Fiber-Optic Communication

• It is a method of transmitting information from

one place to another by sending pulses of light
through an optical fiber.
• The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave
that modulated to carry information.
Optical Communication History
• Optical communication methods were of special interest among the
many systems that people tried to use.
• One of the earliest known optical transmission links was a fire-signal
method used by the Greek in the eighteen century for sending
alarms, calls for help, announcement of certain events.
• Improvements of these optical transmission system were not pursued
very actively due to limited technology at that time.
• Many challenges were involved including atmospheric effects such as
fog and rain.
 History of Optical Fibre
• Before 1960 – no significant advances for optical communication.
• Early 1960s – The invention of the laser.
• Around 1970 - Series of technology developments related to optical
fibres.
• 1978 Practical light-wave communication systems started worldwide .
• 1980 onwards- Wide spread use of optical fiber communication.
• 1990 - Using optical amplification.
General Optical fibre system
Advantages of Optical Fibre
• Long distance transmission (lower transmission loss , less repeaters
needed , equipment reduction, lower cost and complexity)
• Large Information Capacity (wider bandwidth , physical lines
decreases)
• Small Size and low weight
• Immunity to Electrical Interference (dielectric material, immune to
electromagnetic interference)
• Enhanced Safety (no ground loops problems, no sparks, …)
• Increased signal security (well confined, coating, signal emission
absorption).
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre
• Difficult in installation (delicate component, prone to breaking,
require expertise).
• Splicing requirements (machines, expertise).
• Requires various components beside cables (amplifiers, amplifiers ,
separate Tx/Rx with repeaters.
• Transmission in one direction ( both ways transmission needs
additional cable).
• Vulnerable to physical damages (made up of is glass, should not be
bent too much during installation).
Optical Fibre Applications
• Internet: It can transmit a large amount of data at very high speed.
• Computer networks: Easier and faster using fiber optic cabels.
• Telephone: clear conversations and faster connect.
• Used in CCTV surveillance cameras.
• Surgery and dentistry: Its small size make it possible to bright light up
the surgery area within the body.
• Military and space applications: It is the ideal solution due to high
level of data security and aerospace applications.
• Sub-mirine cable networks.
Basic Structure of fibre optics

The basic structure of an optical fiber

consists of three parts:

• The core.

• The cladding.
• The coating or buffer.
 Basic Structure of fibre optics
 The core
• It is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material.
• Dielectric material conducts no electricity.
• Light propagates mainly along the core of the fiber.
• The core is generally made of glass.
• The core is described as having an index of refraction n1.
• The core is surrounded by a layer of material called the
cladding.
 Basic Structure of fibre optics
 The Cladding
• Even though light will propagate along the fiber
core without the layer of cladding material,
the cladding does perform some necessary functions.
• The cladding layer is made of a dielectric material with
an index of refraction n2.
• The index of refraction of the cladding material is less than
that of the core material. The cladding is generally made of
glass or plastic.
 Basic Structure of fibre optics
 The Cladding

The cladding performs the following functions:

• Reduces loss of light from the core into the surrounding air.
• Reduces scattering loss at the surface of the core.
• Protects the fiber from absorbing surface contaminants.
• Adds mechanical strength.
 Basic Structure of fibre optics
 The Coating or Buffer

• For extra protection, the cladding is enclosed in an

additional layer called the coating or buffer.
• The coating or buffer is a layer of material used to protect an
optical fiber from physical damage.
• The material used for a buffer is a type of plastic.
• The buffer is elastic in nature and prevents abrasions.
• The buffer also prevents the optical fiber from scattering
losses caused by microbends.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Entire distribution of Electromagnetic radiation
(Frequency or Wavelength).
• All Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light
in vacuum, but in wide range of frequencies,
c  3 108 m / s
wavelength and photon energies.
• The spectrum consists of sub ranges (portions)
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
The various portions have different names based on Behaviour in emission, transmission,, absorption of the
corresponding waves and particular applications. The spectrum from lowest to the highest (longest to
shortest wavelength) includes:
 Radio Waves (e.g: Commercial Radio, TV, Microwaves, radar).
 Infrared radiation.
 Visible light.
 Ultraviolet radiation.
 X-rays.
 Gamma rays.
 Optical Fiber Spectrum
 The optical Spectrum ranges from about 5 nm in the ultraviolet region to 1mm for the far-infrared radiation.
 in between (400 to 700 nm) is visible band.
 Optical fiber communication use the near-infrared band ranging from nominally (770 to 1675 nm).
 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designed six spectral bands for use in optical fiber communication
within 1260 to 1675 nm region.
 The 770-910 nm band is used for shorter wave length multimode fiber systems.

Name Designation Spectrum (nm)

Original Band O-Band 1260 to 1360
Extended Band E - Band 1360 to 1460
Short Band S - Band 1460 to 1530
Conventional Band C - Band 1530 to 1565
Long Band L - Band 1565 to 1625
Ultra-Long Band U - Band 1625 to 1675
Types of Optical Fibre
Based on Refractive index:
Determines how fast light can travel through a medium:
 Step Index Fibers ( refractive indexes for core and cladding are fixed)
 Graded Index Fibers (Cladding refractive indexes is fixed while the
core refractive index is not uniform (highest at the canter of the core).

