese Community. We are now hiring native English speaking teachers for the new
school year. We offer:
*excellent salary * 2 months paid vacation *Work visa * National health insurance *Teaching
resources * Professional Development *Friendly, professional environment *Opportunities for
advancement
Successful Candidates will Possess:
*Native English Speaker *E.C.E. or BA in Education *Teaching experience in Western school or
child care center. *Friendly, warm personality *Ability to work responsibly and independently
*Ability to sign a 1 year contract
Please forward resume and copies of any pertinent credentials to: Taipei P.O Box 26-1144, fax to
02-2784-0530 or email to [email protected]. Please submit before August 7.
T25
Teacher (views: 79)
Location: Taichung
Email School: IVEI (163.32.22.196)
This job was added on Saturday August 4th 2001 @ 01:33 AM
Teaching position in Daming High School
Teaching Hours: Daytime---group class Nightime---small class
Location of DHS: Dali city, Taichung county Payment: 550 -600/per hour, at least 20 hours/wk
Work premit (must), health insurance Applicants should have BA degree and be a native speaker of
English. Professional certificate is a plus. Contract starts from September 2001
408
T26
10 Positions in Hshin-Chu and Taichung (views: 115)
This job was added on Saturday August 4th 2001 @ 02:16 PM
Primary level. Degree wanted . Must have expereince working with young kids under 12. Working
hours can be morning or afternoon. Salary up to 70 000 depending on schedule. For september or
possible mid august start. Please contact us as soon as possible.
T27
5 Positions in Chung-wa (views: 72)
This job was added on Saturday August 4th 2001 @ 02:19 PM
Afternoon language classes. 500-700/hr depending on experience, Contact us at
[email protected]
Free accommodation available. Arc, health insurance. Degree needed. Class size: under 12, 6-12 years
olds, Full time position.
T28
Teach English & Chinese Program in Taiwan (views: 208)
Email School: International Avenue Consulting (210.243.218.118)
This job was added on Monday August 6th, 2001 @ 02:55AM EST
We have a number of openings NOW! Can you be here next week? Can you be here
in two weeks? Three? Call! Email! Fax! Walk in our door ! Email us for the current
list! Come CHOOSE the best one for YOU! We have a position for you, Email us for
the current list!! We will have more openings tomorrow! Email us for the current list!!
Contact us NOW! Do it All!
Teach English - Study Chinese We promote teaching and learning. In cooperation with local
Universities in various parts of Taiwan we offer accredited Mandarin Chinese studies at a basic and
advanced level and the full range of possible English teaching jobs with our client schools. We have
positions available in colleges, high schools, elementary schools, private schools, kindergartens,
language schools and corporate training etc.
Qualifications desired:
1. BA degree and /or teaching certificate. -Certain other credentials may be recognized. 2. Native
English speaker. 3. Be able to sign one year contract.
Summary of the services we provide our employees
1. University Mandarin Chinese studies: learning a new and interesting culture. Developing your
409
language skills using the most powerful languages--English and Chinese.
2. Stable salary lets you have a good living standard. 3. Working permit and resident visa.
4. Comfortable accommodation at the most reasonable rate available. 5. Economical Transport
6. Entertainment: pubs, clubs, hiking, tai chi (Chinese martial art), restaurants etc. We will introduce
you the fun side of living in Taiwan to allow you for balance between work and play. 7. Camps:
Weekend camps where our teachers can have fun and interact with students in an informal setting.
Don't wait; contact us now! There is a position here with your name on it!
International Avenue Consulting Company
Tel: 1(604)6424199 Fax: 1(604)6424190 Url: http://www.iacc.com.tw
e-mail: [email protected] Add: Ph01, 1889 Alberni St. Vancouver, BC, Canada V6G 3G7
T29
Children's English Teacher Wanted! (views: 187)
Location: Taipei
Email School: Merry Angels Kindergarten (210.85.142.73)
This job was added on Tuesday August 7th 2001 @ 09:39 AM
Children's English Teacher Wanted! North American Accent Working Hours: 9:00am ~12:00noon
Monday ~ Friday and/or 2:15pm~3:15pm on Monday, Tuesday and Thursday. Fixed Curriculum, Great
Working Environment Good Pay! Job Starts ASAP!
T30
Full Time 70 000 NT a month (views: 258)
This job was added on Wednesday August 8th 2001 @ 12:09 AM