Step Index
Graded Index
 Types of Optical Fibre
Based on mode:
which determines the number of rays that
can pass through the optical fiber at a time.
 Single mode (used for long distance, core
diameter about 10 micrometers and carry
higher bandwidth)
 Multi – Mode Fiber (used for short
distances, core diameter 50 micrometers
and carry smaller bandwidth.

Single mode fiber is preferred for higher transmission rate a and higher bandwidth
transform .
 Basic Optical Laws and Definitions
 Refractive Index (n):
It is the ratio of the light speed in vacuum c  3 108 m / s to the phase
velocity of light in the medium (v) .

n=c/v
Material Refraction Index
• The refractive index of water is 1.333, meaning Air 1
the light travels 1.333 slower in water than in Water 1.333
vacuum. Silica glass 1.45
• Increasing the refractive index corresponds to Diamond 2.42
decreasing the speed of light in the material.
Reflection and Refraction
• When a light ray encounters boundary separating two different
media, part of the ray is reflected back into the first medium and the
remainder is bent (refracted) as it enters the second material.
• The bending refraction of the light ray
at the interface is a result of different
speed of light in two materials which
have different refractive indexes.
• The relationship at the interface known
as Snell’s Law.
 Snell’s Law
n1 sin 1  n2 sin 2
n1 cos 1  n2 cos  2

Where
n1 is the refractive index of material 1
n2 is the refractive index of material 2
Ø1 is the angle between incident ray and the normal to the surface (angle of incident).
Ɵ1 is the angle between incident ray and the interface.
Ø2 is the angle between normal line and the refracted ray (angle of refraction)..
Ɵ2 is the angle between refracted ray and material boundary.
Critical angle
• As the angle of incidence becomes greater, the refracted angle
approaches to (Beyond this point no refraction is possible (totally
internally reflected) .
• The critical angle is the point where the light ray in air is parallel to
the glass surface.
Critical angle
Applying Snell’s low on Critical angle:
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2
𝜋
As a result of ∅2 =
2
𝜋
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 1. The Critical angel thus: ∅𝑐 = ∅1
2

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑐 = 𝑛2
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑐 =
𝑛1
−1
𝑛2
∅𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛1
 Exercises
Solve the following: Given the refractive index of :
1. Light travels through a liquid at 2.25 ∗ 108 𝑚/𝑠. What is the refractive index of the liquid?
Air: 1
Water: 1.33
2. A ray of light travelling from air into crown glass strikes the surface at an angle of 300 . Crown Glass: 1.523
What will be the angle of refraction?
Flint Glass: 1.7
3. What is the index of refraction of a refractive medium if the angle of incident in air is 400 Diamond: 2.45
and the angle of refraction is 290 ?
4. What is the refractive medium if a ray coming from air at an angle of incident of 50 is
refracted through an angle of 350 ?
5. Light travels at 1.76 ∗ 108 𝑚/𝑠 through optical medium. What is the medium?
6. If the index of refraction for a certain glass is 1.5, and the angle of refraction is 150 for a
ray of light travelling from air, what is the angle of incident?
7. What is the critical angle for light travelling from diamond to water?
Solutions

𝑐 3∗10 8
1- 𝑛= = = 1.2
𝑣 2.5∗10 8

2- 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2
1 ∗ sin 30
sin⁡
(∅2 ) = = 0.328
1.523
∅2 = 19.1656 0
3- 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2
1 ∗ sin 40 = 𝑛2 sin 29
0.6428
𝑛2 = = 1.326
0.4848
4- 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2
1 ∗ sin 50 = 𝑛2 sin 35
0.6428
𝑛2 = = 1.33 (Water)
0.4848
Solutions

𝑐 3∗10 8
5- 𝑛 = = = 1.7 (flint glass)
𝑣 1.76∗10 8

6- 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2

1 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡∅1 = 1.5 sin 15

sin⁡
(∅1 ) = 0.3882

∅1 = 22.8440

7-
𝑛2 1.333
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑐 = = = 0.543
𝑛1 2.45
∅𝑐 = 32.880
Total Internal Reflection

• When the ray comes from a

medium of grater refraction
factor to lower refraction factor
medium, total internal reflection
occur when the light of incident
be grater than the critical angle.
 Fiber optics Light transmission
• In optical fiber, the total internal
reflection of light is desired.
• The angle of incident should be
greater than critical angle.
• The core refractive index have
to be grater than the cladding
index.
• Some light will be refracted out
of the core if the angle of
incident condition not met.
• Light refraction out of the core
means increasing the loss.
Acceptance Angle
 Acceptance angle: It is the maximum angle to the axis of the optical
fiber at which light may enter into the fiber to propagate.
Acceptance Angle
• The acceptance angle can be calculated in relation to Numerical
Aperture (NA):

−1
𝑁𝐴
Ɵ𝑎 = sin
𝑛0

Where 𝑛𝑜 is the refractive index between the light

source and the fiber.
Numerical Aperture
• Numerical Aperture tells about the light collecting ability of the fiber.
• Numerical Aperture is defined as the maximum acceptance angle to allow and transmit
light by an optical fiber.
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛𝑜 sin⁡
(Ɵ𝑎 )
Where 𝑛𝑜 is the refractive index between the light source and the fiber.
Ɵ𝑎 is the acceptance angle.

It is also can be calculated by

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
EX1: Consider a multimode silica fiber that has a core refractive index 𝑛1 = 1.48 and a
cladding index 𝑛2 = 1.46.
Find the Critical angel, the Numerical aperture and the acceptance angle?

Ex2: A step-index fiber has a core index of refraction of n1 = 1.425. The cut-off angle
Ɵ𝑎 for light entering the fiber from air is found to be 8.50o. (a) What is the numerical
aperture of the fiber? (b) What is the index of refraction of the cladding of this fiber?
(c) If the fiber were submersed in water, what would be the new numerical aperture and
Ɵ𝑎 angle?
Ex3: A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be
considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive index 1.5 and
a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine:
(a) the critical angle at the core – cladding interface
(b) the NA for the fiber
(c) the acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
Sol Ex1:

−1
𝑛2 −1
1.46
Ɵ𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 80.50
𝑛1 1.48

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 = 1.482 − 1.462 = 0.242

Ɵ𝑎 = sin−1 NA = sin−1 0.242 = 140
Sol EX2:
𝑛1 = 1.425 , Ɵ𝑎 = 8.50
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛0 sin Ɵ𝑎 = sin 8.50 = 0.148

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2

𝑛2 = 1.4252 − 0.1482 = 1.417

n0 = nwater = 1.33. Since the numerical aperture is a property of the fiber and only
depends upon n1 and n2, it will not change when the medium outside the fiber changes.
The cut-off angle Ɵ𝑎 , however, will have to change if the numerical aperture is to be
unaffected by a change in n0:
NA = 0.148.
sin Ɵ𝑎 = NA/n0
Ɵ𝑎 = sin-1(NA/n0) = sin-1(0.148/1.33) = = sin-1(0.1112) = 6.38o.
Relative Refraction Index (∆)
• Relative Refraction Index (∆): It is between the core and the
cladding which is defined as: 2 2
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∆=
2𝑛12

∆ approximates to the fractional index difference. An Estimation

of NA can be given by:

n1 − n2
∆= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ∆<< 1
n1

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2∆
Ex: A typical refractive index difference for an optical fiber designed for
long distance transmission is 1% and the core index is 1.46. Estimate
the NA and calculate the critical angle at the core – cladding interface
within the fiber?
Sol:

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 2∆= 1.46 0.02 = 0.21

n1 − n2 n2
∆= =1−
n1 n1
n2
0.01 = 1 −
n1
n2
= 0.99
n1

−1
𝑛2
∅𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 81. 90
𝑛1
 Guided modes – Step index fibers
Single Mode:

• The single mode (mono-mode) step index fibre allow the

propagation of only one mode.

• The core diameter must be 2-10 𝝁m.

• Only a single ray path.

Multi Mode:

• The core diameter of a multimode step Index fiber is about 50 𝝁m or greater.

• This allow to propagation of many modes within the fibre core.

• Many different possible ray paths through the fiber.

Guided modes - Multi mode step index fibers
• The number of guided modes depends on the physical parameters such as:

( Relative refractive index difference and core radius (a) of the fibre) and the wavelengths (𝝀)

of the transmitted light which are included in the normalized frequency (V) of the fibre.

• The normalized frequency may be expressed in terms of NA and ∆.

2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑁𝐴
𝜆
2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑛1 2∆
𝜆
 The approximation of the total number of guided modes or mode volume 𝑀𝑠 for a step index given by:

𝑉2
𝑀𝑠 =
2
Ex:
A multimode step index fibre with a core diameter of 80 𝝁m and
relative refractive index of 1.5% is operating at a wavelength of
0.85 𝝻m. If the core refractive index is 1.48, estimate:

a) The normalized frequency for the fibre.

b) The number of guided modes.

Core Diameter = 80 𝝁𝒎
𝑎 = 40 𝝁𝒎
∆= 0.015
𝜆 = 0.85 𝝁𝒎
𝑛1 = 1.48
2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑛1 2∆
𝜆
2𝜋 −6
= −6
× 40 × 10 × 1.48 2 × 0.015 = 75.75
0.85 × 10
𝑉 2 75.752
𝑀𝑠 = = = 2869
2 2
 Guided modes – Graded index fibers

Where 𝜶 is the profile parameter which gives the characteristic

refractive index profile of the fibre core .
𝜶 = infinity, step index profile.
𝜶 = 2, parabolic profile.
𝜶 = 1, triangular profile.
• The approximation of the total number of guided modes or mode
volume for a Graded index is given by:
𝛼 𝑉2 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑀𝑔 = , 𝑉= 𝑎 𝑁𝐴 or 𝑉= 𝑎 𝑛1 2∆
𝛼 +2 2 𝜆 𝜆
Ex:

A graded index fibre has a core with a parabolic refractive index profile
which has a diameter of 50 𝝁m. The fibre has an numerical aperture of
0.2. Estimate the total number of guided modes propagating in the
fibre when it is operating at a wavelength of 1 𝝁m.
Core Diameter = 50 𝝁𝒎
𝑎 = 25 𝝁𝒎
𝑁𝐴 = 0.2
𝜆 = 1 𝝁𝒎
𝛼 = 2 (parabolic profile)
2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑁𝐴
𝜆
2𝜋 −6
= −6
× 25 × 10 (0.2) = 31.4
1 × 10
𝛼 𝑉2
𝑀𝑔 =
𝛼+2 2
986
= = 247
4
• In single mode fibers
- The propagation is possible over the range:

0 ≤ 𝑉 < 2.405
- Single mode operation only occur above the theoretical cut-off
wavelength and given by:
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑛 1
𝜆𝑐 = 2∆
𝑉 𝑐
- For step index fibre where Vc=2.405, the cut-off wavelength is
given by:
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑛 1
𝜆𝑐 = 2∆
2.405
Ex: Estimate the maximum core diameter for an optical fibre with
relative refractive index of 1.5% and the core refractive index is
1.48 in order that it may be suitable for a single mode
operation assuming it is operating at a wavelength of 0.85 𝝻m.
Further, estimate the new maximum core diameter for single-
mode when the relative refractive index difference is reduced
by a factor of 10.
 max 𝑎 =?
∆= 0.015
𝜆 = 0.85 𝝁𝒎
𝑛1 = 1.48
2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎 𝑛1 2∆
𝜆
𝑉𝜆 2.4 × 0.85 × 10−6
max 𝑎 = = 1.27𝝁𝒎
2𝜋𝑛 1 2∆ 2𝜋(1.48) 2(0.015)
 max 𝑎 =?

𝑛𝑒𝑤 ∆= 0.0015

2.405 × 0.85 × 10−6

max 𝑎 = = 4 𝝁𝒎
2𝜋(1.48) 2(0.0015)
• Ex:

Determine the cut-off wavelength for a step index fibre to

exhibit single-mode operation when the core refractive index

and radius are 1.46 and 4.5 μm, respectively with refractive

index difference being 0.25 %.

Sol:
𝑛1 = 1.48

𝑎 = 4.5 μ𝑚

∆= 0.0025

2𝜋 𝑎 𝑛1
𝜆𝑐 = 2∆= 1.2 μ𝑚
2.405
Attenuation in Optical fiber
• A number of mechanisms are responsible for the signal attenuation within
optical fibers.

• They may be categorized within several major areas which include material
absorption, material scattering (linear and nonlinear scattering), curve and
microbending losses, mode coupling radiation losses and losses due to
leaky modes.

• There are also losses at connectors and splices.

Attenuation in Optical fiber
• channel attenuation largely determined the maximum transmission
distance prior to signal restoration.

• optical fiber communications became especially attractive when the

transmission losses of fibers were reduced below those of the
competing metallic conductors.

• Signal attenuation within optical fibers, as with metallic conductors, is

usually expressed in the logarithmic unit of the decibel.
Attenuation in Optical fiber
• The decibel, which is used for comparing two power levels, may be
defined for a particular optical wavelength as the ratio of the input
(transmitted) optical power into a fiber to the output (received)
optical power from the fiber.
𝑃𝑖
dB = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃𝑜
addition and subtraction require a conversion to numerical
values which may be obtained using the relationship:
𝑃𝑖
= 10(𝑑𝐵/10)
𝑃𝑜
Attenuation in Optical fiber
• In optical fiber communications the attenuation is usually expressed
in decibels per unit length following as:

𝑃𝑖
∝𝑑𝐵 𝐿 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃𝑜

where 𝛼𝑑𝐵 is the signal attenuation per unit length in

decibels which is also referred to as the fiber loss
parameter and 𝐿 is the fiber length.
Attenuation in Optical Fibre
Ex: When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of
fiber is 120 μW, the mean optical power at the fiber output is 3 μW.
Determine:

(a) the overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels through the fiber
assuming there are no connectors or splices;

(b) the signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber.

(c) the overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the
same fiber with splices at 1 km intervals, each giving an attenuation
of 1 dB;

(d) the numerical input/output power ratio in (c).

Solution:
𝑃𝑖 120μ
(a) 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 16𝑑𝐵
𝑃𝑜 3μ

𝑃𝑖
10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 10 16
𝑃𝑜
(b) ∝𝑑𝐵 = = = 2 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚
𝐿 8

(c) 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∝𝑑𝐵 𝐿 + 𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

= 2 𝑑𝐵 ∗ 10 + 1 𝑑𝐵 ∗ 9 = 29 𝑑𝐵
𝑃𝑖
(d) = 10(𝑑𝐵/10) = 10(29/10) = 794.3
𝑃𝑜
Absorption
• Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to the material composition
and the fabrication process for the fiber, which results in the dissipation of
some of the transmitted optical power as heat in the waveguide.
• Absorption is caused by three different mechanism:

1. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.

2. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material.

3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.

Fiber bend loss
• The loss which exist when an optical fiber undrgoes bending is called
bending losses.
• There are two types of bending:
1- Macroscopic Bending
2- Microscopic Bending
 Macroscopic Bending

Bending in which complete fiber

undergoes bends which causes
certain modes not to be reflected
and therefore causes loss to the
cladding.
 Microscopic Bending
Either the core or cladding undergoes slight
bends at its surface. It causes light to be
reflected at angles when there is no further
reflection.
 Fiber bend loss measurment
• Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths.
• The loss can generally be represented by a radiation attenuation
coefficient which has the form:
−𝑐2 𝑅
∝𝑟 = 𝑐1 𝑒
R critical radius of curvature of the fiber bend

𝑐1 , 𝑐2 are constants.
 Fiber bend loss measurment
large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a
critical radius of curvature Rc which may be estimated by:
2
3𝑛1 𝜆
𝑅𝑐 = 3
4𝜋 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 2
Where R c critical radius of curvature

λ is the operating wavelengtℎ

Ex: A multimode fiber with a core refractive index of 1.500, a
relative refractive index difference of 3% and an operating
wavelength of 0.82 μm.

Estimate the critical radius of curvature at which large bending

losses occur?
 𝑛 12 −𝑛 22
Sol: ∆=
2𝑛 12
1.52 − 𝑛22
0.03 =
2(1.52 )

𝑛22 = 2.115

3𝑛12 𝜆
𝑅𝑐 = 3
4𝜋 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 2
3 2.25 0.82 ∗ 10−6
𝑅𝑐 = 3/2
= 8.88 𝜇𝑚
4𝜋(2.25 − 2.155)
Scattering
• Scattering losses occur when a wave interacts with a particle in a way that
removes energy in the directional propagating wave and transfers it to other
directions. The light isn’t absorbed, just sent in another direction. However, the
distinction between scattering and absorption doesn’t matter much because the
light is lost from the fiber in either case.
• There are two main types of scattering:
1. linear scattering
2. nonlinear scattering.
 Scattering

Non-Linear Linear

Stimulated Stimulated
Rayleigh Mie
Brillouin Raman
Linear Scattering
• For linear scattering, the amount of light power that is transferred from
a wave is proportional to the power in the wave. It is characterized by
having no change in frequency in the scattered wave.

• Linear scattering may be categorized into two major types:

Rayleigh and Mie scattering. Both result from the nonideal physical
properties of the manufactured fiber which are difficult and, in
certain cases, impossible to eradicate at present.
Rayleigh Scattering
• Rayleigh scattering (named after the British
physicist Lord Rayleigh) is the main type of linear
scattering. It is caused by small-scale (small
compared with the wavelength of the lightwave)
inhomogeneities that are produced in the fiber
fabrication process.

• Rayleigh scattering is strongly reduced by

operating at the longest possible wavelength.
Rayleigh Scattering

The transmission loss factor (transmissivity) of the fiber is related to

scattering coefficient:

ζ = exp(−ϒ𝑅 𝐿)
1
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10
ζ

Where
ϒ𝑅 is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient,
L is the length of the fiber.
 Rayleigh Scattering
• Rayleigh scattering coefficient is given by:
8𝜋 3 8 2
ϒ𝑅 = 4 𝑛 𝑝 𝛽𝑐 𝑘𝑇𝐹
3𝜆
Where
ϒ𝑅 is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient,
𝜆is the optical wavelength,
n is the refractive index of the medium,
p is the average photoelastic coefficient,
𝛽𝑐 is the isothermal compressibility at a fictive temperature TF,
K is Boltzmann’s constant.
Rayleigh Scattering
• General Definitions

1. Fictive temperature: It is defined as the temperature at which the glass

would find itself in equilibrium if suddenly brought to it from its given
state.
2. Isothermal compressibility: It means the extent to which a fluid can be
compressed with external pressure without raising temperature of the
fluid.
3. Boltsmann’s constant: The Boltzmann constant is a factor that relates
the average relative kinetic energy of particles in a gas with
the thermodynamic temperature of the gas.
Ex: Silica has an estimated fictive temperature of 1400 K
−11 𝑚2
with an isothermal compressibility of 7 × 10 .
𝑁
The refractive index and the photoelastic coefficient for
silica are 1.46 and 0.286 respectively. Determine the
theoretical attenuation in decibels per kilometer due to the
fundamental Rayleigh scattering in silica at optical
wavelengths of 0.63, 1.00 and 1.30m. Boltzmann’s
−23 𝐽
constant is 1.381 × 10 .
𝑁
Sol: 𝑇𝐹 = 1400 𝐾
−11
𝑚2
𝛽𝑐 = 7 × 10
𝑁
n=1.46 𝑝 = 0.286 𝐾 = 1.381 × 10−23

𝜆 = 0.63, 1.00, 1.30 𝜇𝑚

ζ =? ϒ =?