Teach older kids in a very well organized atmosphere. Position available as soon as possible. Pay
70 000 month. Degree needed . Please contact us if you interested [email protected]
T31
60 000 Nt Elementary (views: 125)
Location: Changhua
Email School: Taiwan Jobs (209.148.198.251)
This job was added on Wednesday August 8th 2001 @ 12:11 AM EST
Elementary school isn Hsindu require a a full itme teacher. Pay is 60 000 NT per month. Please call
Andrew at 2254-0710 or email [email protected]. 5 positions available
T32
Full time and part time teacher (views: 119)
Location: Taichung
Email School: Xavier Sesame Street (163.32.22.197)
This job was added on Saturday August 11th 2001 @ 05:37 AM
We are English school in Taichung looking for native english teachers.We welcome those of you are
410
from overseas.free-airport pick up.We provide working visa,health insurance,good pay.Contact with
Melysa with phone number 04-22601116 or e-mail:melysa05@ms25...
T33
Full-time native English teachers (views: 124)
Email School: Wen Tzao school (211.22.5.210)
This job was added on Friday August 17th, 2001 @ 03:22AM EST
Our company, entitled Wen Tzao, has been devoted for over 19 years to private English education,
through a franchise system, for students age 3-13 throughout Taiwan. In order to efficiently promote
our English-immersion program and serve other schools out of our system as a recruiting agency, we're
keen to recruit native English speakers who are fond of kids, patient, animated, creative, willing to
learn to teach and work in cross-cultural environment. Wen Tzao offers many opportunities for
foreign teachers. We constantly have newly opened schools and other institutions with vacancies
needing to be filled year round everywhere in the northern, central, and southern areas of Taiwan.
A teacher candidate must meet the following requirements.1. Be a native English speaker from
America, Canada, United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.2. Hold a bachelor's
degree or a college diploma in any discipline.3. Commit to a one-year contract.4. Pass a medical
exam.To apply for a position, please send us the following information:1. Completed application form:
Fill out the on-line application form. ( Our website is located at http://www.bravonet.com.tw/
english/index..htm) Please answer all the questions as required.OR:2. A resume stating: full name, age,
address, phone number, e-mail address, nationality, educational background, working history, date of
arrival, and length of stay.AND:3. A cover letter.4. One recent snapshot.5. Any relevant academic
certificates.The contract benefits are as follows:1. Work permit.2. Resident visa.3. Alien Resident
Certificate.4. Health insurance.5. 7 days annual paid leave.6. Temporary free accommodation.7.
Assistance finding appropriate housing.8. Teacher training and orientation.9. A bonus of 286 USD for
completion of a contract.10. A bonus of above 286 USD for renewal contract.The salary is as
belows:1. Starting salary will be 1,516 USD /month with 25 teaching hours per week, to be raised to
1,573 USD after a 2-month trial.2. Working overtime and part-time will be paid 15.7 USD/hour.3.
Contract benefits begin the day after arrival in Taiwan.4. Payday will be on the fifth of each month.For
further information on us, we sincerely invite you to pay a visit to our website mentioned above. You
are welcome to join us at any time.
T34
Elementary Teaher required Taichung (views: 131)
Location: Taichung
Email School: Taiwan Jobs (209.148.196.15)
This job was added on Friday August 17th 2001 @ 08:58 PM EST
Elementary position available for native English Teacher. Experience required with children. Position
is a 1 year contract. Pay up to 75 000 NT per month. ARC provided. Please contact us at
411
[email protected] as soon as possible.
T35
More teachers wanted on September and January. (views: 277)
Location: Chia-Yi
Email School: COLIN LANGUAGE SCHOOL (163.32.245.177)
This job was added on Saturday August 18th 2001 @ 03:35 AM EST
Colin language schools provide very good salary and benefits for a real nice teacher. Right now
recruiting two more teachers. If you have a nice behavior and friendly attitude, it is a wonderful
chance.
But if you have no interesting in teaching, just don’t try.
T36
Teacher (views: 208)
Location: Taipei
Email School: White Horse English Schools (163.30.203.237)
This job was added on Monday August 20th 2001 @ 09:51 AM EST
Teach classes from ABC's to Shakespeare. Pay is slightly higher than other schools with no other