−ϒ𝑅 𝐿
ζ = exp

8𝜋 3 𝑛 8 𝑝2 𝛽𝑐 𝑘𝑇𝐹
ϒ𝑅 =
3𝜆4
8𝜋 3 × 1.468 × 0.2862 × 7 × 10−11 × 1.381 × 10−23 × 1400
ϒ𝑅 =
3𝜆4
1.89 × 10−28
ϒ𝑅 =
𝜆4
𝜆 = 0.63
1.89×10 −28 −1.2×10 −3 ×10 3
ϒ𝑅 = 1.575 ×10 −25 =1.2 × 10−3 𝜁𝑘𝑚 = exp =0.301
1
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 3.322 = 5.21𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚
𝜁𝑘𝑚
• Ex: A K2O–SiO2 glass core optical fiber has an attenuation resulting
from Rayleigh scattering of 0.46 dB/km at a wavelength of 1 μm. The
glass has an estimated fictive temperature of 758 K, isothermal
compressibility of 8.4 × 10 −11 𝑚2 /𝑁, and a photoelastic coefficient of
0.245. Determine from theoretical considerations the refractive index
of the glass. Boltzmann’s constant is 1.381 × 10−23 J/K.
Sol:
attenuation = 0.46 dB/km
𝑇𝐹 = 758 𝐾
𝜆 = 1.00 𝜇𝑚

−11
𝑚2
𝛽𝑐 = 8.4 × 10
𝑁
𝑝 = 0.245 𝐾 = 1.381 × 10−23

𝜆 = 0.63, 1.00, 1.30 𝜇𝑚

ζ =? ϒ =? n=?
1
10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 0.46
𝜁𝑘𝑚
1
= 10 0.46 10
𝜁𝑘𝑚 = 0.899
𝜁𝑘𝑚 −ϒ𝑅 𝐿
𝜁𝑘𝑚 = exp
ln(0.899) = −ϒ𝑅 × 103
−0.1064 = −ϒ𝑅 × 103
ϒ𝑅 = 1.064 × 10−4
 ϒ𝑅 = 1.064 × 10−4

8𝜋 3 𝑛8 𝑝2 𝛽𝑐 𝑘𝑇𝐹
ϒ𝑅 =
3𝜆4
8𝜋 3 × 𝑛8 × 0.2452 × 8 × 10−11 × 1.381 × 10−23 × 758
1.064 × 10−4 = 4
3(1 × 10−6 )
(1.308 × 10−29 ) 𝑛8
1.064 × 10−4 =
3 × 10−24
8
1.064 × 10−4 × 3 × 10−24
𝑛 = = 24.4
1.308 × 10−29
8
𝑛= 24.4 = 1.49
Mie Scattering
• These result from the non perfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide and may be caused by
fiber imperfections such as irregularities in the core–cladding interface, core–cladding refractive
index differences along the fiber length, diameter fluctuations, and bubbles.

• Depending upon the fiber material, design and manufacture, Mie scattering can cause significant
losses. The inhomogeneities may be reduced by:

(a) removing imperfections due to the glass manufacturing process;

(b) carefully controlled extrusion and coating of the fiber;

(c) increasing the fiber guidance by increasing the relative refractive index difference.
Optical Sources
• The optical source is an active component in optical communication
system.

• It converts electrical energy in the form a current into optical energy

(Light) in an efficient manner.

• It allows the light output to be effectively launched or coupled into

the optical fibre.
Types of Optical sources
There are three main types of optical light sources:

1. Wideband sources (incandescent lamps).

Incandescent lamps produce light by heating a suitable material to a high temp.

2. Incoherent sources (Light-emmitting diodes, LEDs).

3. Coherent sources (LASERs).

Types of Optical sources

Coherent Light: Incoherent Light:

- It’s Strong - It’s relatively weak
- Uni-directional - Omni-directional
Optical Fibre Emitting Requirements
• To a large extent, LASER and the LED fullfill the major requirements
for an optical fibre emitter such as:
1- The size and configuration compatibility with launching into optical
fibre (Light output should be highly directional).
2- Should emit light at wavelengths where low fibre losses occur
at 850, 1300 and 1550 nm.
 Optical Fibre Emitting Requirements
• In early days of optical fibre communication, the LED
was employed as light source, it is mostly operated at
the wave length between 800 nm or 900 nm
wavelength. This region is referred to as first
transmission window ( First Window).