benefits except a fairly well developed curriculum and generally bright children with high english
levels. We are also looking for teachers to work at our Kindergarten. Please, only teachers who are
interested in legal positions.
T37
Do you want to be a tutor(NT700/hr)? (views: 99)
Location: Kaohsiung
Email School: The commuity class (139.175.57.116)
This job was added on Tuesday August 21st 2001 @ 01:03 AM EST
We are looking for a native speaker who can teach English to children or adults who want to
improve their oral English for our class of the community near the Dollar shopping mall on the
Min-chu road in Kaohsuing in the evening, and the numbers of the students in our class would not be
more than four, so the suitable teacher would be the one who can correct Taiwanese people's
pronunciation and help them speak English well with his/her teaching material. We are looking for a
English tutor If you are available in the evening (1.5 hr and twice a week ), and want to earn money
(NT700/per hr), please let me know. [email protected]
T38
English Schools Seeking Teachers in Kaohsiung (views: 32)
Location: Changhua
Email School: English Schools in Kaohsiung (199.80.75.134)
This job was added on Wednesday August 22nd 2001 @ 10:17 AM
For a list of language schools in Kaohsiung, try the link below. Many schools are looking for teachers
now! http://www.geocities.com/allhou/schookao.htm
412
T39
English Schools Seeking Teachers in Taipei (views: 143)
Location: Taipei
Email School: English Schools in Taipei (199.80.75.134)
This job was added on Wednesday August 22nd 2001 @ 10:21 AM EST
English schools throughout Taipei need new teachers to teach classes. For more information, try the
link below: http://www.geocities.com/allhou/schootaip.htm
T40
English Schools Seeking Teachers in Tainan (views: 56)
Location: Tainan
Email School: English Schools in Tainan (199.80.75.134)
English schools throughout Tainan need new teachers to teach classes. For more information, try the
link below: http://www.geocities.com/allhou/schootain.htm
T41
English Schools in Taichung (views: 115)
Location: Taichung
Email School: English Schools in Taichung (199.80.75.134)
English schools throughout Taichung are eagerly seeking new teachers to teach classes. For more
information, try the link below: http://www.geocities.com/allhou/schootaich.htm
T42
Elementary Teacher (views: 108)
Location: Kaohsiung
This job was added on Thursday August 23rd 2001 @ 09:59 PM EST
Teach older kids in a very well organized atmosphere. Position available as soon as possible. Pay
70 000 month. Degree needed . Please contact us if you interested [email protected]
T43
Location: Taipei
Email School: Julia American School (163.31.15.183)
This job was added on Monday August 27th 2001 @ 11:08 PM EST
It is a full time job. Near Tai-An distric. Near MRT. Refer female teacher to teach preschool students.
Perfect teaching surrounding and reasonable salary. Work VISA provided. Contact: Alice Chan
02-2378-2200
413
T44
ESL teacher (views: 67)
Location: Changhua
Email School: abc school (61.216.154.145)
This job was added on Wednesday August 29th 2001 @ 02:07 AM EST
We are looking for two part-time ESL teachers. 1.2~10hours per week 2.NT$500~NT$800 per hour
call: 04-7860196 now!
T45
Location: Taichung
Email School: Harvard Land Computer English (61.221.1.146)
This job was added on Thursday August 30th 2001 @ 04:43 AM EST
English teacher required (local and overseas people all welcome). Ability to speak Chinese is a big
plus but not required. $40,000NT/month and up (negotiable). Accommodations provided if desired.
If you can speak Chinese, then call 04-268812...
T46
FULL-TIME ENGLISH TEACHER (views: 157)
Location:Miaoli
Email School: yvonne\'s language school (61.217.148.178)
This job was added on Friday August 31st 2001 @ 03:25 AM EST
WE ARE LOOKING FOR A QUALIFIED ENGLISH TEACHER TO TEACH STUDENTS
BETWEEN10 & 15 YRS OLD.WE ARE SITUATED IN MIOA-LI CITY,IT'S VERY PEACEFUL
AND QUIET AROUND THIS PART OF TAIWAN...
T47
Location: Lukang
Email School: KidCastle (61.216.153.228)
This job was added on Friday August 31st 2001 @ 08:20 PM EST
Kidcastle kindergarten is seeks a full time English teacher,please email or fax us your resume.
email:[email protected] fax:04-7741512 tel:04-7741511 Thank you for your reading.
T48
Substitute Teacher (views: 48)
Location: Taichung
Email School: Macdilung Kindergarten (61.216.139.234)
This job was added on Friday August 31st 2001 @ 07:58 PM EST
GETTING MARRIED! I need a sub for 17-28 September. Hours: 09:00-17:00 Pay: 25,000
10 min from train station by scooter
414