• The LED’s could not be employed for high bandwith

transmission, so LASER was a better option and it
operated in two wavelength regions 1310 nm and
1550 nm that are commonly referred to as a second
and third optical transmission windows.
Optical Fibre Emitting Requirements
3- Should have a very narrow spectral line-width to minimize dispersion
in the fibre.
Optical Fibre Emitting Requirements
4- Must couple sufficient optical power to overcome attenuation.
5- must be able to maintain stable optical output, so unaffected by
changes in ambient conditions such as temperature.
6- It is important that the source is comparatively cheap and high
reliable.
Optical fibre Semiconductor Materials
• The semiconductor materials used for optical sources must fulfil
several criteria such as:

1. P-N junction formation

2. Efficient electroluminescence.
3. Useful emission wavelength
Optical fibre Semiconductor Materials
• Light can be generated by a radioactive recombination of an electron
and a hole within a semiconductor.
• Electron and a hole may recombine non radioactively producing heat.
• Optical sources use semiconductor material with high internal
quantum efficiency.
Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium Gallium arsenide (InGaAs), Gallium antimonide (GaSb), and Aluminium Gallium arsenide (AlxGal-xAs) are
all examples of compound semiconductor materials that can be used to create junction diodes that emit light.
Emission Wavelength
1.24
Emission Wavelength 𝜆 =
𝐸𝑔

Where 𝐸𝑔 is the Gap energy in eV

Fibre Optics Light Sources - Types
• Two types of devices are widely used in optical fibre communication
systems:

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Semiconductor Laser Diode (SLD or LD).
Light Emitting Diodes
• LED is a form of junction diode that is operated with forward bias.
• Instead of generating heat at the PN junction, light is generated and
passes through an opening or lens.
• LEDs can be visible spectrum or infrared.
 Laser Characteristics
• The term Laser stands for:
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
• It is mono-chromatic (one colour) and coherent in nature.
• A pumping source providing power.
• Most operate in the near infrared region.
Basic Operation of Light Emitting
• Two steps required to generate LED and an extra third step to
generate a laser beam:

1. Absorption
2. Spontaneous Emission (LED)
3. Stimulated Emission ( SLD)
 Absorption
When a photon with certain energy is incident in a semiconductor at the ground
state (lower energy E0, the electron absorbs the energy and shifts to the higher
energy level E1).
The energy now acquired by the electron
is:
𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸0 = ℎ𝑓
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽 𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑐
𝑓=
𝜆
Absorption

Excited Electron

Stimulated
Emission
Spontaneous Emission
• E1is not stable and the excited electron(s) will return back to lower
energy level E0.
• As they fall, they give up the energy acquired during absorption in the
form of radiation, which is known as the spontaneous emission
process.
Spontaneous Emission

Excited Electron Spontaneous Emission

Stimulated
Emission
Stimulated Emission
• Before the occurrence of the spontaneous emission process, if
external stimulation (photon) is used to strike the excited atom then,
it will stimulate the electron to return to the lower state level.
• By doing so, it releases its energy as a new photon.
• The result is generation of a coherent light composed of two or more
photons.
Stimulated Emission

Excited Electron + Stimulated Emission

Stimulated
Emission
Photon incident
 Emission of radiation
• The ratio of the simulated emission rate to the spontaneous emission
rate is given by:

𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1

= (ℎ𝑓/𝐾𝑇)
𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒 −1

Where, T is operating temperature

𝐽
K is Boltzmann’s constant is 1.381 × 10−23 .
𝑁
EX:

Calculate the ratio of the stimulated emission rate to the spontaneous

emission rate for a source operating at a temperature of 1000 K.
Assume the average operating wavelength is 0.5 𝝁m.
 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1
= (ℎ𝑓/𝐾𝑇)
𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒 −1
𝜆 = 0.5 × 10−6
ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34
𝐾 = 1.381 × 10−23
𝑇 = 1000
𝑐 3 × 108 14
𝑓= = = 6 × 10
𝜆 0.5 × 10−6

𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

=
𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
1
−34 ×6×10 14 /1.381×10 −23 ×1000)
= 3.1 × 10−13
𝑒 (6.626 ×10
Laser Diode (LD) Power Efficiency
• External Power efficiency
𝑃𝑒
𝜂𝑒𝑝 = , 𝑃𝑒 is the optical power emitted from the device
𝑃

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐷. 𝐶 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

• Total Power efficiency

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝜂𝑇 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

• External Power efficiency

𝐸𝑔
𝜂𝑒𝑝 = 𝜂 𝑇 , 𝐸𝑔 is the bandgap energy
𝑉
EX:
The total efficiency of an injection laser with a GaAs active region is
18 %. The voltage applied to the device is 2.5 V. And the bandgap
energy for GaAs is 1.43 eV. Calculate the external power efficiency of
the device.
𝑺𝒐𝒍:
𝜂 𝑇 = 0.18
𝐸𝑔 = 1.43
𝑉 = 2.5
𝐸𝑔
𝜂𝑒𝑝 = 𝜂𝑇
𝑉

1.43
𝜂𝑒𝑝 = 0.18 × × 100 = 10.3 %
2.5
LASER vs LED

LASER: LED:
 More Expensive  Less Expensive
 Precise, Powerful light.  Scattered, weaker light.
 Mainly used in Single  Only compatible with
mode fibres. Multimode fibres.
Optical Detectors
• It is also named photodetectors.
• Transform optical energy to electrical energy.
• It converts light photons into electrical signal.
• In optical communication system the data transmitted via the link can
be recovered after the transformation.

Light Optical
Source Optical Path Detector
LED or LASER
Types of photodetectors
• Three types are considered:

1. P-N photodiode.
2. P-I-N photodiode.
3. Avalanche photodiode.
 Photodetectors differentiation
• There are 5 key factors which differentiate the
different types of photodetectors.
1- Sensitivity: it is the ratio of output electrical
current to the input optical power.
It measure the efficiency of the device by
assessing how much energy is lost.

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑃𝑂  The higher, the better.

Where, 𝑅 is responsivity of the photodetector
𝑃𝑂 is the optical power level
Photodetectors differentiation
2- Response time:
it is a measure of how quickly the detector can
respond to variations in the input light intensity.

 The quicker, the better

Photodetectors differentiation
3- Noise:
the level of noise or interference produced in the device is
critical to its operation when levels of input light are low.

 The quieter, the better.

Photodetectors differentiation
4- Spectral response range:
Photodetectors differentiation
5- Gain :
This is the extent to which a signal is amplified in

relation to the original signal.

Quantum Efficiency
• The quantum efficiency is defined as the fraction of incident photons
which are absorbed by the photodetector and generate electrons
which are collected at the detector terminals.

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝜂=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
 Responsitivity
𝜂𝑒𝜆
Responsitivity 𝑅 = A/W
ℎ𝑐
Where
𝜂 is the quantum efficiency.
𝑒 is the charge of an electron 𝑒 = 1.602176 × 10−19 Coulombs
Long Wavelength Cut-off (Detection Threshold)
• It is essential that the energy of incident photons to be greater than
or equal to the band gab energy Eg of the material used to fabricate
the photodetector.
ℎ𝑐
≥ 𝐸𝑔
𝜆
ℎ𝑐
𝜆≤
𝐸𝑔
ℎ𝑐
𝜆𝑐 =
𝐸𝑔
Where 𝜆𝑐 is the long wavelength cut off and commonly known as
Threshold for detection
• Ex:
Photon of energy are incident on a photodetector
which has responsivity of 0.65. if the optical power
level is 10 𝝁W, find the generated photocurrent.
Solution:
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑃𝑂
𝑅 = 0.65
𝑃𝑂 = 10 × 10−6

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.65 × 10 × 10−6

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 6.5 × 10−6 𝐴
Ex:
When 3 × 1011 photons each with a wavelength of 0.85 𝝁𝒎 are
incident on a photodetector, on average 1.2 × 1011 electrons are
collected at the terminal of the device. Determine the quantum
efficiency and the responsivity of the photodetector at 0.85 𝝁𝒎.
Solution
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝜂=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠

1.2 × 1011
𝜂= 11
= 0.4
3 × 10

𝜂 = 40%
Responsitivity

𝜂𝑒𝜆
𝑅=
ℎ𝑐
0.4 × 1.60217662 × 10−19 × 0.85 × 10−6
𝑅= −34 8
= 0.27 𝐴/𝑊
6.626 × 10 × 3 × 10
Ex: Aphotodiode has a quantum efficiency of 65 % when photons of energy
1.5 × 10−19 𝐽 are incident upon it.
1- At what wavelength is the photodiode operating?
2- Calculate the incident optical power required to obtain
photocurrent 2.5 𝝁𝑨.
 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
Solution 𝑐
𝑓=
𝜆
𝑐
𝐸=ℎ×
𝜆
ℎ 𝑐 6.626 × 10−32 × 3 × 108
𝜆= = −19
= 1.32𝝁𝒎
𝐸 1.5 × 10
𝑐
𝜂𝑒𝜆 𝜂𝑒
𝑓 𝜂𝑒 𝜂𝑒
𝑅= = = =
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑓 𝐸
0.65 × 1.602 × 10−19
= = 0.694 𝐴/𝑤
1.5 × 10−19
𝐼
𝑅=
𝑃𝑜
2.5 × 10−6
𝑃𝑜 = = 3.6𝝁𝒘
0.694
Ex:
GaAs has a bandgap energy of 1.43 eV. Determine the wavelength
above which an intrinsic photodetector fabricated from this material
will cease to operate.
Solution

ℎ𝑐 6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝜆𝑐 = = −19
= 0.867𝝁𝒎
𝐸𝑔 1.43 × 1.602 × 10
Photodiodes
• In semiconductor devices, light is observed in a depletion region.
• They are highly sensitive to light, which mean very littlie energy is
lost.
• They produce more internal gain , but fairly noisy.
P-N Junction photodiodes
• Photodiod is connected in reverse bias with battery.
• light is observed in a depletion region and converted to electrical
current.
P-I-N Junction photodiodes
• P-I-N photodiode consume light energy to generate electric current.
• Operate in reverse bias condition.
• Very sensitive to light, when light falls on it, it easily converts to
electric current.
P-I-N Junction photodiodes
• For the photodetector applications where the speed of response is
important, the depletion region width should be made as large as
possible for small minority carrier lifetime as a result the switch speed
also increases.
• This can be achieved PIN photodiode as the insertion of intrinsic
region the space charge width larger.
Avalanche photodiode
• Avalanche photo is a kind of photodetector which
can convert signals into electrical signals.
• High sensitivity and low noise, Fast reaction.
• A high reverse voltage creates a strong internal
electric field that accelerates the electrons through
the silicon crystal lattice and generates secondary
electrons by impact ionization