Chang Jackie Ideologies of English Teaching and Learning in Taiwan

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Chang Jackie Ideologies of English Teaching and Learning in Taiwan

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IDEOLOGIES OF ENGLISH TEACHING

AND LEARNING IN TAIWAN

A thesis submitted in total fulfillment

Department of Linguistics The University of Sydney

I wish to express my sincerest appreciation to the following people who have in a

myriad of ways, helped to make my studies at the University of Sydney both

would not have been completed.

This study is motivated by a critical need to engage in socio-linguistic analysis, within

in English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) countries. The ideologies alluded to in my

title are: ‘English-as-the-global-language’; ‘the-ideal-English-teacher’; ‘the-ideal-

English-teaching-methodology’; ‘American-English-as-standard-English’; and ‘the-

younger-the-better’. The methodology used in this research is Critical Discourse

Analysis (CDA). I am employing this methodology to investigate language school

specifically: school fliers, websites, television commercials and television English

aspiring individual, particularly in the context of globalization. However, the study

cultural, educational, and linguistic inequalities in contemporary Taiwanese society. A

be more than justifiable, on both pedagogical and humanitarian grounds.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………...1

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………13

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ………………………………………...63

CHAPTER FOUR: ENGLISH IN TAIWAN ……………………………………88

CHAPTER FIVE: “ENGLISH-AS-THE-GLOBAL-LANGUAGE” ………….116

CHAPTER SIX: THE “IDEAL-ENGLISH-TEACHER” ……………………161

CHAPTER NINE: “THE-YOUNGER-THE-BETTER” ………………..290

CHAPTER TEN: CONCLUSION ……………………………………………….326

APPENDIX A: SCHOOL FLIERS ………………………………………………385

APPENDIX B: SCHOOL WEBSITES …………………………….…………….391

APPENDIX C: ENGLISH TEACHING JOB ADS ………………….…………397

The focus of my research interest is English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Taiwan,

has been conducted in relation to English teaching methodologies and student

learning behaviors in Taiwan (Liu, 2000). However, ideologies of English language

responding to the imperatives of globalization in Taiwan. I view my research as

because, to the best of my knowledge, there exists no other published work

particularly through the promotional materials of private language schools.

and SLA. The ideologies identified in this research are English-as-the-global-

language, the ideal-English-teacher, the ideal-English-teaching-methodology,

American-English-as-standard-English, and the-younger-the-better. These

ideologies have become fundamental driving forces in the acquisition of English in

Taiwan and have concomitantly contributed to various forms of social inequality. To

achieved either by making it an official language of a country or by a country giving

special priority to learning it as a foreign language. English has obviously achieved

(L2). Dependent upon how great a command of English is considered acceptable to

required school subject in almost every country in the world.

conferences, science, technology, diplomacy, sport, international competitions, pop

“English is a means of communicating identity, culture, politics, religion, and ‘way of

human sciences and professions, is an international world and it is linguistically

dominated by English almost everywhere, regardless of how well-established and

well-protected local cultures, languages, and identities may be”.

foreign language acquisition (Brutt-Griffler, 2002). Kachru (1992) questions what it is

association with power and status in Taiwan in detail in Chapter 4.

1.2 The Role of Private Language Schools

to study in an English speaking country. Although English is taught as a subject in

objectives such as working on their oral fluency or preparing for an exam.

schools extremely popular.

Given the international prominence of English as described above, Taiwanese people

obstacles to English teaching – unqualified English teachers, inappropriate teaching

opportunity to speak (Her, 2002).

terms of their teaching methods and teaching and learning environments.

grammar, vocabulary, reading and writing, while neglecting the importance of